Office Building

FALL 2008

Northeastern University School of Architecture

ARCH G691 Graduate Degree Project Studio

OFFICE BUILDING

FALL 2008

Northeastern University School of ArchitectureARCH G691 Graduate Degree Project Studio

BRENDAN CROSBY

BRIAN ELY

JASON HICKEY

LISA HOANG

MATTHEW JOHNSTON

STEVEN ORLANDO

JASON NEVES

JAMES SAUNDERS

SALVATORE VALENTE

EDGAR VELIZ

OFFICE BUILDING

Studio Research Team

Brendan Crosby - Mechanical Systems

Brian Ely - Vertical Circulation

Jason Hickey - Office Layout

Lisa Hoang - Exterior Wall Systems

Matthew Johnston - Common Programing, Back of House

Steven Orlando - Lighting and Book Design

Jason Neves - Introduction and Graphic Standards

James Saunders - Common Programming, Lobbies

Salvatore Valente - Structural Systems

Edgar Veliz - Office Sociology

Studio Lead

John Backman

Unless specifically stated otherwise all content is

property of the authors. Every reasonable attempt

has been made to identify owners of copyright,

photographs, diagrams and images. Errors or

omissions will be corrected in subsequent editions.

Copyright © 2008 by Northeastern University School of Architecture

All rights reserved

First printing November 2008

Special thanks to

Yanni Tsipis of Colliers Meredith & Grew real Estate Consultants

No part of this publication may be used, reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any

form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,

photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as

permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976

United States Copyright Act, without the prior

written permission from the authors.

Published by

Northeastern University School of Architecture

360 Huntington Ave

Boston, Massachusetts 02115

This publication has been prepared as part of a five

week graduate thesis studio assignment in the

Northeastern University School of Architecture for

the Fall 2008 Architecture G691 course. Other

publications in this series include urban retail, hotel,

and parking garage typologies, all produced by

graduate students in the Northeastern University

architecture program.

Introduction

Structure

Vertical Circulation

Mechanical Systems

Common Programming

Exterior Wall Systems

Lighting

Floorplan Configuration

Sociology

0.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

6

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76

96

114

134

0. Introduction

Overview

Office buildings host many intricate systems and design strategies that become staggering

when trying to incorporate them all at the same time in the design process. This book breaks

down the components of the office building and presents them in a comprehensive manner in

order to give the young professional a foothold in the understanding of such a complex build-

ing. In order to expedite the learning process of office buildings, this book uses generic office

floorplates and layouts to straightforwardly give the fundamental knowledge that can inform

any office building design.

Chapter Contents

0.1 Office TypesType DefinitionsFloor Plans

0.2 DefinitionsTypical Plan ComponentsArea Calculations

0.3 Site ConsiderationsSuburbanUrban

1010 0.1 Office Types

1312

4

13

50+

9-14’

0.1 Office Types

Office buildings can be categorized by the

following types: low rise, mid rise, and high

rise. This page outlines the typical dimensional

characteristics and configurations of each,

providing a basis for preliminary planning

decisions.

45’

45’

40’ 30’ 40’ 45’45’

150’200’

60’ 60’

200’

150’120’30’

60’120’

Low RiseGross Floor Area: 21,600sf

Net to Gross Ratio: 0.93

Mid RiseGross Floor Area: 24,000sf


High RiseGross Floor Area: 22,500sf


Fig. 1

ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 110.1 Office Types 11

1

1

1

3

2

4

2

Low RiseDefined as one to three story structures mostly

found on large sites in low density suburban

developments. Quite often low-rise offices are

located adjacent to highways as single buildings or

grouped together into office parks or campuses.

Out of the three office types, low-rise are more

often built to suit a single tenant. This leads to

greater variation of size and configuration within

this type. However, a generic floor plan can be

distilled from these variations as shown in the

images to the right. This type allows for the

flexibility necessary for the building to operate as a

speculative development; easily adapting to single

or multi-tenant uses as needed. Most low-rise

office buildings are multi-core configurations with

centrally located elevator banks and restrooms.

Because the floorplate can often be quite large,

multiple cores and stairs are needed to meet

maximum travel requirements. See 2.1 for more detail on travel distances

Figures 1 through 4 show single, double and

multiple tenant configurations.

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

12

Mid RiseMid rise office buildings are the most prevalent

type, found in suburban settings and also in higher

density urban areas. They are used in build-to-suit

development situations, but are more often built as

speculative developments with the flexibility to

accommodate a wider range of tenant types and

number of tenants. Because of their efficient use

of area and their flexibility, floorplans do not vary

greatly from the floorplans shown to the left.

Vertical circulation, mechanical systems,

restrooms, and support spaces are centrally

located in a single core.



1

1

1

3

2

4

2

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

12 0.1 Office Types

ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 13

High RiseDefined as thirteen to fifty or more story buildings

located in high density urban locations. Sites are

generally very small with extremely high property

value. The small site leaves little choice for

developers but to build vertically. The height is

also an economic function where developers try to

attain the most amount of rentable area to make a

profit and counter the cost of the property and

construction.

As height increases there are greater demands put

on the mechanical systems and vertical circulation,

thereby increasing the core size. Aside from this,

the floorplan is very similar to that of the mid rise

type and allow the flexibility required in what is

most often speculative development. For

economic reasons and site-specific zoning high

rise office buildings are often mixed-use,

incorporating a hotel into the upper floors, for

instance, or including retail or restaurant amenities

in the lower and ground floors.



1

1

1

3

2

4

2

Fig. 8

Fig. 9

Fig. 10

0.1 Office Types 13

14

0.2 Definitions

The following section includes definitions for

important terms used when designing office

buildings. These definitions cover a range

of general office building components as

well as guidelines for calculating the area.

An understanding of these terms and area

calculations, particularly rentable area will aid the

dialogue between the architect and client, and

allow the architect to accurately accommodate the

clients needs early in the project.

CoreThe core is the heart of the office building,

especially for high and mid-rise offices. All support

systems are compactly situated in this centralized

location. The image above points out the major

components of the core that are discussed in more

detail later in the book.

RGB: 228, 65, 69 CMYK: 5, 90, 75, 0

RGB: 253, 187, 99 CMYK: 0, 30 , 70, 0

RGB: 88, 183, 221 CMYK: 60, 10, 5, 0

Restrooms see 4.4

Restroom Exhaust

Plumbing Chase see 4.4

Egress Stairs

Exhaust Airsee 3.2-3

Supply Air see 3.2-3

Electrical or A/V

Lateral bracingsee 1.5

Elevator Lobbysee 2.3

Service Elevatorsee 2.2-4

Service Corridorsee 2.3

Mechanical Roomsee 3.2-3

Vertical Risers

Fig. 12

Fig. 11

14 0.1 Office Types


FloorplateRefers to the shape and size of an entire floor,

including vertical penetrations such as the core,

columns, or partition walls.

See chapters 7 and 8 for layout strategies

Exterior Wall SystemPerimeter enclosure of the building. Comprised of

glazing, window apertures, insulation, waterproof-

ing, and other materials and systems.

See chapter 5 and 6 for more detail

Lease SpanGenerally the distance from the core to the exterior

wall. In cases where the depth is measured from

one exterior wall to another, or to a party wall, the

lease span is half the actual distance. Typical lease

spans in the United States range from 40’ to 45’.

Structural bayDistance from one vertical structural member to

the adjacent one. Spans typically range from 30’

to 45’.

See 1.2-4 for more detail

0 40’ 120’ 200’

0 40’ 120’ 200’

Fig. 14

Fig. 15

Fig. 16

Fig. 13

0.1 Office Types 15

16

Area Calculations: bOMAEfficient use of area is an important aspect in

the design of office buildings and meeting the

client’s needs. However, there are many different

nuanced ways in which area is calculated where

certain parties use one method and others use

a different method. The method used by most

developers and owners is outlined by BOMA

(building Owners and Managers Association) in

“Standard Method for Measuring Floor Area In

Office Buildings.” These methods are outlined

and clearly diagrammed in the following pages.

However, the most current official BOMA

document should be used to ensure the most

accurate interpretation of their methods.

Dominant PortionFor the use of determining the usable or rentable

space of a single office or floor of an office

building, the dominant portion the exterior wall is

the portion of that wall which constitutes more than

half of the vertical floor to ceiling dimension. The

usable area is measured to the interior finished

surface of the dominant portion of the exterior

walls as demonstrated in the diagrams to the right

and above.

>50%

>50%

dominant portion

dominant portion

dominant portion

dominant portion

Fig. 17

16 0.1 Office Types


Gross Floor AreaGross floor area is commonly used to discuss the

size of a project or floorplate but is not used for

renting or leasing purposes. The gross floor area

is the area with the exterior finished surface of the

exterior walls.

Gross Measured AreaGross Measured area is the area of a floor within

the interior finished surface of the dominant portion

of the exterior walls.

Fig. 19

Fig. 20

0.1 Office Types 17

18

Usable AreaTo interior finish surface of dominant portion of

exterior wall.

To interior finish surface of walls separating office

from common floor area.

Floor Usable AreaFloor usable area is equal to the sum of all the us-

able areas of the same floor. It can also be mea-

sured as the gross measured area minus the floor

common area and major vertical penetrations.

To centerline of partition walls.

No deductions made for necessary columns and

projections.

Fig. 21

Fig. 22

18 0.1 Office Types


Floor Common AreaFloor common area is the area for use by all the

tenants on that floor. It is the gross measured area

minus the floor usable area and major vertical

penetrations. The floor common area may include

janitor closets, electrical closets, restrooms,

mechanical rooms, public corridors and elevator

lobbies.

Major Vertical PenetrationsMajor vertical penetrations are the penetrations

between floors that are for the private use of a

tenant. These may include stairs, elevator shafts,

pipe shafts, mechanical shafts, and ducts and their

enclosing walls.

Floor Rentable (Leasable) AreaFloor rentable area results from subtracting the

vertical penetrations from the gross measured

area. This area is also equal to the floor usable

area plus the floor common area. This is a very

important calculation as it allow the developer to

make estimates on how much rent he or she will be

receiving from the building.

Basic Rentable AreaBasic rentable area is the area which can be

charged to the rent of a single tenant. This calcu-

lation incorporated a portion of the common area

into the usable area for one tenant. The calcula-

tion has two steps:

1. Floor rentable area / Floor usable area = r/u ratio

2. Usable area x r/u ration = Basic rentable area Fig. 24

Fig. 25

0.1 Office Types 19

20

0.3 Site Considerations Suburban SiteLow rise office buildings are most often the type

seen in suburban sites. These are generally much

larger then their urban counterparts ranging from

80,000 square feet to more than 400,000 square

feet. One of the main determinants of the size of

the site needed is parking requirements.

Parking Rules of ThumbAlthough parking requirements vary from place

to place there are general rules of thumb that can

be used at the conceptual planning level. See the

diagrams on the left for these guidelines.

Parking StrategiesThe most common strategy for handling parking

loads on suburban sites is the surface lot. This

takes up an immense amount of space, often more

area then the actual gross office area. Surface

parking tends to take up an average of 75% of the

total site.

Another common strategy is the parking garage.

These are often two to three level structures adja-

cent or attached to the office building.

See “Parking: A Pattern Book” for more detail.

*Note that zoning codes typically govern the

minimum parking requirements. Numbers shown

here are based on accomodating average office

building occupant loads.

Structured Parking:

3-4 cars per 1000sf of office space

350-400sf per car*Surface Parking:

3-4 cars per 1000sf of office space

300sf per car*

Fig. 27

20 0.1 Office Types


Urban SiteUrban sites are generally much smaller than

suburban ones. They range from 20,000 square

feet to 60,000 square feet. Parking loads are

also much smaller as site are often close to public

transit. Because urban land values are so high,

parking strategies try to minimize the amount of

site covered solely by parking.

Parking StrategiesParking requirements in urban areas and cities

vary greatly from city to city, and even from district

to district within the same city. So it is hard to say

here in great detail any rules of thumb or specific

numbers pertaining to parking space require-

ments. However there are several strategies that

are useful to know in the conceptual planning

phases of office design. Three of the most preva-

lent strategies are illustrated on the right. The first

strategy embeds the parking garage in the middle

of a block an below the office tower. It is hidden

from street view and allows more active building

program to line the streets. The second strategy is

a simple attached parking structure adjacent to the

office building. The third and most inconspicuous

strategy for incorporating parking is below grade.

See “Parking: A Pattern Book” for more detail.

Embedded

Adjacent

below-grade

Fig. 28

0.1 Office Types 21

1. Structure

Overview

Understanding the structural makeup of an office building is crucial to its efficient design.

While structural strategies have been refined over time to create the most efficient designs,

even with a conventional plan there remains a great number of variables that will affect the

cost and aesthetics of the building.

This chapter intends to give a designer a basic understanding of the structural elements that

compose a typical modern office building. It is meant to be a starting point for selecting a

structural system, and obtaining structural member dimensions of that system for schematic or

preliminary design.

Chapter Contents

1.1 Getting StartedFloor LayoutsConcrete vs. SteelSelecting the Structural SystemTributary AreaLive Loads

1.2 Steel Two Way beam Pros and ConsBeam SizingColumn Sizing

1.3 Open Web Joist Pros and ConsBeam SizingColumn Sizing

1.4 Two Way Concrete Flat PlatePros and ConsBeam SizingColumn Sizing

1.5 Lateral LoadsTypes of Lateral LoadsRigid PerimeterRigid Core

24

Floor LayoutsWhen dealing with office buildings, especially

speculative office buildings, the building is

designed in order to provide tenants with large

portions of column free space. This offers flexibilty

for any number of space-planning arraingemnts

& easy desk and cubical placement. With this

in mind, developers and architects have refined

the design of office buildings over time, and have

developed somewhat of a standard in what is the

ideal office plan and column layout.

As in all structural configurations, a regularized,

nearly square structural system is most efficient.

When looking specifically at urban mid rises and

high rises office buildings, most floor plans have

columns spaced at 30’ intervals. A typical subur-

ban low rise has a 45’-30’-45’ column spacing con-

figuration. These column spacings have seemingly

struck a balance between economic structural

efficiency and the spatial qualities desired by the

building’s tenants.

1.1 Getting Started Concrete vs. SteelBoth steel and concrete can be ideal materials for

the structure of office buildings. There are several

factors however, which may sway a designer to

choose either material.

From an economical standpoint, it is important

to look at the specific local market when choos-

ing to build with either concrete or steel. In many

markets, steel can be cost effective because of

its easy fabrication and because there are usually

numerous different contractors who are familiar

and able to provide steel framing services. On the

other hand, in many markets, concrete costs less

than steel and there may be several well quali-

fied contractors able to build with concrete. When

choosing either, one must look at both the cost of

obtaining the material in the area and the cost of

labor to actually build the structure using the given

material.

Looking at sustainability, each material has

positives and negatives. Many raw materials

from which steel is manufactured are becoming

depleted. Also, it requires an embodied energy

of about 19,2000 BTU/pound to produce. On the

other hand, about 66 percent of all steel used in

construction is able to be recycled.

Concrete is the largest consumer of raw materials

in the world. It has an embodied energy of 2400

BTU/pound. Concrete however, may also be com-

posed of much recycled material. buildings made

of concrete can be more energy efficient because

of its ability to serve as a thermal mass, stabilizing

temperature swings.

24 1.1 Getting Started


Member DimensionsThere are several factors that determine the sizes

of structural members. While not all of these have

been considered, this chapter intends to give a

designer a good starting point by proving general

dimensions of structural members. All informa-

tion in this chapter is roughly based on the criteria

described below.

Tributary AreaThe tributary area of a column is the floor area that

a column supports. Total tributary area is this num-

ber multiplied by the number of floors a column

supports including the roof. In a 30’x30’ grid, as

in a typical office floor plan, a typical column will

have a single floor tributary area of 900 sf The total

tributary area is 900 sf multiplied by the number of

building stories. Perimeter columns have a smaller

tributary area but generally receive greater loads

because of lateral loads

See Fig.1.

Live LoadsLive loads include all loads imposed after con-

struction including people and furniture. Office

buildings are considered to receive light to medium

loading at 30-100 psf. All of the information in this

chapter will be based on these loading conditions.

Selecting the Structural SystemWhen selecting the structural system for an office

building, their are a number of things a designer

must consider. First of all, the type of system will

determine the floor assembly thickness. This will

effect the floor to ceiling height, and the overall

height of the building. The floor thickness will be

highly visible in the facade (See chapter 5), and

effect how HVAC equipment will be located in the

building (see chapter 3). Also, certain systems al-

low for cantilevering while other systems are better

suited for very tall structures. based on structural

and economic efficiency, this chapter describes

three common structural systems including the

two way steel beam system, the open web steel

joist system, and the two way concrete flat plate

system. This chapter also describes lateral load

resistance techniques.

Fig. 1

1.1 Getting Started 25

26

Two Way Steel beam SystemThe two way steel beam system is the most com-

monly used steel system for office buildings. It

provides cost efficiency and can be fabricated

quickly. The two way steel beam system easily

spans required distances for office buildings and

can achieve greater heights than any other system.

very long spans

possible

considerable structural

floor depth required

very strong for its

weightfireproofing required

inefficient for

cantilevering

easliy fabricated and

assembled

better suited to tall

structures

1.2 Steel Two Way beam System

Cons Pros

26 1.2 Steel Two Way beam System

steel angle

steel decking

beam

girder

column


beam DepthSpan

10’ 6” 8” 3” 8”

15’ 8” 10”

20”

30”

N/A 8”

30’ 16” N/A 8”

45’ 27” N/A 8”

Decking Depth Total Slab DepthGirder Depth

Corrugated cellular steel decking sheets with spans up to 10’ are most economical.

Decking with a greater gauge may span up to 25’ .

beam

steel angle

column

girder

steel decking

concrete slab

Column SizingFig. 2 is for wide flange steel columns. Columns

are listed with their nominal dimensions. Many

sizes are available with the same nominal dimen-

sion. The taller the building is , the larger the

column dimensions will be.

Beam and Girder SizingFig. 4 lists dimensions for wide flange steel beams

and girders. The spans listed are the most com-

mon ones found in a typical office building.

bu

ildin

g S

tori

es

Fig.2 Fig.3

Fig.4

1.2 Steel Two Way beam System 27

28

Steel Open Web Joist System Using steel open web joists and joist girders is an

economical alternative to traditional steel fram-

ing. Its members are lighter in weight and produce

equivalent spans. Another notable benefit is the

ability to run HVAC equipment and ducts through

the joists.

light weight

members are deeper

than traditional steel

framing

costs less than tra-

ditional steel framing

inefficient for short

spans

fireproofing required

and is more costly

than on conventional

wide flange beams

HVAC equipment can

pass through

joists

1.3 Steel Open Web Joist System

Cons Pros

28 1.3 Steel Open Web Joist System


tubular column

Corrugated cellular steel decking sheets with spans up to 10’ are most

economical. Decking with a greater gauge may span up to 25’ .

Span

10’ N/A N/A 3” 8”

15’ N/A N/A

28”

42”

N/A 8”

30’ 20” N/A 8”

45’ 24” N/A 8”

Joist Depth Joist Girder Depth

Decking Depth

Total SlabDepth

open web joist

steel decking

concrete slab

joist girder

Column SizingFig 5. Is for tubular steel columns. It should be

noted that most office buildings will use conven-

tional wide flange columns and girders to sup-

port the open web joists. This is because while

tubular columns are much lighter than wide flange

columns, they are very limited in allowable height.

Tubular columns are better suited for low rise of-

fice buildings when cost and weight is a priority.

Joist and Girder SizingOpen joist can rest on either Joist girders, a

heavier version of the joist, as shown, or conven-

tional wide flange girders.

bu

ildin

g S

tori

es

Fig.5

Fig.6

Fig.7

1.3 Steel Open Web Joist System 29

30

attractive monolithic

appearance

Cons Pros

thin structural slabs

Costly post tensioning

required for longer spans

large column sizes

required for very tall

structures

easily allows for

cantilevers and ir-

regular floor plans

no fire proofing

required

1.4 Concrete Flat Plate System Flat Plate Concrete System Concrete is unique because it can take the

shape of its form and all structural members

become a unified system. Though there are

many structural approaches using concrete, the

two-way flat plate system is ideal for office build-

ings. It provides the needed spans and allows for

a thin, attractive floor slab and minimal floor to

floor heights. This structural system is also very

easy to cantilever.

30 1.4 Concrete Flat Plate System


concrete slab

concrete column

15’ 5.5” 5”

30’

45’

12” 8.5”

N/A 12.5”

Column Sizing Fig. 8 shows square concrete column sizes at a

strength of 4000 psi for typical office building load-

ing. For round columns add 1/3 of the dimension

shown to the diameter. Rectangular column have

the same area as square columns and can have

no dimension less than 10”. Significantly greater

heights (up to 100+ stories) may be achieved using

a higher strength of concrete. For a strength of

6000 psi, multiply the dimension by .8, for 8000psi

x .7, for 12000psi x .60 .

Slab DepthFig.9 provides general numbers for concrete slab

thickness. For longer spans, concrete can be post

tensioned, which will however add cost.

bu

ildin

g S

tori

es

Fig.8

Fig.10

Fig.9

Span ConventionalSlab Depth

Post-tensionedSlab Depth

1.4 Concrete Flat Plate System 31

32

1.5 Lateral Loads

Rigid coreRigid perimeterFig.11 Fig.12

Lateral LoadsThe previous sections discussed systems for

resisting gravity loads. Unlike gravity loads, lateral

loads are forces that act upon a building horizon-

tally. These forces include wind and earthquake

loads. A tall building must have structural elements

that counter these forces.

Rigid Perimeter One way of providing lateral resistance in tall

structures is by stiffening the perimeter of the

building. This can be done by using either diagonal

bracing as shown in Fig. 11, moment connections

or shear panels. While diagonal bracing and shear

panels will cause design limitations on the build-

ings facade, using moment connections on steel

members will add cost and time to the framing

process.

Rigid coreTypically, the core of an office building contains

the stairs, elevators and mechanical shafts and is

located in the center of the building. Because of

its centralized location, the core provides an ideal

location for resistance against lateral forces. The

core can also be stiffened with either shear panels,

cross bracing or moment connections. In this con-

dition, the core must remain consistent throughout

the entire height of the building. Considerable de-

sign freedom with the building’s facade is allowed

using this technique of lateral resistance.

See Fig. 12.

32 1.5 Lateral Loads

2. Vertical Circulation

Chapter Contents

2.1 Elevator Design GuidelinesDeciding number of elevatorsCode requirements for elevators and stairs

2.2 StairsCritical DimensionsPressurizationStandpipe

2.3 Elevator Types

2.4 Elevator LayoutSectional overviewElevator lobbies

2.5 Latest in Elevator TechnologyElevator Call Touch Pad

Overview

Vertical circulation is one of the first elements that is initially designed in high rise buildings.

The number of elevators needed is something that needs to be decided early on, as it’s very

hard to change later.

This chapter takes a look into the elevator and all of the design strategies that go into selecting

the right elevator configuration. It will also take a quick look at stair towers and all of the criti-

cal dimensions that go into designing stairs.

3636 2.1 Elevator Design Guidelines

2.1 Elevator Design Guidelines

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Guidelines for ElevatorsThe first thing that should be done when design-

ing any building that will incorporate elevators is

to higher an elevator consultant. The systems

are so complex that it takes someone full time to

understand all the intricacies of elevators. With

this said these next few sections will try to help

you understand enough about elevators to be able

to make educated choices on designing elevators

within your office building.

When determining the number of elevators for

your office building, the general rule of thumb is

that you need 1 elevator per 35,000 square feet

of office space that the elevator serves. Also

1 service elevator per 265,000 square feet is a

good starting point. The chart on the left is a

quick guide to the number of elevators in blue, and

service elevators in orange that are needed for any

given usable area. This rule of thumb falls apart

in the taller of the mid rise buildings and most

assuredly in high rise buildings. Otherwise your

entire floorplate would quickly become covered in

elevators. Other systems come in to play to reduce

the overall number of elevators needed in these

instances. Express elevators and local elevators

is the most basic concept that is widely used in

order to increase the efficiency out of the number

of elevators used. Also two elevators sharing the

same shaft is common to reduce the number of

hoist ways needed while still having a high level of

service.

See 2.4 for more detail on elevator layouts

and 2.3 for more detail on types of elevators

ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 372.1 Elevator Design Guidelines 37

150’ max

1/3 total diagonal dimension of floorplate

300’ max

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

Code for Elevators and StairsThe amount of code that governs elevators and

stairs is too much to get into for this book. Entire

books are devoted to the subject. We’ll take a look

at the general layout of elevators and stairs in lay-

ing them out within an office space.

For elevators the general guideline for max travel

distance is 150 feet. However this isn’t a code

rule, it’s only a rule of thumb for designing an office

space that doesn’t create a condition that is un-

comfortable for the users. Also one elevator cab,

51 inches by 80 inches with a 42 inch clear open-

ing to accommodate a stretcher must be provided

and identified.

See 2.3 for more on laying out elevators

Stairs are more stringently confined by code. 2007

IbC stipulates that the max travel distance from the

most remote location in the office floorplate to the

stair is 300 feet. Additionally a user can only travel

a max of 75 feet before they are given 2 choices

for exiting. Also stair doors can’t be closer than

1/3rd the overall diagonal dimension of the floor

plate. This is to ensure that if a fire is blocking one

stairway, it won’t be blocking both stairways at the

same time. There is also discussion right now that

a third stair be mandatory for high rise buildings,

this would be incorporated into IBC 2009.

See 2.2 for more detail on stair design

3838 2.2 Stairs

2.2 Stairs

Same width as stair

25% of stair width

12”

1 1/2”

Tread Width + 12”

44” min*

Standpipe 2 Hour Rating

Stair Pressur-ization Shaft

Pressurized Stair Vestibule

Stair DimensionsThe total width of all stairs is based of the oc-

cupancy of the largest floor of the building. Once

this occupancy number is figured out, a factor of .3

inches per occupant is used to determine the total

minimum clear width of all stairs. For example if

the largest floor in an office building is calculated

to have 200 max occupants, then the total width of

all stairs is 60 inches. In a typical 2 stair building,

the width of each stair would be a minimum of 30

inches based on this calculation, however the ab-

solute minimum width of any stair is 44 inches, so

therefore in our example both stairs need to be a

minimum of 44 inches. The stair landing needs to

have the same clear width as the stairs themselves

and any doors opening onto the landing can only

interfere with the clear width by 25%. So in our ex-

ample of the stairs needing to be 44 inches clear,

then the door swing can overlap the clear path on

the landing by 11 inches.

The other critical dimensions when laying out a

stair in plan are the handrails. In office buildings

the handrails need to extend 12 inches beyond

the top tread and on the bottom tread they need

to slope for an extra tread width and then an ad-

ditional 12 inches horizontally.

In high rise buildings there is also the need for

stairs to be pressurized in order to keep the stairs

smoke free in case of fire. There is a dedicated

shaft connected to the stair for this purpose.

Fig. 4

ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 392.2 Stairs 39

11” min

34-38”42”4-7”

80” min

12’ Max

Head Height

Standpipe

2 Hour Rating

Continuous Handrail

Spaced to not allow a 4” sphere to pass through

Stair Dimensions in SectionCode limits the height and width of each individual

tread on a stair. The tread can only be 4-7 inches

in height and a minimum of 11 inches in depth.

Also the treads need to be of uniform dimension

throughout a flight of stairs. Also a single run can’t

go higher than 12 feet total before a landing is

needed. Throughout the design of stairs it’s also

necessary to keep in mind that a minimum head

height of 80 inches is mandatory.

The inner handrail of a typical stair tower needs

to be continuous and also in-between 34 and

38 inches. There needs to be a guardrail on the

interior portion of the stair that is 42 inches high

and also with intermediate bars so that a sphere of

4 inches can not pass through.

Another requirement in high rise buildings is a

standpipe that is located either in the stairway or

in a shaft next to the stairway with horizontal pipes

penetrating into the stairway itself. Discussions

should happen between the architect with the fire

marshal on wether they prefer the access to the

standpipe to be on the intermediate landings or on

the floor levels instead.

Other requirements for stairways in high rise build-

ings are: telephones or other two-way communica-

tion systems must be provided at every fifth floor

inside the stairwell, and one stair must continue to

the roof and must be marked.

Fig. 5

4040 2.3 Elevator Types

Holeless HydraulicHydraulic elevator without the need for a well or

buried piping. Max height: 14’.

Machine-RoomlessThe Machine for the elevator actually fits inside

the hoist way itself, eliminating the need for a large

room on the roof.

TractionThe standard in high rise elevators. Operates at

speeds over 500 feet per minute.

Roped HydraulicNo need for a well and can reach 60’.

Telescoping Holeless HydraulicSame benefits of the holeless hydraulic with the

added benefit of being able to reach 44’-1”

Holed HydraulicNeed for a well but allows a vertical height of 60’.

2.3 Elevator Types

Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8

Fig. 9 Fig. 10 Fig. 11

ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 412.3 Elevator Types 41

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1 2 3 4 5 60

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

1 2 3 4 5 6

Ho

lele

ss

Hyd

rau

lic

Ho

lele

ss

Hyd

rau

lic

Ma

x H

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ee

t

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in F

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t Pe

r M

inu

te

Tele

sco

pin

g H

ole

less

H

ydra

ulic

Tele

sco

pin

g H

ole

less

H

ydra

ulic

Ho

led

Hyd

rau

lic

Ho

led

Hyd

rau

lic

Ro

pe

d H

ydra

ulic

Ro

pe

d H

ydra

ulic

Ma

chin

e R

oo

mle

ss

Ma

chin

e R

oo

mle

ss

Tra

ctio

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Tra

ctio

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200

00

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

14’125 125 150 150

350

1200

44’-1”60’ 60’

300’

400’+

400

600

800

1000

1200

Deciding Which Elevator to UseWhen trying to decide which type of elevator to

use, there’s a lot of factors that go into the deci-

sion. How high the elevator needs to reach is

usually the first factor that goes into deciding what

type of elevator and it’s the easiest way to elimi-

nate many of the options. Other things to consider

are the environmental impacts of certain elevators

(mainly for low and mid rise hydraulic applications)

the speed of the elevator, and of course, the cost.

Ultimately you should consult an elevator consul-

tant when deciding what elevator to go with, but

these quick descriptions on the left and the chart

on your right should help you get on your way.

your elevator consultant can also help with com-

plex elevator systems that are used in high rise

buildings such as stacked cabs, where to elevator

cabs are physically attached and serve 2 floors

at a time, or elevator systems where 2 elevators

share the same shaft with the gears of the lower

elevator mounted to the underside of the upper

cab.

Fig. 12 Fig. 13

4242 2.4 Elevator Layout

2.4 Elevator Layout

Diagramming Elevators in SectionThe diagram on the right is one of the first dia-

grams that should be drawn up when designing the

vertical circulation of any high rise office building.

Figuring out how to get the right amount of service

to every floor is a hard task and looking at that in

section is the best way to understand it. The blue

areas indicate the levels that the elevators stop at

whereas the dotted gray lines are the levels that

aren’t served by that elevator, the solid gray boxes

represent the elevator overrides and pits. This

diagram will become very useful when convers-

ing with your elevator consultant and figuring out

the best ways to design your vertical circulation

system as efficient as possible.

Low RiseThe elevators are grouped in the center of the

building in the main lobby area.

Mid RiseA large central elevator lobby is the most typical

and efficient layout. In the larger of the mid rises,

elevators that are just used for freight become

common.

High RiseElevators are staggered vertically with intermedi-

ate transition floor or ‘sky lobbies’ denoted with the

dashed red line. There are several different strate-

gies for the type of elevators used, from stacked

elevators, to two elevators sharing the same shaft.

Fig. 14 Fig. 15 Fig. 16

ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 432.4 Elevator Layout 43

Bank of 4 elevators

in a single line.

Bank of 2 elevators

in a single line.

Bank of 4 elevators

with 2 facing each

other.

Bank of 2 elevators

with 1 facing each

other.

Elevator LobbiesWhen laying out your elevators you want to group

them together so they can share the same shaft.

For the user, having all of the elevators in a row is

the easiest for them to be able to see all of them

at the same time when waiting for an elevator. 4

elevators is considered the largest amount that you

want to have in a line with 3 being the optimum.

When designing the elevator lobby, keep in mind

that if you have all of your elevators in a single line,

then your minimum lobby width is 8 feet, however

if the elevators are opposite of each other across

the lobby, then the minimum width becomes 10

feet instead.

High Rise Upper Level LobbiesThe top middle image is an elevator lobby at a

typical upper level lobby and the bottom image is

a typical ground floor lobby. In addition to elevator

shafts needing to be 2 hour rated, elevator lobbies

above the first floor need to be 1-hour rated. Also

doors into these lobbies need to be 20 minute

rated.

8’ min

10’ min

8’ min

10’ min

Fig. 17

Fig. 18

Fig. 19

Fig. 20

Fig. 21

Fig. 22

4444 2.5 Latest Technology

Latest in Elevator TechnologyHaving an elevator call touch pad instead of an

elevator button allows a computer system to de-

cide the most efficient elevator that the passenger

should use. It groups passengers that are going

to floors located near each other to provide a trip

with the fewest stops. The diagram above shows

people upon entering the lobby and proceeding to

the call touch pad to enter in what floor they are

going to. The computer system determines the

most efficient elevator to get you there and a letter

that is associated to an elevator is displayed on the

screen. The diagram to the left shows the way that

the system tries to group people going to similar

floors to reduce the number of stops each elevator

is making. They also try to reduce elevator over-

crowding by trying to limit the number of passen-

gers to 5. After 5 people have been assigned to an

elevator, anymore passengers going to the same

floor are assigned the next most efficient eleva-

tor. They also have a system that integrates the

call touch pad with the security gate, so when you

slide your security card through it knows what floor

you’re going to and assigns you to an elevator.

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8 9

- 0

2.5 Latest Technology

Fig. 23

Fig. 24

Fig. 25

3. Mechanical Systems

Chapter Contents

3.1 General Design InfoDesign ObjectivesVentilation RequirementsSystem Components & Functions

3.2 Mechanical CirculationLoad DistributionsSystem RelationshipsSpacial Requirements

3.3 Localized Air DistributionVariable Air Volume SystemsRaised Floor Systems

3.4 Heat Gain / Lossbuilding Envelope Overview

3.5 System SustainabilityMethods, Ideas, and Tips

Overview

The functions of mechanical systems serve to create an indoor air environment free of pol-

lutants and to provide its occupants with a thermal comfort level suitable for each to work in.

In office buildings where the life of the structure typically outlives the lease life of the tenants

which occupy them, flexibility in design and approach to mechanical systems is important to

allow the building to adapt to changing technology and varied usability.

This chapter discusses general design criteria for low, mid and high rise office building ty-

pologies in relation to flexibility, occupant comfort, and spatial requirements. It discusses its

relevance to heat gain and loss, breaks down system components, their connections, and their

individual functions to the system as a whole. The overall flexibility of a building relies largely

on the application of air distribution. This chapter will break down the advantages and disad-

vantages of two typical air distribution systems: variable air volume distribution and raised

floor systems.

In today’s world design and building professionals are responsible for thinking more environ-

mentally aware, to build more sustainable, and to design “greener” systems. Lastly, this chap-

ter will offer methods, tips and general insight to improving the efficiency and sustainability of

office building mechanical systems.

48

Fig. 1 Temperature & Humidity Chart - The highlighted blue area’s repre-sent optimal operating temp.’s and humidity for winter and summer months when mechanical systems are running most.

Fig. 2

Ventilation Rates for Office Buildings

Design ObjectivesThe success of a mechanical system in an office building is directly related to its ability to meet certain

design objectives.

Maximization of Usable Space:

Mechanical systems require a certain amount of space in a building, strategically placed and require a

great deal of thought and communication between design teams especially early on in the design phases.

Typically the sizes of the mechanical spaces required are directly related to the sizes and space require-

ments of the components of the systems which are decided by the square footage and load requirements

individual for each project. See Section 3.2: Mechanical Service for typical space requirements for

system components and spaces.

Flexibility:

There must be the ability to accommodate the needs of a variety of tenants and occupants and their

changes in needs over the life of the building therefore it is strategically important to design mechanical

systems/spaces accordingly. A well designed office will provide excess space for future tenant build out

including extra mechanical room and shaft space.

Occupant Comfort:

The environment produced and regulated by your mechanical system must provide a very specific com-

fort zone in relation to temperature and humidity needed for a building to be inhabited and to provide a

gradient of change to suit individual preferences. In general a Class A office building should operate at 75

degrees Db and 50 percent RH in summer months and 72 degrees Db/25 percent RH in winter (Figure

3.1.1). Individual occupant comfort can be more efficiently achieved through the choice of your distribu-

tion systems See section 3.4.

Other Design Criteria to be considered:

-Provide office lobbies with separate VAV AHU

-Empty Shaft Space should be provided for future tenant exhaust requirements.

-Provide stair and elevator shafts with pressurization systems w/supply air fans located at penthouse

mechanical rooms.

-Parking structures to be naturally ventilated.

-Ventilation Rates

Office areas/Public space 20cu ft/min per person

Toilet areas 15 air changes/hour

Life saftey smoke exhaust 8 air changes/hr/floor

Smoking room exhaust 20 air changes/hr

Nightime purges 0.5 air changes/hr/flr

Enclosed parking 6 air changes/hour

3.1 General Design Information

48 3.1 General Design Information


Standby Generators: provide alternate power

source that runs off fuel to power mechanical

system components in the case of electrical power

outage

boilers: Heat domestic hot water through electri-

cal coil system and pump to domestic water tanks

for storage, as well as to AHU and fan coils.

Fan Coil Units (FCU): provides localized, non

ducted heating and cooling.

Fuel Storage Tanks: provide storage and supply

of fuel oils needed for system components such as

generators, fans and air handling units to run.

Fig. 3

Typical air handling unit (AHU) sized for mid to

high rise office building.

See Section 3.2 for spacial req.’s

Fig. 4

Typical air cooled chiller assembly sized for mid to

high rise office buildings

See section 3.2 for spacial req’s.

Fig. 5

Roof-top cooling tower unit for high rise office

buildings

See section 3.2 for spacial req’s.

Mechanical System ComponentsThis section serves as a brief breakdown of

system components and descriptions of their func-

tions.

Chiller Plant: Produces chilled water as a cooling

medium, circulated by pumps throughout the build-

ing. The water is used in various AHU systems

throughout the building to cool air. Water is re-

turned at a warmer temperature to be cooled again

and recirculated. Typically housed in mechani-

cal levels or basement levels as this component

requires spaces with head rooms of 16+ clear ft.

Cooling Towers: Heat generated by chillers is

rejected to condenser water circuits and pumped

to cooling towers where outdoor air enters the sys-

tem, evaporates the water and carries it away from

he building in an air stream via fans. Typically

located on all size office building at roof top levels

or high-level setbacks.

Air Handling Units (AHU): Centralized unit consist-

ing of a blower, heating and cooling elements, and

a humidifier. Receives cooled water from main

chillers or hot water from boilers and cools/heats

air and distributes it to different zones within the

building.

Stair Pressurization Fans: provide constant flow of

air to egress stairwells to ensure, in the case of a

fire, relatively smoke-free egress areas.

30’ Fig. 3

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

38’

40’

8’

15’

25’

3.1 General Design Information 49

50

Fig. 6 In typical Low Rise office buildings one small roof-top Air Handling Unit (AHU) is sufficient to supply the entire building space with conditioned air.

Fig. 7 In a Mid Rise office building, depending on design preferences, either all mechanical components can be placed on the roof-top or a single penthouse level will be designated to house all system components serving the entire building.

Fig. 8In High Rise offices, mechanical loads are broken down into zones with intermediate mechanical spaces throughout the building. As a rule of thumb, each mechanical level typically serves from 10-12 floors in each direction.

3.2 Mechanical Circulation

Load Distribution

Mechanical equipment have stringent require-

ments for space which are critical to the efficiency

of space utilization and system performance,

equal to the importance of programmatic require-

ments. Typically in office buildings, mechanical

spaces and components are housed in mid-level

or penthouse level spaces, designated strictly for

mechanical use. For tall buildings there is more

intense competition for space at the base of the

structure because of demands of parking, lobbies,

loading docks and retail that is typically associ-

ated with an office project. In very tall buildings

space utilization becomes even more critical, as

M48-49

M34-35

M10-11

L01-02

P01-03

M11-12

L01

b01-02

L1-3

b1

the vertical and horizontal trade-offs have greater

consequences. Tall buildings exert large hydrostat-

ic pressures on water systems and must be broken

down and organized into pressure zones so that

there is a pressure break in the circuit. This break

requires mechanical space with-in the tower. Typi-

cally in high rise structures, mechanical levels can

be found to serve 10-15 levels in each direction

individually and require large clear heights, usually

16 + feet; therefore most mechanical levels will

encompass two full floor levels.

50 3.2 Mechanical Circulation


Air Handlers

Typical Mech. Space Req. for High Rise Office

Air-cooled chillers 3,200 Sq. Ft.

Cooling towers 7,000 Sq. Ft.

Tenant standby generators 1,000 Sq. Ft.

House domestic water tanks 600 Sq. Ft.

Penthouse Levels

Typical Floor Levels

Mechanical fan room 500 Sq. Ft.

basement Levels

Life saftey & tenant generators 800 Sq. Ft.

Fuel oil storage 1,000 Sq. Ft.

Boiler & chiller plant 15,000 Sq. Ft.

Fig. 11Diagrammatic section of a typical high rise office building showing mechanical components and connections

Fig. 9Diagrammatic section of a typical low rise office building showing mechanical components and connections

Fig. 10 Diagrammatic section of a typical mid rise office building showing mechanical components and connections

Typical Mech. Space Req. for Mid Rise Office

Air-cooled chillers 2,500 Sq. Ft.

Cooling towers 3,000 Sq. Ft.

Tenant standby generators 1,000 Sq. Ft.

House domestic water tanks 600 Sq. Ft.

Penthouse Levels

Typical Floor Levels

Mechanical fan room 400 Sq. Ft.

basement Levels

Life saftey & tenant generators 500 Sq. Ft.

Fuel oil storage 300 Sq. Ft.

Boiler Room 1,500 Sq. Ft.

Fuel Oil PipingSystem ComponentsReturn AirSupply AirExhaust

Stair Pressurization Fans 800 Sq. Ft. Stair Pressurization Fans 400 Sq. Ft.

Fuel oil piping

Supply Ducts

Return Ducts

Back-up Generator

Chiller

Exhaust Chases

boilers

Fuel oil storage

Stair Pres. Fans

3.2 Mechanical Circulation 51

52

Variable Air Volume System (VAV)Typically in office building settings, the most efficient

and cost effective way to distribute air is a VAV system

(Variable Air Volume). These systems use an air

handling unit (supply fans w/filters and cooling coils) to

distribute conditioned air at pre-determined tempera-

tures in sufficient quantity to offset heat gains See sec-

tion 3.3. The space temperatures would be controlled

by varying the volume flow rate of supply air by the use

of VAV control dampers above the ceiling. The on-floor

VAV system is a re-circulating system in which the air

from the space is returned above the hung ceiling acting

as a plenum. The air is then returned to the fan room

at the core and back to chiller plants to be re-cooled.

Cooling loads distributed vary along with occupancy

levels and solar gain through the exterior skin. See sec-

tion 6.2

Raised Floor Distribution SystemIn response to the demand for flexibility and change

in an office building, raised floors for distribution of air

and cabling are another design choice that provides

easy modification and relocation options after they are

installed. Typically raised above the slab 12-18 inches,

raised floors utilize lift-out floor modules that allow for

easy cable and outlet modification. In this case owner-

occupied buildings use this system more frequent be-

cause the occupant derives most of the benefit through

the buildings life. Air is supplied to the space from floor

diffusers instead of overhead, while on floor handlers

blow air into the floor cavities via supply ducts. Warm air

is returned to the air handlers by way of open plenum

above the hung ceiling as the cool air, diffused low,

begins to heat and rise.

14’

9’

2’

3’

14’

9’2

4”

3’

18”

45’

45’

Fig. 12Typical VAV system air distribution showing above ceiling supply and return ducts and overhead diffusers to cool office spaces.

Fig. 13 Typical raised floor air distribution diagram showing under floor air supply ducts fed by a local AHU and plenum return duct back to the core. Floor swirl diffusers allow for a cleaner striation of cool air below to warmer air above.

3.3 Localized Air Distribution Systems

52 3.3 Localized Air Distribution Systems


1’-8

3’

9’ to F.F.

1’

2’

2’-6”

14’FL.- FL.

3’

14’FL.- FL.

1’

2’

4”

9’4 - F.F.

45’

3.3 Localized Air Distribution Systems 53

Fig. 15 - Raised Floor Fig. 14 - VAV

Advantages and Disadvantages of VAV vs Raised Floor

VAV AdvantagesCentralized maintenance, quick, easy construction

timeline, up front cost is cheaper than installing a

raised floor.

VAV DisadvantagesLess opportunity for personalized comfort zones

with dampers, requires local mechanical room,

even air distribution is sometimes compromised

due to operating at high turn down; tends to mix

supply air with return air at a higher percentage,

resulting in less efficiency.

Raised Floor AdvantagesRaised floors allow for lower life cycle costs

because of their flexibility of re-configuring, re-

wiring and re-arranging office configurations. The

absence of overhead ducting in this system can

allow for an increase in floor to floor height or a

reduction in overall building height by close to 10

percent. Comfort for occupants is increased by

creating more personalized zoning options. This

system also allows for a more efficient use of air as

cooler air is distributed low and gradually makes

its way to the plenum as it becomes warmer. The

overall result is improved indoor air quality.

Raised Floor DisadvantagesLarger up front construction costs.

5454 3.4 Heat Gain/Loss

building Envelope OverviewDepending on the choice of building skin and the

exterior envelopes design approach, structures

experience various levels of heat gain and loss

that influence the design of distribution systems as

well as the efficiency of the system. The great-

est contributor of heat gain in an office building

is usual sunlight. Solar heat gain is the percent-

age of heat gained through both direct sunlight

and absorbed heat. The larger the percentage of

heat gain in a building the more the mechanical

systems will work to counter-balance, therefore

engineers use a heat load calculation to determine

the mechanical needs of these areas. Determining

the specific heat gain for a design with an engineer

is pertinent to maximizing efficiency of mechani-

cal system. Curtain wall systems (a typical choice

for office skins) and other envelopes with large

surface areas of glass require additional mechani-

cal design attention to counteract heat loss or gain.

See chapter 5

Perimeter Diffuser Air DistributionTo counteract heat gain at curtain walls or window

walls, areas with high solar exposure, perimeter

diffusers are used. Usually supplied by extra

perimeter VAV boxes, they produce cooler and

higher volumes of air typically to offset the heat

being gained through the skin. This strategy is

typically used in all distribution schemes including

raised floor.

45’

Fig. 17Overhead VAV systems use seperate perimeter diffusers in the ceiling to distribute air down across windows.

3.4 Heat Gain/Loss

Fig. 16Raised Floor perimeter diffusers distribute air up across window walls

45’


3.5 System SustainabilityTips for Building “Greener”When designing a building, base system size and

equipment on a long-term plan, one which has a

significant amount of flexibility, not just focusing on

the current building occupant’s needs and require-

ments.

Research systems that provide larger number of

control zones than conventional systems. Applica-

tions such as raised floors provide air distribution

on a wider and more individual basis which allows

more occupants to have control over their spaces

environment.

Consider carefully factors that influence comfort

see section 3.1. Consider operating spaces at

lower relative humidity during the cooling season

to widen the dry bulb temperature comfort band

See operating temperature chart in section 3.1.

Greater comfort can result from improved wall

insulation or high performance glass systems (See

chapter 6 for information on wall system options for

office buildings). The building envelope alone can

have huge effects on how well or how sustainable

your mechanical systems can operate. Also using

solar screening or shades can drastically ease the

strain on a systems typical load requirements.

- Provide heat exchangers within the toilet exhaust

air to reduce ventilation air pre-heating require-

ments.Fig. 18Building energy disbursement breakdown highlighting the large percentage (39% of total buiding energy) used on mechanical systems

The use of humidifiers in outside air streams keeps

AHU coils wet. This condensate typically tends to

absorb pollutants in the ventilation air.

Use daylight responsive lighting to reduce heat

gain from electric lights

In appropriate area, consider the use of mixed

HVAC systems that can operate in tandem with

natural ventilation. In certain weather conditions

the system can be de-activated and operable win-

dows can perform the cooling and drying functions

of the mechanical systems.

Energy Recovery VentilationTo reduce the load on primary air handling sys-

tems that take on the task of conditioning various

levels of outdoor ventilation air, outdoor units that

employ pre-conditioning strategies are an efficient

consideration. These recovery units moderate

temperature and humidity content of outdoor air

coming into the building and pre-condition it so to

allow for the zone AHU’s to concentrate on trim

control rather than having to take on the much

larger load variations that are imposed by outdoor

ventilation air. These units will reduce demands

on heating & cooling equipment and result in cost

savings with a short payback period.

3.5 System Sustainability 55

4. Common Program

Chapter Contents

4.1 Front of HouseLobby InformationVestibule RequirementsSecurity types

4.2 CafeteriaTypes of Spaces Location SuggestionsRequirements

4.3 Back of HouseWaste RemovalRamp Requirements

4.4 RestroomsRequirements

4.5 Ground Level LeasableTypes of LeasorsRequirements / Considerations

Overview

Common programming and back of house spaces provide the lifeblood of any office build-

ing. Some of them tend to be forgotten in the initial design process which can become very

detrimental to the design of the building later on. Having a firm grasp of all of the common

programs early on in the design process can be very beneficial to the overall design of the

building.

This chapter examines the different types of spaces that are typically associated with all office

buildings. We will gain an insight of these spaces through a better understanding of the code

requirements and minimum space requirements. Diagrams and equations will be shown to

illustrate the main points and also additional possibilities.

5858 4.1 Front of House

4.1 Front of House

LobbiesThe lobby is the first point of which individuals will

interact with the building. The lobby has multiple

functions; to advertise for the offices of the build-

ing, create an identity, serve as a security check-

point. The lobby is the home for the Concierge,

Guards, Speed gates, and seating area. The

Concierge is there to provide information about

the building, what floors office or individuals can

be found on and as a check in point. The guards

are there to verify those that have passes visually.

Speed gates are used to verify an individual’s ID

quickly and accurately. They are typically used

more in Urban High rises and some Urban Mid ris-

es due to the larger volumes of individuals. Sub-

urban may utilize them if there is a large enough

number of employees. The security level can be

adjusted to allow for differing rates of traffic.

VestibuleA vestibule, the space separating the exterior

of the building and the lobby, is an efficient way

to control the climate with in the office and also

control traffic flow. A vestibule has to adhere to

specific ADA requirements. The minimum size

that a vestibule can be is 44” wide x 72”, in the

direction of travel, and the ceiling must be 20” or

more above the doors.

Door typesSingle doors are perfect for slower pedestrian traf-

fic. There is the option to use an automatic single

door which would allow the door to remain open

longer, allowing for a slightly higher flow of traffic.

Double doors; allow for varying traffic levels of me-

dium to high. The option of automatic doors would

increase the rate of traffic allowing for a higher

density of individuals as well as any individual not

able to use their hands.

Revolving doors are able to control the climate and

also the individual flow of traffic in places where

security is an issue. These doors will slow a

higher flow of traffic so that guards or speed gates

or not overwhelmed. Operation during emergen-

cies needs to be considered due to this slower

flow. Solutions vary from double doors located

near the revolving doors or collapsible doors with

in the revolving door assembly.

SecurityA concierge and a guard are similar in purpose

but different in use. Guards are serve as a visual

security check point by verifying an individuals

identity. Concierges serve not only as security

but also information. They can inform individuals

in the offices of a clients arrival or direct a client

a specified location. The number of occupants

should determine the use of one or both of these.

Speed gates are a more efficient and accurate way

to verify the identity of individual. Varying settings

can be adjusted to allow for higher rates of traffic,

open/close responses and verification setting. The

gate can be left open to allow maximum flow and

only close when an individual can not be identified

or set to open at a certain speed to increase or

decrease traffic flow

ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 594.1 Front of House 59

Elevators to offices above

Ground level Offices

Security/Concierge

Visual Security Verification

Figure 1 Suburban Office Lobby

This is a partial plan diagram showing the basic

implementation of requirements in a Suburban

office building lobby. The use of Speed gates may

not be necessary depending on the size of the

office and number of employee’s. A concierge

would serve as the security barrier and provide cli-

ents with information and check in. Offices are

typically located on the ground floor and may have

little separation from the lobby space.

6060 4.1 Front of House

Elevators to offices above

Speed Gates

Security/Concierge

Visual Security Verification

Fig. 2 Urban Mid Rise Office Lobby

Depicted above is a partial plan of a Urban Mid rise

office lobby. The need for security is greater

because of the number of employee’s and the abil-

ity of anyone to enter the building. The use of

speed gates may be necessary based on the num-

ber of employee’s and level of security required.

Locker rooms or rest rooms may be required for

guards or by the occupants of possible leasable

space.

Fig. 3 Urban High Rise Office Lobby

Depicted above is a partial plan diagram of a

Urban High rise office lobby. The need for security

is greater because of the volume of employee’s

and the use of more security guards and speed

gates is necessary to verify employee’s quickly and

accurately. Rest rooms or Locker rooms maybe

required for guards or by leasable occupants.

ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 614.1 Front of House 61

Diagram of a revolving door in a regular use.

Emergency Situation

Diagram of a collapsed revolving door during a fire

alarm emergency. Two of the doors will fold

towards the exterior of the building.

Exterior

Exterior

Interior

Interior

Elevation of Revolving door.

Typical elevation of a speed gate. The doors slide

into the base allowing individuals access.

Typical plan diagram showing the possible loca-

tions of sensors and the movement of the gates

into the consoles.

Possible locations for sensors.

Possible locations for sensors.

Fig. 4 Elevation of Speed Gate

Fig. 5 Plan of Speed Gate

Fig. 6 Elevation of Revolving Door

Fig. 7 & 8

Revolving Door/Emergency Revolving

11”20”11”

36”48”

11”

60”

Inside Dimension6’ min

7’

62

4.2 Cafeteria

Cafeteria’s may be required in low rise offices

and Urban High rises. Low rise office buildings

may not be located close to other food services,

which would mean that employee’s might have to

drive during their lunch breaks to get food, if they

do not bring their own. Their use in Urban high

rise offices is based on the time it would take for

an employee to leave and return. A second factor

is the volume of employee’s that leave during the

same time, as this would affect all employee’s that

leave during that time. Cafeteria’s allow for a more

efficient use of the employers and employee’s

time.

Cafeteria’s have a large range of spaces that need

to be accounted for. Spaces include; Kitchen, Din-

ing area, Service Area, Storage and Locker room

for staff. Each category has their own set required

spaces with in them. The Kitchen requires cold

food preparation, range/grill, vegetable station,

bakeshop, meat station and cleaning. Storage,

both cold and dry, should be close to the kitchen

and loading dock for quick storing and preparing

of food. The Service area is the space between

the kitchen and the Dining or Seating Area where

individuals arrive and get food. The flow of traffic

through the cafeteria should not be hindered. An

individual should be able to enter, get food, seat

and eat, return tray and plates and exit without in-

terfering with anyone else entering. The first thing

to determine is the number of individuals that will

utilize the cafeteria. Once determined, divided the

total number of individuals by the number of shifts

for serving and then multiple by ten. Ten is the av-

erage square foot of space that an individual takes

up. All of the other spaces will be determined from

this space.

SA = Total to be served x 10

Shifts

kitchenThe kitchen serves as a transition space as well

as food preparation. An individual should have to

pass through the kitchen to and from the loading

dock. In this way, food can be easily accessible,

as well as removed from the kitchen and cleaning

stations efficiently. The kitchen is should be ap-

proximately one half the size of the dining space.

K = SA

2

StorageThe storage should be approximately one fourth of

the space of the seating area. This is total space

for storage, so dry and cold split this space.

S = SA

4

62 4.2 Cafeteria

Locker Rooms and Cleaning

The locker rooms are required for the staff to

change and prepare for their shifts. The clean-

ing station should be located close to the kitchen

and dining area so that clean plates and utensils

can be transferred efficiently. These should fit in

the same amount of space as the storage and the

same equation can be used.

These spaces are just to give a preliminary starting

point and may need to be adjusted to accommo-

date specified appliances, or ADA requirements.


Kitchen: allow for meat prep, vegetable prep, cold

prep, range/grill, bakeshop and service line

Locker rooms

Storage areas: Cold and dry.

Cleaning Station and Office

Dining Area

Trash collection

Arrows represent the flow of traffic. Traffic should

move in one general direction and should not

impede any other traffic.

kitchen

Dining AreaStorage

cleaning

Lockers

Fig. 9 Required Cafeteria spaces and relative sizes

Fig.10 Relative comparison of Space

Requirements

4.2 Cafeteria 63

Exit to loading dock

64

4.3 Back of House

Several different aspects occur as a part of the

back of house or support system within an office

environment. The loading dock, and surrounding

functions, account for most of this category, Sev-

eral different layers are included when addressing

the design of back of house programming. From

an organizational standpoint, the juxtaposition of

other back of house elements to the loading dock

is the most logical. All of these features of an

office building are not what the typical employee

or visitor wants to have noticeable, so often times,

these elements are shifted to the back or base-

ment levels of the building. All of these aspects

may have some involvement with large truck

access, for delivery or shipping purposes, waste

pick-up, or building and employee safety and

security. Therefore it makes sense that all of these

elements are located within the vicinity of the load-

ing dock.

Low Rise Mid-Rise High-RiseDock Master's Office x x xCentral Mail Room

Receiving Room x x xMail Room Storage x x x

Sorting Room x x xScreening Room x x

Anti-Room \ xTenant Pick-up x x x

SecurityTruck Checkpoint at entrance \ x

Security offices x xMaintenance

Offices xMachine Shops and Storages x x x

Building Engineers x x xWaste Management

Recycling Dumpsters 1 1 1Trash Dumpsters 1 1+ 1+

Compactors x x1 cu. Yd. of waste per 10,000 sq. ft. of office space

Restrooms

1 toilet per sex will be required for anything less

Criteria for Office Loading Docks

Additional dumpsters may be required for leasable space on first floor. Restaurants and/or retail.

Occupancy of a loading dock is 1 person for every 300 square feet

64 4.3 Back of House

Explosive


The Loading DockLoading docks can be tricky when deciding on

dimensions and locations. There is a lot to think

about, and more often then not is approached as a

case by case basis. There is no industry standard

for how many bays are required for a buildings

loading dock, there are only guidelines that should

be explored when approached with the task of

implementing one, and a lot of this has to do with

the types of trucks that will be visiting the dock.

Low rise, suburban, office buildings are the easiest

to accommodate as there is not much in the way

of space requirements. As long as it’s taken into

account the maneuverability and size of a full 18

wheel tractor trailer, externally, there is not much

more to cover. What does have to be considered

though is a landing zone for the trailer. This zone

should be made of a harder substance, so that the

trailer does not sink into asphalt on a hot summer’s

day. This zone can be calculated by taking the

longest truck accessing the yard and subtracting

7’ from that. As well, an apron space is required,

which is twice the size of a truck plus 10’ to ac-

count for the turning and reversing capabilities that

these large vehicles lack.

Commonalities can begin to be shown between

low, mid and high rise offices at the actual dock.

Docks should be designed to align with the height

of the bed of a delivery truck. However, there are

several different types of truck that vary in height.

Commonly average dock heights are from 48” to

52”, and other variations can be accommodated by

the use of dock levelers.Apron space = truck lengthx2 + 10’

Truck Length - 7’

Landing Strip

4.3 Back of House 65

varies 48”-52”

114” 96”-108”

96”-102”

96”-108”

Outside Turn-

ing Radius

Inside Turning

Radius

180° Turn

33’ Wide Road

150° Turn

35’ Wide Road

120° Turn

27’ Wide Road

90° Turn

27’ Wide Road

60° Turn

24’6” Wide Road30° Turn

16’6” Wide Road

For the mid rise and the high rise office building

the design may get a little more challenging. With

these two options the loading dock may have to be

located within the foot print of the building as there

may not be enough space around the building to

accommodate truck access. When the loading

dock is brought within the building, more has to

be identified in the terms of security. First, the

area has to be blast proofed and second is how

the dock is accessed, through ramps and security.

Depending on extraneous services may depict

how many docking bays there are in general. The

offices alone may need a couple, but an extra ser-

vice such as retail, or restaurant may want there

own docking bay to accept their own deliveries.

Minimum Road Width Requirements for truck

turning purposes

66

ApproachLoading docks are used several times everyday.

How these area are accessed and kept secure is

the main consideration. Low rise office buildings,

generally don’t require strict security checkpoints

on the approach to the building, and in most cases

they are accessed by a solitary access road that

brings the vehicles around to the back of the build-

ing to keep them out of site of the building’s daily

users.

Mid rise and high rise office buildings approach

the concept of the loading dock very differently

where they bring the traffic into and beneath the

building. This accomplishes the same task of

getting the trucks out of the sight of the buildings

daily users, while throwing in other design chal-

lenges. With the dock within the building footprint,

considerations of possible threats have to be taken

into account. At building entrances often times, a

pull off area will be designed into the access road

to allow for safety and security officials to inspect

vehicles going to the loading dock. Other factors

in accessing mid and high rise office loading docks

include the grade of the ramp getting down to the

loading dock. A dock ramp cannot be too steep for

the fear of the runaway truck. It is recommended

that a ramp should be between 10 and 15 % grade.

Approaching a Loading Dock

Low Rise Mid Rise High Rise

Access Road

At grade X /

Ramped access below grade \ X

Land Usage X

Within Building Footprint \ X

Waiting Area X

Security Checkpoint at entrance \ X

Inspection Pullover Area

5% 2’

10% 4’

40’

15% 6’

20% 8’

66 4.3 Back of House

Recommended slope of an access ramp to prevent runaway trucks.


Waste RemovalOther uses for the loading dock are also found in

the waste collection and removal services. An

office typically creates a total of 1 cubic yard of

waste for every 10,000 square feet of usable

space. Therefore, the larger the building, options

arise in using up more space with more dumpsters,

or using the means of compactors which can

reduce the volume in a ratio of 4 or 5 to 1.

Low rise offices will generally contain two dump-

sters on site. Like the loading dock they would

generally be pushed to the back of the building ac-

cessed by the same road that accesses the load-

ing dock. If the lot does not allow for this, masking

the appearance of the dumpsters is another option

by providing an enclosed dumpster cage dressed

with excessive landscaping. Providing two 10 yard

dumpsters, at 12’x8’x4’, unless otherwise speci-

fied, is the most logical explanation for this type,

where one dumpster would be used for waste and

the other for recycling.

In mid and high rise, once again, the dumpsters

are brought into the building generally at the same

level as the loading dock. Space may begin to get

a little bit more tricky as the building gets larger.

In the mid rise an additional dumpster for more

waste could be acceptable, but it may also be time

to start looking at compactors, especially for the

high rise, This minimizes the amount of space

that the waste takes up and as well minimizes the

amount of floor space that the dumpsters occupy.

Similar to the amount of docking bays required,

extra dumpsters may be required if extra program

is included in the building design.

Relative ProgrammingAround the loading dock other integral office sup-

port programming resides. For the dock itself, a

dock master needs an office where the schedules

can be organized to attempt to avoid an over-

crowded dock. Also, as the dock is where the

daily mail generally passes through, a central mail

room is required in this area. Here we may see

a difference from low rise offices to mid and high

rise offices where security doesn’t matter so much.

In low rise, all that may exist is the receiving and

shipping room and the sorting room, along with

a tenant pick up space. In the mid and high rise

typologies, this space may also include a screen-

ing room for potential life threatening packages,

explosive and chemical based. This is added se-

curity program that otherwise may not be deemed

necessary. As well, the mail room, and the bay

itself need storage capacity to hold shipments that

are being processed for acceptance or for delivery,

the mail room especially

Along with these issues, there is also a building

maintenance crew that needs space to complete

their work, that doesn’t interfere with the general

function of the offices.

4.3 Back of House 67

68

OverviewAll office environments require the functions of

rest rooms within the design of the building. Low,

mid and high rise office buildings all require ad-

equate rest room functions. This means that the

design has to comply with state and local codes

and the American’s with Disabilities Act (ADA)

requirements, as well as expressing interest in

aesthetic quality and functionality. Knowing these

requirements and having a basic knowledge of

installation requirements can prevent redesign-

ing a layout or having casework that cannot be

installed properly due to a disregard for fixture

layout. Redesigns can become costly and unless

the architect pays particular attention to wall types

and chase dimensions to accommodate piping

and supports the architect will need to readjust

the spaces to meet certain code requirements in

space allocation.

In general, the rest rooms shall be located towards

the center of the building, within the boundaries

of what is the core. This is the nearest point of ac-

cess for all tenants single or multi. In the case of

multi tenancy the rest rooms become a public facil-

ity, unless a tenant to occupy the space requests

a private facility of, which is between the architect,

developer and tenants discretion.

4.4 Restrooms

68 4.4 Restrooms


Rest Room FixturesRest room design for an office environment

requires several different acknowledgments by the

architect. One needs to know the basic principles

behind the plumbing and bracket supports for the

various fixtures involved in a rest room layout.

There are many different types of fixtures from wall

mounted toilets and urinals to the floor mounted

version of the same. As well, sinks come in vari-

ous shapes, sizes and materials from wall mounted

to counter-tops; porcelain to stainless steel. The

major factors that the architect has to worry about

are aesthetics, functionality, and the product instal-

lation process.

Aesthetically there are a number of choices that

the architect can choose. Products are so varied

that architects have innumerous possibilities, when

it comes to colors, finishes, and shapes, even as

far as themes for fixtures, faucets and trim.

Functionality of the fixtures goes to how the facili-

ties are used, and how the fixtures can be selected

to accommodate the users more efficiently, includ-

ing handicapped access.

Installation and fixture types are the most impor-

tant aspect of the plumbing design. In multi-story

office buildings, wall hung fixtures are more logical

as they provide better sanitation. This also means

that space has to be accounted for within the

chase wall for a bracket system that will support

the fixtures. As there are many products available,

the chase dimension cannot be assumed. This

dimension will have to be determined after prod-

ucts have been selected, based on the manufactur-

ers recommendation. To the right are the minimum

requirements for chase wall depths.

12” min*

12” min

6” min

6” min

14” min*

16” min*

* Note: Add 2” for 5”-6” waste stacks

4.4 Restrooms 69

70

Rest Room LayoutA lot has to be considered when designing and

laying out a rest room within an office environment.

After the design of the building is determined, then

the core layouts can be deciphered. Rest rooms

generally are considered part of the core as this is

the central location easily accessible by all. The

size of the rest room is to be determined by the

overall square footage of the building, and the

occupancy rating of the building. For an office the

occupancy rating is 1 person for every 100 square

feet. Of the result number this is divided in half

for men and women. For every 25 males and 20

females a separate water closet is required. The

men’s rest room, has the exception with that 33

% of the water closets are required to be urinals.

Lavatories, are also required at 1 for every 50

people, male and female.

These are considered minimum requirements,

so having more is not necessarily bad. Cost and

space ultimately limit this number to the minimum,

but this should not be held as a design restraint.

Other functions incorporated with the rest room

core include a water fountain, and a janitor’s closet

with mop sink.

As well, as the dimensions discussed in the previ-

ous section, other dimensions have to be consid-

ered for comfort purposes as well as handicapped

accessibility. A double entry door is recommended

for privacy with minimum dimensions as noted in

the drawing on the left, along with the minimum

dimensions of a single stall, that allow for comfort

entering and using the facilities. Along with this

can be addressed the handicapped accessibility

requirements.

Minimum Toilet Facilities Water Closets Lavatories

Female Male Urinals each sex

1/20 1/25 33% 1/50

Example

30000 sq. ft. floor plate

1 person/100 sq. ft. = 300 people

150 Male @ 1/25 = 4 toilets and 2 urinals

150 Female @ 1/20 = 8 toilets

Lavatories = 3 each

7’ min

5’

18” min

5’ min5’

2’-8”

5’

16” min 14” min

70 4.4 Restrooms


ADA ComplianceIn accordance with the American’s with Disabilities

Act, an office environment requires that at least

one stall, male and female, be handicapped acces-

sible. At least one lavatory will need to meet these

requirements, too. The code is regulated so that a

person in a wheel chair can be granted the same

amenities as everyone else.

Handicapped citizens deserve the same rights as

everyone else. To not include them would be dis-

criminatory, and illegal, for that matter. The images

to the right give a brief overview of what is required

for ADA design in a typical office setting.

4” max

max 6”

6” max

17”-19”

17”-19”

24” max

48” min

17” min

min 8”

min 8”

6” max

6” max

40” min

33”-36”

9” min

9” min

27” min

27” min29” min

36” max

30” min

34” max

40” max

33”-36”

36” max toilet paper

12” max

42” min56” min

36” min

12” max

17”-19” 19” min

32” min

18”

4.4 Restrooms 71

72

4.5 Ground Level Leasable

Urban Mid-rise and Urban High rise have the

ability to have leasable space on the ground floor

level. This is not an easy thing to plan for due to

the large number of groups that can occupy these

spaces and the different requirements that they

each require. The common uses that can occupy

these spaces can range from: Retail, Light food,

Restaurant, and Health Club. Each will require

a unique set of design and code requirements

that will need to be addressed. Spaces that

require exhaust systems and HVAC systems can

be problematic because of the need for venting.

One solution is to place these spaces close to the

core. This will allow you to combine the mechani-

cal spaces for the building and run the shafts up

through the whole building. Issues may arise be-

cause of the need for separate ventilation systems

and therefore more space occupied on the above

floors. The second solution is to vent through the

side of the building. This will require the use of

separate fans and may take up leasable space

at ground level if they can not be mounted on the

ceiling. Another issue of this method is where it is

venting, as it may affect the surrounding buildings

or spaces. Each of these consideration require

careful planning and you may need to consult with

a consultant about specific issues.

4.5 Leasable

kitc

hen

kitc

hen

Exh

aust

Acc

ess

to L

oadi

ng

Doc

k

Dire

ct D

aylig

ht

Ven

tilat

ion/

Coo

ling

Hig

h F

ire P

roec

tion

Noi

se b

arrie

r

Str

eet V

isib

ility

Restaurant x x x x x x x

Light Food x x x x x

Retail x x x x

Health Club x x x x x


There are usually multiple spaces that can be

gained in an Urban Mid-Rise building. The high-

lighted section show two spaces; the left space

is approximately 9,000 sq ft and the space on the

right is approximately 11,000 sq ft.

Urban High rise also have the possibility of Leas-

able space on the ground floor. The highlight

space is approximately 10,600 sq ft.

4.5 Leasable 73

74

Restaurant and Retail setup

The restaurant will require access to the loading

dock for shipments and waste removal. The kitch-

en should be located near the core of the building

so that any kitchen exhausts can go up through the

core without needing to be re-routed or interrupt

any office layouts above. The same equations for

sizes for cafeteria still relates to these spaces.

kitchen

Retail Space

Storage

Cleaning Area

Employee Lockers / Rest rooms

Public Rest rooms

Office

Dining Area

Access to Loading area and Dumpsters

4.5 Leasable

5. Exterior Wall System

Chapter Contents

5.1 Exterior Wall SystemsCurtain Wall SystemStud Backed Wall SystemPrecast Concrete Wall System

5.2 Curtain Wall System Design

5.3 Stud Backed Wall System

5.4 Precast Concrete Panel System

5.5 Window SystemsWindow Wall System Curtain Wall SystemStorefront System

5.6 Window AppearanceRibbon WindowStorefront Window

5.7 Double Skin Facade

Overview

There are many available systems to choose from for a building’s exterior walls. In this

chapter, we will be looking at typical exterior wall systems that are used in office building.

Each has implications in areas such as cost, time of erection, field work, efficiency, quality of

work, or the complexity of assembly. This chapter will survey the different types of exterior

wall systems and provide information on which is the most efficient system to use for low, mid,

and high-rise office buildings. It will also provide a fundamental understanding of the process

of exterior wall construction as a basis for design decisions. Below is a organizational chart

outlining the chapter and the relationships between these various wall systems.

Stick-BuiltCurtain Wall

UnitizedCurtain Wall

Stud-BackedWall System

PrecastConcrete Panel

Exterior Wall Systems

Curtain WallSystem

Window WallSystem

StorefrontSystem

Window Systems

RibbonWindow

PunchedWindow

StorefrontWindow

Window Appearance

78

Curtain Wall SystemA curtain wall is defined as thin, usually aluminum-

framed wall, containing in-fills of glass, metal

panels, or thin stone. The framing is attached to

the building structure and does not carry the floor

or roof loads of the building. The wind and gravity

loads of the curtain wall are transferred to the

building structure, typically at the floor line.

Stick-Built Stud-Backed Wall System with Punched or Ribbon Windows(may also be cmu wall)

A stick built stud backed wall system can have

many exterior cladding. It is erected on site by mul-

tiple specialized teams. Studs are framed between

building structure. It requires minimal hoisting time.

Minor imperfection can be made, and transporta-

tion costs are minimized. Stick built construction is

the most affected by weather conditions at the site

and requires scaffolding to apply the finish.

Precast Concrete Panel Wall SystemA precast concrete panels are durable and

structurally adequate to resist lateral forces while

spanning between floors to between columns.

It resistance to tornado/hurricane damage; fire,

termite, and dry-rot.

5.1 Exterior Wall System

Curtain Wall System

Rigid Insulation

Light Gauge Metal

Window Wall System

Metal Stud Backed System

(may also be cmu wall)

Exterior sheathing

Air/Moisture barrierMembrane

Rigid insulation

2” Min. Air Space

Exterior Finish

Window Wall System

Precast Concrete Wall

Spray Insulation

Light Gauge Metal

78 5.1 Exterior Wall Systems


Stick Curtain Wall

Cost effective for smaller size or

low and mid-rise building.

Long time to assemble on-site.

Single specialized team for in-

stallation. they are erected piece

by piece on-site.

Single system controls thermal

expansion and contraction; seis-

mic motion; building sway and

movement; water diversion; and

thermal efficiency.

Presents some quality control is-

sues. because components are

erected piece by piece.

1. Anchors

2. Mullion

3. Horizontal rail

4. Spandrel Panel

5. Horizontal Rail

6. Vision Glass

7. Interior Mullion Trim

8. Insulation as required

9. Light Gauge Metal Interior

Finish

Unitized Curtain Wall

More cost effective for larger

size or high-rise building.

Short time to assemble on-site.

Single specialized team for in-

stallation. Each unit is connected

to form the façade.

Single system controls thermal

expansion and contraction; seis-

mic motion; building sway and

movement; water diversion; and

thermal efficiency.

Quality control can be strictly

monitored in the factory.

1. Anchor

2. Pre-Assembled

Frame Unit

3. Insulation as required


Finish

Stud-Backed Wall

Costs are lowest for low-rise

building.

Long time to assemble on-site.

Multiple specialized team for

installation. One team needs to

finish until the next team installs.

Multiple system controls the

efficiency of the building. Effi-

ciency depends on the quality of

the material chosen and details

done by the architect.

Corrode when exposed to

continuous moisture, deflect

more than masonry, and act as a

thermal bridges conducting heat

to or from the exterior.

1. Metal Stud

2. Exterior Sheathing

3. Rigid Insulation

4. Adhered Membrane

5. Air Space

6. Flashing

7. Exterior Wall

8. Window

9. Interior Finish

Precast Concrete Panel

Costs depends on number of

picks for low and mid-rise building

Short time to assemble on-site.

Two specialized team for instal-

lation. Only the precaster and

insulator.

Requires less insulation for

energy.

Quality control are strictly moni-

tored by fabricators specializing

in this type of construction.

1. Anchor

2. Precast Concrete

3. Sprayed Insulation


Finish

Cost

Time of

Erection

Field Work

Efficiency

Quality Control

Assembly

5.1 Exterior Wall Systems 79

80

Spandrel Glass

Cost: Lowest

Aesthetic: Strong

Horizontal Band

Efficiency: Good Thermal

Insulation

Shadow box

Cost: Medium

Aesthetic: Less Strong

Horizontal Band

Efficiency: Bad Moisture

Control

Vision Glass

Cost: Most

Aesthetic: Flexible

Efficiency: Require

Lower U-Value glass for

better insulation

5.2 Curtain Wall System Design

80 5.2 Curtain Wall System Design


What can go wrongCurtain wall systems range from manufacturer’s

standard catalog systems to specialized custom

walls. Custom walls become cost competitive with

standard systems as the wall area increases. This

single system controls thermal expansion and

contraction; seismic motion; building sway and

movement; water diversion; and thermal efficiency.

Subject to failures are extremely rare as it is de-

signed in a very controlled environment.

A curtain wall is defined as thin, usually aluminum-

framed wall, containing in-fills of glass, metal

panels, or thin stone. The framing is attached

to the building structure and does not carry the

floor or roof loads of the building. The wind and

gravity loads of the curtain wall are transferred to

the building structure, typically at the floor line.

Aluminum framed wall systems date back to the

1930’s, and developed rapidly after World War II

when the supply of aluminum became available for

non-military use.

Vision Glass with Steel Construction

On a steel construction, even with a cantilever,

there still needs to be a girder at the end. So the

distance between the curtain wall to the soffit are

very close so the soffit can be viewed from the

exterior.

Vision Glass with Concrete Construction

On a concrete construction, the distance between

the curtain wall to the soffit can span a great

distance which gives a thin slab aesthetic from the

exterior.

5.2 Curtain Wall System Design 81

82

5.3 Stud-Backed Wall System (May also be CMU)

This type of backup wall represents a large

percentage of modern wall construction for

several types of cladding. The reason is that steel

studs are lightweight, fast to erect, economical,

noncombustible, and are not susceptible to rot

or infestation. They do, however, have their

shortcomings. They corrode when exposed to

continuous moisture, they deflect more than

masonry, and they act as thermal bridges

conducting heat to or from the exterior.

Window Wall System

Metal Stud Backed System

(May also be CMU Wall)

Exterior Sheathing

Air/Moisture barrierMembrane

Rigid Insulation

2” Min. Air Space

Exterior Finish (Shown on Right)

Note:It is important that no insulation is inside the stud

cavity and have the insulation outside the stud cav-

ity regardless of the climate condition.

82 5.3 Stud-Backed Wall System


Wood SidingIt requires periodic maintenance. Wood stain lasts

longer than paint. Using wood that has a natural

resistance to the effects of heat, wind, and rain is

advisable to the applications. Redwood, cedar, and

cypress are recommended is the budget permits.

MasonryEfflorescence and cracking are the major problem

for masonry. Efflorescence is caused by moisture

migrating through the mortar, dissolving salt with it,

and leaching to the surface.

StuccoIt is hardy and durable finish if executed properly. It

has a tendency to develop cracks if the supporting

studs are not stiff enough, have wider spacing than

usual, or lack frequent control joints.

EIFSDelamination and moisture accumulation behind

the insulation board is the bane of their system.

Gypsum sheathing is not suitable. A masonry wall,

cement board, or fiberglass faced GWB sheathing

fastened to metal studs should be used instead.

Tile VeneerTile is impervious to water, so it provides one of

the better defenses against water penetration from

the exterior. However, it is susceptible to attach

by water vapor migrating from the interior of the

building. This vapor can accumulate behind the

tile, freeze and cause it to spall.

What can go wrongStuds systems are subject to more flexural move-

ment than masonry or concrete wall systems. They

are more prone to damage caused by water or

moisture penetrating behind the sheathing or inte-

rior finish. This incipient deterioration can continue

for a relatively long time before detection. By that

time, the structural stability of the stud system may

have reached a point where the whole system has

to be replaced at a cost that could reach as much

as three times the original cost of construction. For

this reason, it is imperative that the details be

developed with full understanding of the various

defenses against water penetrations. Head, jamb,

and sill details at window and door opening must

be drawn at a large enough scale to show the ter-

mination and sealing of the edges of the adhered

membrane, damp-proofing or waterproofing mem-

branes, as well as air barriers. Although the work

does not guarantee it will be executed correctly,

frequent site visits to spot check execution and pro-

vide guidance are also very important to prevent

bad execution.

5.3 Stud-Backed Wall System 83

84

5.4 Precast Concrete Panel Wall System

Precast concrete panels are shop-fabricated by

experienced technicians under controlled condi-

tions. The choice of finishes can be predetermined

by sample selection. A full size mock-up can be

constructed and tested for leakage or appear-

ance problems. Each panel is completed in one

pour, thus avoiding the need for concealment of

construction joints, and, in many cases, the panels

are prestressed to minimize hairline cracks, resist

bowing, and reduce deflection.

In addition to these advantages, precast panels

are durable and structurally adequate to resist

lateral forces while spanning between floors to

between columns. Panels may be used as a load-

bearing wall element to combine both appearance

and functions.

precast concrete wallpanel thickness

1” min. windowplacement fromedge of panel

PANELDIMENSIONS 8’ 10’ 12’ 16’ 20’ 24’ 28’ 32’

4’ 3” 4” 4” 5” 5” 6” 6” 7”

6’ 3” 4” 4” 5” 6” 6” 6” 7”

8’ 4” 5” 5” 6” 6” 7” 7” 8”

10’ 5” 5” 6” 6” 7” 7” 8” 8”

Guidelines for panel thickness for overall flat panel stiffness consistent with suggested normal panel bow-

ing and warping tolerances. Note: It should not be used for panel thickness selection.

window wall system

spray insulation

light gauge metal

84 5.4 Precast Concrete Panel Wall System


What can go wrongArchitectural precast concrete is produced under

strict quality control by fabricators specializing in

that type of construction. Examples of failure are

extremely rare. A properly constructed precast

panel with support points designed to accomodate

thermal movements, deflection, and supporting

structure deformation due to lateral loads is one of

the most dependable wall systems. There are,

however, a few design decisions that can affect the

optimal performance of the system.

Avoid Deflection:

- Support the panels directly on the column

Avoid bowing:

- Increase panel thickness

- Stiffening ribs may be added to the back

- Double layer of reinforcing steel may be used

Avoid staining and streaking:

- Use rough textured surface and darker colors

- Cant the panels either upward or outward

- include drips in the soffits to reduce streaking

- Break up large blank surfaces with horizontal

projections

- Create vertical grooves below mullions and fins to

channel the stain

- Use rounded or splayed corners to reduce the

concentration of rain at these locations

Horizontal Spanning Vertical Spanning

Closed Shape Open-ended Shape

Column and Spandrel

beam Cover

Multi-Story

Panel TypesThis is a schematic representation of different ways in which panels may be configured.

5.4 Precast Concrete Panel Wall System 85

86

5.5 Window Systems

Window systems come in three major framing

and glazing types: window wall, curtain wall and

storefront. Each window systems create different

facade expression, it can be combined to form any

type of office building.

Curtain Wall SystemTypically used to glaze large areas of build-

ings and is identified by the fact that it is

suspended outside of the building structure,

spanning past floor levels. Curtain wall gener-

ally is glazed from scaffolding erected on the

outside of the building.

Storefront SystemsStorefront systems are used for larger areas

of glazing than standard windows; they typi-

cally span from the floor to structure in the

ceiling above. Frequently, storefront systems

include entrance doors and vestibules, typi-

cally in the ground floor. Glass in storefront

systems is generally field installed, with con-

tractors working from the floor of the building.

Window Wall System“Window wall” is a term that can be used to

describe various applications of glazing sys-

tems that install between floor slabs and are

set within a wall. This term can be used for

punched windows, ribbon windows, store-

fronts, or other glazed openings that form a

wall of glass in a single story application.

86 5.5 Window Systems


Vision Glass Height ConsiderationAs a general rule of thumb, for moderate to cold

climate, using standard e-glazing window, the

maximum vision glass height is 7’-0” to avoid

energy loss. If the vision glass is greater than

7’-0”, a baseline heating needs to be provided in

the interior to accommodate for the cold transfer

into the building. Shading device, reflective glass,

or higher u-value glass (refer to chapter 7) are

needed as part of the design decision to control

the amount of heat transfer into the building.

Structural Glass Height ConsiderationAlso as a general rule of thumb, for a standard

size window wall system, the maximum window

height span is 9’-0”. Higher window height, such

as 10’-0” may need other means to support the

span such as thicker window mullion or using

high-spanning steel reinforcement which can

increase structural costs.

Mullion Spacing5-ft module is chosen because it allows for a

minimum room dimension of 10-ft as well as

larger offices and conference rooms.

Note: On the right, a schematic illustration of the

different window system is shown to understand

the achievable facade aesthetic but with the

acknowledgement of the factor stated above to

help you better evaluate your design decision.

Window Wall System(stud-backed or

precast concrete panel)

Curtain Wall System(stick-built or

unitized)

Storefront System(stud-backed or

precast concrete panel)

7’-0”

9’-0”

10’-0”

5’-0” 5’-0”

5’-0”

5.5 Window Systems 87

88

Punched Window“Punched” window gets its application term by the

concept that a cookie-cutter type hole is punched

in the exterior wall of the building and filled with

a window. Like storefronts, punched windows

can vary greatly in cost due to their size and

configuration. They require the most field work

because of individual window framing.

Storefront Windows“Storefront” applications can sometimes be the

heaviest and most costly glazed wall system on a

building. It normally span from floor to ceiling, at

a typical 10 ft height. It requires a high-spanning

steel-reinforced glass wall. Storefronts can be

very simple in nature or highly complex due to

their various applications and design presence

statement.

Ribbon Window“Ribbon” window gets its application term

by simulating the look of a ribbon wrapped

horizontally. It can be any height between typical

floor slabs. Ribbon windows are typically most

cost-effective, so long as opening heights are

modest and modules are kept repetitive. These

types of systems can be designed to install in a

variety of ways including shop-glazed (unitized) or

field-glazed (stick-built).

5.6 Window Appearance

5’-0”

30’-0”

60’-0”Window Sizes Can Vary

7’-

0”

5’-

6” 10

’-0

”

13’-

0”

7’-

0”

5’-

6” 10

’-0

”

13’-

0”

10’-

0”

2’-

6” 10

’-0

”

13’-

0”

Stud-Backed or PrecastConcrete Panel

Punched Window(Any Height)

Stud-Backed or precastConcrete panel

Ribbon Window(Any Height)

Stud-Backed or PrecastConcrete Panel

Storefront Window(Floor to Ceiling Height)

88 5.6 Window Types


Facade Expression: Schematic representation of possible design.

Design Variable: Exterior Wall System, Window Types, Window Heightm Column Width, and Detail

Full bay ExpressionP

UN

CH

ED

OP

EN

ING

EX

PR

ES

SIO

NH

OR

IZO

NT

AL

EX

PR

ES

SIO

NV

ER

TIC

AL

EX

PR

ES

SIO

NSplit bay Expression Double Window Expression

5’-0”

30’-0”

60’-0”

5’-0”

30’-0”

60’-0”

5’-0”

30’-0”

60’-0”

5.6 Window Types 89

90

5.7 Double-Skin Façades

Generally speaking, double-skin facades are

appropriate when buildings are subject to great ex-

ternal noise and wind loads. This can apply both to

high-rise and low-rise structures. If buildings are to

be naturally ventilated via the windows for as great

a part of the year as possible, the double-skin con-

struction offers distinct advantages in practice.

Double-skin facades have a special aesthetic of

their own, and this can be exploited architectur-

ally to great advantage. The visual impression of

transparency and depth, often in conjunction with

a frameless form of construction in the outer skin,

opens up new design paths.

Double-skin facades are based on a multilayer

principle. They consist of an external facade, an

intermediate space and an inner facade. The

outer facade layer provides protection against the

weather and improved acoustic insulation against

external noise. It also contains opening that allow

the ventilation of the intermediate space and the

internal rooms. The flow of air through the interme-

diate space is activated by solar-induced thermal

buoyancy and by effects of the wind. To achieve

greater adaptability in reacting to environmental

conditions, it may be possible to close the open-

ings in the outer facade layer.

Up to now, the external skins of this type of facade

have generally been constructed as a layer of sin-

gle glazing in toughened safety glass or laminated

safety glass. An adjustable sunshading device

is usually installed in the intermediate space to

protect the internal rooms from high cooling loads

caused by insolation. As a rule, the inner facade

will consist of a supporting framework with a layer

of double glazing, which provides the necessary

protection against thermal losses in winter. In

almost all cases, the inner facade can be open to

permit natural ventilation.

Types of Construction

Comparison of single-skin and

double-skin facade onstruction.

90 5.7 Double-Skin Façade


box Windows

The box window is probably the oldest form of a

two-layered facade. box windows consist of a

frame with inward-opening casements. The single

glazed external skin contains openings that allow

the ingress of fresh air and the egress of vitiated

air, thus serving to ventilate both the intermediate

space and the internal rooms.

The cavity between the two facade layers is

divided horizontally along the constructional axes,

or on a room-for-room basis. Vertically, the divi-

sions occur either between stories or between indi-

vidual window elements. Continuous divisions help

to avoid the transmission of sounds and smells

from bay to bay and from room to room.

box-type windows are commonly used in situations

where there are high external noise levels and

where special requirements are made in respect of

the sound insulation between adjoining rooms.

This is also the only form of construction that pro-

vides these functions in facades with conventional

rectangular openings. Each box window element

requires its own intake and extract openings, which

have to be considered when designing the outer

facade.

Elevation of box-window facade. The

division between each bay mean that

an opening light is also required for

each bay,

Section through typical box-window

facade with separate ventilation for

each bay.

Plan of box-window facade. The divi-

sions of the facade intermediate space

are set on the construction area.

Inner and outer facade layerSolid wall

Room 2Room 1 Room 3

Solid wall

5.7 Double-Skin Façade 91

92

Shaft-box Facades

The shaft-box facade is a special form of box win-

dow construction. It is based on the “twin-face”

concept developed by the Alco company in

Munster and consists of a system of box windows

with continuous vertical shafts that extend over a

number of stories to create a stack effect. The

facade layout consists of an alternation of box win-

dows and vertical shafts segments. On every story,

the vertical shafts are linked with the adjoining box

windows by means of a bypass opening. The stack

effect draws the air from the box windows into the

vertical shafts and from there up to the top, where

it is emitted. As a means of supporting the thermal

uplift, air can also be sucked out mechanically via

the vertical shafts.

Shaft-box facades require fewer openings in the

external skin, since it is possible to exploit the

stronger thermal uplift within the stack. This also

has a positive effect in terms of insulation against

external noise. Since, in practice, the height of the

stacks is necessarily low-rise and mid-rise build-

ings. An aerodynamic adjustment will be neces-

sary if all the box windows connected to a

particular shaft are to be ventilated to an equal

degree.

Shaft-box facades are suited where particularly

high levels of sound insulation are required. be-

cause of the smaller size of the external openings.

Elevation of a shaft-box facade. The

arrows indicate the route of the

airstream.

Section through a shaft-box facade.

The arrows indicate the route of the air-

stream flowing through the box windows

into the common ventilation shaft.

Plan of a shaft-box facade. There are

side openings in the shaft divisions in

the facade intermediate space.

Ventilation opening to shaft

Inner facade layer

Outer facade layer

Horizontal division

Room 2Room 1 Room 3

shaft shaft


ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 93ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk

View along intermediate space between

facade layers in mock-up facade con-

struction. In every third bay, there is an

extract shaft, which is open at the top.

Diagram of ventilation principle in the 8-story high

shaft facade sections.Services

7th floor

6th floor

5th floor

4th floor

3rd floor

2nd floor

1st floor

Opening toshaft

Air-intake opening

Exhaust airopening

Exhaust airopening

Ventilation stack

Casement

Air-intake opening

Room Depth bay width


94

Corridor Facades

In corridor facades, the intermediate space

between the two skins is closed at the level of each

floor. Divisions are foreseen along the horizontal

length of the corridor only where this is necessary

for acoustic, fire protection or ventilation reasons.

In the context of ventilation, this will usually be nec-

essary at the corners of buildings where great dif-

ferences in air pressure occur, and where openings

in the inner facade layer would result in uncomfort-

able drafts from cross-currents. This problem can

generally be avoided by closing off the corner

spaces at the sides. In the rest of the corridor,

there are likely to be only relatively small differ-

ences of air pressure, and these can be used to

support the natural ventilation.

The air-intake can extract openings in the external

facade layer should be situated near the floor and

the ceiling. They are usually laid out in staggered

form from bay to bay to prevent vitiated air

extracted on one floor entering the space on the

floor immediately above. Where a corridor-facade

construction is used, the individual spatial seg-

ments between the skins will almost always be

adjoined by a number of rooms. Special care

should, therefore, be taken to avoid sound trans-

mission from room to room.

Elevation of corridor facade. Air flows

on the diagonal to prevent vitiated air

from the lower story being sucked in

with the air supply of the floor above

(recontamination).

Section through a corridor facade.

Separate circulation for each story.

Plan of corridor facade. The intermedi-

ate space is not divided at regular inter-

vals along its horizontal length.

Inner facade layer

Outer facade layer

Horizontal division

Room 2Room 1 Room 3



Multistory Facades

In multistory faces, the intermediate space

between the inner and outer layers is adjoined ver-

tically and horizontally by a number of rooms. In

extreme cases, the space may extend around the

entire building without any intermediate divisions.

The ventilation (air-intake and extract) of the inter-

mediate space occurs via large openings near the

ground floor and the roof. During the heating

period, the facade space can be closed at the top

and bottom to exploit the conservatory effect and

optimize solar-energy gains.

Multistory facades are especially suitable where

external noise levels are very high, since this type

of construction does not necessarily require open-

ings distributed over its height. As a rule, the rooms

behind multistory facades have to be mechanically

ventilated, and the facade can be used as a joint

air duct for this purpose. As with corridor facades,

attention should be paid to the problem of sound

transmission within the intermediate space.

Elevation of part of a multistory facade.

The arrangement of the casement

opening lights depends on the ventila-

tion and cleaning concept chosen for

the facade.

Section through a multistory facade.

The external skin is set independently

in front of the inner facade. The inter-

mediate space can be ventilated in all

directions.

Plan of a multistory facade. The inter-

mediate space is undivided and can be

freely ventilated.

Inner facade layer

Outer facade layer

Room 2Room 1 Room 3


6. Lighting

OVERVIEW

Lighting is one of the most important factors affecting the interior spaces of an office and

the psyches of those who work there. The quality of a space’s lighting will affect the way

that space feels and is perceived by its occupants. An effective architect must realize the

influential and evocative power of lighting and understand the numerous factors that affect

a space’s quality of light. In addition to providing a more pleasant working environment, an

effective daylighting strategy can reduce an office’s electricity and heating costs, and thus

should play a key role in any environmentally responsible design.

This chapter will discuss general strategies for using daylighting to achieving a favorable level

of lighting in an office building. It will describe the many factors that affect daylight quality and

methods for controlling it. It will also discuss ways to supplement daylighting with artificial light

to achieve ideal lighting levels for various spaces within an office.

Chapter Contents

6.1 Critical DimensionsDistance to DaylightTypical Layout & Variations

6.2 GlazingProperties of GlazingCommon Types & AttributesSingle, Double & Triple Pane

6.3 Quality of DaylightWindow SizeEffective ApertureDepth of Daylight PenetrationWindow Height

6.5 Shading SystemsApplicationsIntegrated ShadingDepth of ShadingLight ShelvesSeasonal Strategies

6.4 AtriaGeometry & RatiosRoof TypeReflectivity of MaterialsDrawbacks

6.6 Lighting & Office LayoutIdeal Lighting LevelsDirect & Indirect LightingEffect on Furniture Arrangement

98

Distance to DaylightThe floorplate of a typical office building has been

refined throughout history based on several key

factors affecting office use and construction. One

of the most important such factors is the access

of the office’s occupants to natural light. Most

office buildings maintain a critical dimension of

45’ between the inside of the building’s exterior

walls and the central core (Fig. 1). This is typically

considered to be the farthest distance that any

occupant can be from a window while still enjoying

the benefits of the natural light and views that the

window provides. Any spaces beyond this 45’

dimension are typically reserved for functions such

as mechanical rooms, rest rooms, and vertical

circulation. These are areas that people do not

inhabit continuously for extended period of time

and where access to daylight are not a priority.

It is important to note that, while these dimensions

are a good rule of thumb to use in American of-

fice buildings, daylighting requirements are much

more stringent in other countries. In Europe, for

example, every worker is required to have access

to natural light. This requirement effectively limits

typical European floorplates to 25’ deep or less.

45’

45’

Fig. 1

6.1 Critical Dimensions

98 6.1 Critical Dimensions


Typical High Rise Floorplan

Daylit Wall Length: 600’

Maximum Floorplate Depth: 45’

Maximum Distance To Daylight: 45’

In a high rise floorplan of typical dimensions, the

building perimeter will equal approximately 10 to

15 times the depth of the floorplate. Increasing

the perimeter will provide more area for daylight to

enter and thus increase the building’s daylighting

performance.

Articulated High Rise Floorplan



Maximum Distance To Daylight: 45’

Increasing the building perimeter allows for a

deeper floor plate and a greater overall floor area

while keeping the daylighting level and maximum

distance to daylight constant.

Atrium High Rise Floorplan



Maximum Distance To Daylight: 22’-6”

An atrium scheme can effectively cut an occu-

pant’s maximum distance to daylight in half, allow-

ing for better working conditions and a more even

quality of natural light throughout the building. See

chapter 6.5 for more information.

45’ 45’85’

Fig. 2

Fig. 4

Fig. 3

6.1 Critical Dimensions 99

100

The type of glazing used in a building’s windows

will have a profound effect on the quality of light in

its interior. There are several important factors to

consider when selecting a glazing system:

Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC)

Measures the amount of solar energy that is

transmitted through the glass. Windows with a low

SHGC will transmit less heat to the interior, leading

to greater occupant comfort and reduced cooling

costs. See Chapter 3.x for more information.

Visible Transmittance (VT)

Measures the percentage of visible light that is

able to pass through a window. An increase in

VT generally means an increase in SHGC as well

(Fig. 5).

Luminous Efficacy Constant ( ke)

Measures a window’s ability to simultaneously

transmit daylight and prevent heat gain. It is

expressed as the ratio of (VT) to (SHGC). The

higher the ke Value, the greater the daylighting

performance of a glazing system.

U-Value & R-ValueU-Value & R-Value are inverse measurements.

While U-Value measures a material’s ability to

conduct heat, R-Value measures its ability to resist

heat flow. Windows with a low U-Value (and thus

a high R-Value) will provide greater insulation and

moisture control, especially in cooler climates.

6.2 GlazingDaylight Transmission vs. Heat Gain

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Daylight Tranmission (%)

Hea

tGai

nC

oeffi

cien

t

Daylight Transmission (%)

So

lar

He

at G

ain

Co

effic

ient

Fig. 5 - Daylight Transmission vs. Solar Heat Gain

ke = VT

1.5 (SHGC)

100 6.2 Galzing


Standard Single-Pane Glass 0.25 0.81 0.89 1.09 0.92 0.73

Single-Pane Glass w/ Heat-Rejecting Laminate 0.25 0.46 0.73 1.06 0.94 1.06

Double-Pane Insulated Glass 1 0.70 0.79 0.48 2.08 0.75

Tripple-Pane Insulated Glass 2 0.67 0.74 0.36 2.78 0.74

Low-e Double-Pane Glass 1 0.71 0.75 0.33 3.03 0.70

High Efficiency Low-e Glass 0.25 0.37 0.7 0.29 3.45 1.26

Suspended Coated Firm Glass 0.25 0.35 0.55 0.25 4.00 1.05

Double Suspended Coated Film Glass 1 0.34 0.53 0.10 10.00 1.04

U-Value Luminous Efficacy Constant (K )

R-ValueThickness(inches)

Light Transmittance (VT) (%)

Glazing Type Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) e

Single, Double & Triple Pane GlassDouble-pane glass is the standard for most office

applications but triple-pane may be used where

energy efficiency is a high priority. Single-Pane

glass is almost never used in offices due to its poor

thermal performance and relatively low strength.

There are many kinds of low-e coatings and films

that may be applied to the glass to further increase

its performance. In colder climates, where

the main goal is to retain heat, these coatings

are usually applied to the outer surface of the

innermost pane. In warmer climates, where the

goal is to prevent solar gain, these coatings are

applied to the inner surface of the outermost pane.

Another option for increasing thermal performance

is to fill the gaps between panes with an inert gas,

typically Argon. These gasses have a higher R-

Value than air, and thus provide better insulation.Fig. 6 - Single, Double, and Triple-Pane Glass

Fig. 7 - Properties of Common Glazing Types

6.2 Glazing 101

102

WWR = Glazing Area Total Facade Area

Window SizeIn general, the larger the windows a space has,

the more daylight that space will receive. A

facade’s Window Wall Ratio (WWR) is the most

effective way to measure window size as it relates

to daylighting potential. WWR is defined as a

facade’s net glazing area to its total area.

Effective ApertureAs discussed in Chapter 6.2, the Visible

Transmittance (VT) of a window’s glazing has

a great impact on the amount of light allowed to

enter a space. For this reason, WWR alone is not

an effective measure of daylighting performance.

A more accurate measurement is the glazing

system’s Effective Aperture (EA). Effective

Aperture is determined by multiplying a facade’s

Window Wall Ratio by the Visible Transmittance of

its glazing. A higher Effective Aperture will mean

more daylighting potential, however, it will also

mean more solar gain and glare. See Chapter 5.x

for more information on facade composition.

6.3 Quality of Daylighting

÷

Glazing Area: 200 sf Total Area: 810 sf÷

=

= .25

WWR

Single Pane

Double Pane

Triple Pane

Glazing Type VT EA

÷


=

= .30

WWR

Single Pane

Double Pane

Triple Pane

Glazing Type VT EA

÷


=

= .67

WWR

.89

.79

.74

.27

.24

.22

.89

.79

.74

.22

.20

.18

Single Pane

Double Pane

Triple Pane

Glazing Type VT EA

.89

.79

.74

.60

.53

.50 EA = WWA x VT

d = h x 2.5

Fig. 8 - Punched Windows

Fig. 9 - Ribbon Windows

Fig. 10 - Curtain Wall

102 6.3 Quality of Daylighting


Depth of Daylight PenetrationThe distance that daylight will penetrate into a

space depends on several factors. The geometry

of the space - its width and the angle of its walls

- will effect how far light is able penetrate. The

reflectivity of a space’s materials is another

important factor; spaces containing many highly

reflective surfaces will allow light to penetrate

much deeper that an identical space with matte

finishes. However, the most important and

easily quantified factor effecting the depth of

daylight penetration is the positioning of a space’s

windows.

Window HeightThe dimension from the finished floor to the top of

the window (h) is the single most important factor

in determining the distance that daylight from that

window will penetrate into the building (d). A good

rule of thumb to use when trying to determine the

depth of daylight penetration is that d = 2.5h. (Fig.

11-14). Windows placed higher on the wall will

allow light entering the building to reflect off of the

ceiling and thus penetrate further into the room.

Raising the ceiling height in a room is one way

to take advantage of this principle (Fig. 14). See

Chapter 1.x for more information.

The size of a window will affect the intensity of the

light emitted into a room, but will not alter the depth

of light penetration (Fig. 12 - 13).

22’-6”

9’

45’

22’-6”

45’

23’-9”

9’-6”

45’

16’-3”

4’

45’

6’-6”’

4’

9’9’

9’-6”

Fig. 11

Fig. 14

Fig. 13

Fig. 12

6.3 Quality of Daylighting 103

104

6.4 Shading Systems ApplicationsWhile effective natural lighting is important for the

success of an office building and for the health and

well-being of its occupants, it is also important for

that daylight be carefully controlled and regulated.

Direct daylight leads to solar heat gain which can

increase the demands on a building’s mechanical

systems (See Chapter 3.x for more information).

It also results in sharp contrast between areas

of light and shadow and an uneven lighting of

the building’s interior spaces. One of the best

ways to prevent these problems is through the

implementation of an exterior shading system.

Shading will provide a much more diffuse and even

quality of light (Fig 15).

The ideal strategy for shading a building will vary

greatly depending on the climate that it is located

in, its latitude, and its elevation. For this reason,

3D modeling, solar path analysis, and shading

studies are indispensable tools in the design of an

effective shading system.

Horizontal louvers are the most effective way to

deal with direct light. In the Northern Hemisphere,

where the strongest afternoon sun is in the

southern sky, these louvers are usually installed

on the southern and sometimes the northern

facade of a building. For a finer level of daylighting

control, vertical louvers, or fins, may be installed

on the east and west facades of a building to

regulate indirect light.

Fig. 15 - Exterior Shading

Fig. 16 - Integrated Shading

104 6.4 Shading Systems


÷ 4

÷ 6÷ 6÷ 6÷ 6

Integrated ShadingAs an alternative or a supplement to exterior

shading, a wide variety of glazing options are

available to control direct light. Glazing that

incorporates reflective films or metallic particles

can be very effective at preventing solar gain.

Translucent glass can also be used to block direct

sunlight where exterior views are not a priority

(Fig. 16).

Depth of ShadingWhen assessing the effectiveness of a particular

shading system, it is important to remember that

the depth of individual shading elements is not as

significant as the combined depth of all elements in

the system. For example, ten feet of total shading

will provide the same amount of protection from

solar gain and glare whether its is arranged as one

ten-foot deep louver, five two-foot deep louvers,

or twenty six-inch deep louvers, as long as those

elements are evenly spaced on the building’s

facade (Fig. 17-18).

Fig. 17 - Depth of Horizontal Louvers

Fig. 18 - Equivalent Options for Distribution of

Shading Elements

6.4 Shading Systems 105

106

Light ShelvesOne specific type of exterior shading that is

particularly effective is the light shelf. A light shelf

is a horizontal louver that is located at near the

top of a wall of fenestration. In most applications,

light shelves are used both on the exterior and

on the interior of the building. The light shelf

blocks direct light from entering the window, thus

reducing solar gain and glare. At the same time,

it reflects light up onto the space’s ceiling, lighting

it and producing a more even quality of light that

penetrates deeper into the room (Fig. 18).

One particular advantage to light shelves is that,

even if the shades are drawn on the lower portion

of the window, light will still enter the space

through the upper portion. This allows occupants

to close the shade to further decrease glare and

solar gain while still receiving the benefits of

natural light (Fig. 19).

Fig. 18 - Light Shelf

Fig. 19 - Light Shelf with Shades Closed

106 6.4 Shading Systems


Seasonal ShadingWhile preventing solar gain is an important

requirement of shading during the spring and

summer months, solar gain can often be beneficial

during the colder months of the year. Allowing

solar gain in winter can reduce the amount

of mechanical heating required to achieve a

comfortable working environment, thus reducing

a building’s total energy costs. For this reason,

some of the most effective shading systems are

those that take advantage of the difference in solar

angle between winter and summer. In addition to

the solar heat gain benefits, these strategies will

allow sunlight to penetrate deeper into the building

during the dimmer winter months.

One way to take advantage of this principle is to

size and position a building’s louvers so that they

block direct sunlight in the summer, when sun’s

azimuth is greater, and allow sunlight to enter

in the winter, when the angle is lower (Fig. 18).

Another effective strategy is to use strategically

placed trees as a form of natural shading. In the

summer, the trees will block sunlight and provide

the building with shade. In the winter, when their

branches are bare, they will allow sunlight to pass

through and enter the building. (Fig. 19)

Fig. 18 - Seasonal Shading, Summer

(above) and Winter

Fig. 19 - Natural Shading, Summer

(above) and Winter

6.4 Shading Systems 107

108

In buildings with deeper floorplates or where a high

quality of natural light is a design priority, an atrium

is an excellent way of increasing the amount of

daylight that enters a building. The implementation

of an atrium effectively cuts an occupants

maximum distance to daylight in half and allows

for a higher and more even level of daylighting

throughout the space.

The best way to quantify the daylighting

performance of an atrium is by measuring

its Daylight Factor (DF). The Daylight Factor

describes the ratio of outside illuminance over

inside illuminance, usually expressed as a

percentage. The higher the DF, the more natural

light is available in the atrium. The Daylight Factor

is affected by the geometry of the atrium, as well

as its roof form and the reflectivity of its materials.

Plan Aspect Ratio (PAR)The most efficient shape for the plan of an atrium

is a circle. In atria with non-circular plans, the

PAR can be used to measure the effectiveness

of the space’s geometry. The PAR is equal to the

atrium’s width divided by its length. An atrium

with a PAR closer to 1 (square) will have better

dayighting performance than one with a PAR

closer to 0 (linear).

Section Aspect Ratio (SAR)The SAR measures the ratio of an atrium’s height

to its width. A low SAR indicates a shallow atrium

and a relatively high Daylight Factor.

6.5 Atria

PAR = w l

SAR = h w

WI = h x (l + w) 2 x l x w

Fig. 20 - Atrium Types

h

w

lAttached

Semi-Enclosed

Enclosed

Linear

Fig. 21 - Atrium Measurements

108 6.5 Atria


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

FlatMonitorSawtooth

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Depth of Atrium (Number of Floors)

Co

ntr

ibu

tion

to D

aylig

ht F

act

or

(%)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

FlatMonitorSawtooth

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Well Index (WI)The WI combines the PAR and SAR into one

comprehensive measurement that compares the

vertical surface area of the atrium’s walls to the

horizontal surface area of its plan. An atrium with

a low WI will be shallower and have a greater

Daylight Factor than one with a higher WI. As

WI increases, Daylighting Factor decreases

exponentially (Fig. 22)

Roof Form There roof of an atrium can take many shapes

depending on the atrium’s geometry, structure,

and design intent. An atrium with an open roof will

allow for the maximum Daylight Factor, however,

this is not always practical. Three common roof

forms are shown in Figures 24-26 and Figure 23

shows the effect that each of these forms have on

an atrium’s Daylight Factor.

In a shallow atrium, a flat roof will provide the

greatest DF, however it also allows for the

most Solar Heat Gain. A sawtooth roof will

decrease solar gain and is also more effective

at providing light to lower floors. In any atrium,

the performance of the roof structure will depend

largely on the building’s location and orientation

with respect to the sun. For example, light

monitors are very effective at admitting light

entering at a low angle which make them very

useful at high latitudes or in winter months.

Because of this, lighting studies should be

conducted before finalizing any atrium design.

Fig. 24 - Flat Roof

Fig. 26 - Sawtooth

Fig. 25 - Light Monitor

Fig. 23 - Effect of Roof Form on DF

Well Index

Day

ligh

t Fa

cto

r

Fig. 22 - Well Index vs. Daylight Factor

6.5 Atria 109

110

Fig. 27 - Daylighting in Typical building and Atrium building

ReflectivityThe reflectivity of an atrium’s materials will also

affect its Daylight Factor. Surfaces with a higher

reflectivity will allow light to penetrate farther into

an atrium and increase daylighting performance.

because an atrium’s effectiveness is dependant

on so many varied factors, it is possible to

compensate for shortcomings in one area by

increasing performance in another. For example,

if building or site geometry prohibits the atrium

from having a low Well Index, a desirable Daylight

Factor could still be achieved by using more

reflective materials on its interior surfaces.

Drawbacks To Atrium BuildingsIn spite of the daylighting benefits that atria

provide, there are several drawbacks which should

be carefully considered before an atrium scheme

is implemented. First of all, the empty space taken

up by the atrium on each floor will reduce the

building’s Net to Gross Ratio and its Floor Area

Ratio with respect to its site. See Chapter 0.X for

more information.

In addition, any atrium that is three or more stories

tall must conform to strict smoke and fire control

regulations. See International building Code (IbC)

Section 909 for specific requirements.

110 6.5 Atria


6.6 Lighting & Office Layout

An effective daylighting strategy supplemented

by intelligent use of artificial lighting is one of the

most crucial factors contributing to the success

of an office space. The standard unit of measure

for light in a space is the foot-candle (FC), which

measures the amount of light that falls on a given

surface. Foot-candles can be measured with

a photometer or any camera with a built-in light

meter.

The optimal level of illumination varies greatly

depending upon the type of space in question and

the specific tasks being performed there. A private

office usually requires between 50 and 70 foot-

candles of illumination (Fig. 28). This can usually

be achieved with a combination of natural light and

one or two artificial light sources.

A conference room must be much more adaptable

due to the wide variety of uses they have, including

meetings and presentations (Fig. 29). Thus it will

usually have several independently controllable

light fixtures and either blinds or shades for

daylight control.

Open workspaces require a higher level of

illumination (Fig. 30). A high level of daylighting is

very important in these spaces. Artificial lighting is

usually provided by indirect fixture mounted on the

ceiling, however individual fixtures can be provided

at each workstation to provide more flexibility and

reduce energy costs.

Fig. 28

Private Office:

50 - 70 Foot-Candles

Fig. 29

Conference Room:

30 - 50 Foot-Candles

Fig. 30

Open Workspace:

60-80 Foot-Candles

6.6 Lighting & Office Layout 111

112

saerA noitpeceRlarutcetihcrA sseLtneiciffE ygrenE tsoMWide Range of Manufacturers Hard to Avoid Glare on Computer Monitors Private OfficesLower Initial & Maintenance Cost Requires more Wiring and Mounting Utility SpacesCan be Integrated into HVAC System

secapskroW nepO tneiciffE ygrenE sseLlortnoC eralG rof tseBsecapS noitalucriCtsoC laitinI rehgiH larutcetihcrA & evitavonnI eroM

Conference Rooms

snoitacilppA detsegguSsnoC

Direct Lighting

Indirect Lighting

Pros

Fig. 34 - Direct Lighting vs. Indirect Lighting

Fig. 31 Fig. 32

Fig. 33 - Energy Consumption in a Typical Office

Direct Lighting, or “downlighting”, is the most

energy efficient method of lighting a space.

Light from the fixture is allowed to directly enter

the space, allowing for the maximum amount of

illumination. However, this method of lighting

provides a higher level of contrast which can lead

to uneven lighting and glare.

Indirect Lighting, or “uplighting”, uses a diffused

light to illuminate a space. This is achieved by

bouncing light off of a reflective surface and

usually off of the space’s ceiling. Lighting the

ceiling provides a softer, more even light and

greatly reduces glare. The relative pros and

cons of direct and indirect lighting are outlined in

Figure 34.

Direct Lighting vs. Indirect Lighting

112 6.6 Lighting & Office Layout


Furniture ArrangementThe location and orientation of office furniture

with respect to sources of daylight will have a

great impact on the comfort and productivity of a

building’s occupants. Studies have shown that

access to natural light and exterior views have

a beneficial effect on the health and psyche of

workers. A scheme such as the one shown in

Figure 35 will provide occupants with the greatest

amount of natural light and direct views to the

exterior; however, it also exposes the them to

direct glare which leads to eye strain and visual

discomfort.

Another option is to orient workstations as

shown in Figure 36. This configuration reduces

the occupants’ visual contact with the outside;

however, it also greatly reduces the amount of

direct glare that they have to deal with. In spite of

this they are still subject to indirect glare reflecting

off of their computer monitors and workstation

walls. In both schemes, the window’s shades must

be closed in order to avoid glare, thus negating any

natural light or views to the outside. See Chapter

7.x for more information on Layouts.

In a schemes such as these, the implementation

of an exterior shading system, such as those

discussed in Chapter 6.4, are ideal because they

will reduce glare while still giving occupants the

benefits of natural light and views.

Glare

Direct View to Outside

Oblique View to Outside

Fig. 35

Fig. 36

Glare

6.6 Lighting & Office Layout 113

7. Floorplan

Overview

The geometry and constraints of the human body are the generator of the office environment

at its finest grain, and all other component parts of the workspace must respond to that

geometry. These elements are arranged in space to facilitate one of a variety of modes of

work, and to facilitate or segregate the interactions of the individual workers according to this

collaborative philosophy.

This chapter is a study, first, of the spatial generator of the human form. The chapter will then

outline the planning modules and physical components of the workplace in relation to that

form. Finally, the chapter will study the patterns in which these physical and human

components can be combined within a space to suit a given mode of work. The intent of this

chapter is to give the designer the means with which to generate office landscapes tailored to

the particular needs of the individual and the broader corporate entity, either by assembly of

pre-manufactured modular components, or through design of custom elements.

Chapter Contents

7.1 Human Scale + ConstraintStandingSeatedPlan

7.2 Planning Modules + Components5’ Module 240°/120° Degree ModuleModular Components/Workstations

7.3 Spaceplanning PatternsThe Farm Linear CubiclesThe Organism 240° 120°The Epicenter Hard Walled Offices + Hierarchical Plans

116

7.1 Human Scale + Constraints

116 7.1 Human Scale & Constraints


Fig. 1 Standing Figure Fig. 2

Vitruvian Man, ca.1487

Leonardo da Vinci

Fig. 3

Le Modulor, 1948

Le Corbusier

7.1 Human Scale & Constraints 117

118




Fig. 4 Seated Figure


120




Fig. 5 Figure In Plan


122122 7.2 Planning Modules / Compoents

7.2 Planning Modules/Components

Fig. 6 Linear Worksurface + 5’ Grid Fig. 7 Cubicle + 5’ Grid

122 7.2 Planning Modules / Compoents

ARC G691 TyPOLOGy PATTERN bOOk 1237.2 Planning Modules / Compoents 123

Fig. 8 240° Workstation + Hexagonal Grid Fig. 10 Casework + Hardwall + GridFig. 9 120° Workstation + Hexagonal Grid

7.2 Planning Modules / Compoents 123

124

MetricsWorkspaces- 84

SF Per Worker- 32 sf

LF worksurface- 420 lf

LF Per Worker- 5 ft

Floor Area- 2,700 sf

Total Area of Worksurfaces- 1,050 sf

Worksurface Area Per Worker- 12.5 sf

Floor Area : Worksurface Area- 2.57:1

7.3 Space Planning PatternsThe Farm

LINEAR Program Precedents- Financial, Creative

-Maximum Density

-Maximum Acoustic Transmission

-High Potential Shared Worspace/Team Overlap

-High Project Team Mobility

-High Visibility

-Minimum Personal Identity

-Minimum Net Workspace Within Primary Reach

-Minimum Enclosure

Fig. 11

124 7.3 Space Planning Patterns


Fig. 12

Sound Intesity

Plan Detail

Visual Overlap

7.3 Space Planning Patterns 125

Low LowHigh High

126




LF Per Worker- 10 ft


Total Area of Worksurfaces- 705 sf

Worksurface Area Per Worker- 23.5 sf

Floor Area: Worksurface Area- 3.83:1

7.3 Space Planning PatternsThe Farm

CubeProgram Precedents- Call Center, Corporate

-High Density

-High Net Workspace Within Primary Reach

-Moderate-High Enclosure

-Moderate Personal Identity

-Low-Moderate Acoustic Transmission

-Low Potential Shared Worspace/Team Overlap

-Low Project Team Mobility

-Low-Moderate Visibility

Fig. 13



Fig. 14


Sound Intesity

Plan Detail

Visual Overlap

Low LowHigh High

128




LF Per Worker- 10 ft



Worksurface Area Per Worker- 24 sf


7.3 Space Planning PatternsThe Organism

240° Program- Creative, Corporate

-High Density


-High Acoustic Transmission


-Moderate-High Visibility

-Moderate Personal Identity

-Moderate Project Team Mobility

-Low-Moderate Enclosure

Fig. 15



Fig. 16


Sound Intesity

Plan Detail

Visual Overlap

Low LowHigh High

130




LF Per Worker- 6 ft



Worksurface Area Per Worker- 12 sf


7.3 Space Planning PatternsThe Organism

120° Program Precedents- Creative, Corporate, Real

Estate, Education

-High Density

-High Project Team Mobility

-High Acoustic Transmission


-Moderate-High Visibility

-Low Enclosure

-Low Net Workspace Within Primary Reach

-Low Personal Identity

Fig. 17



Fig. 18


Sound Intesity

Plan Detail

Visual Overlap

LowHigh High

132

MetricsWorkspaces- Executive 4

General 18

SF Per Worker- Executive 225 sf

General 100 sf

LF worksurface- Executive 60 lf

General 180 lf

LF Per Worker- Executive 15 lf

General 10 lf



Worksurface Area Per Worker-Exec. 45 sf

Gen. 23.5 sf


7.3 Space Planning PatternsThe Epicenter

Hardwall/CaseworkProgram- Creative, Corporate, Legal, Financial

-Maximum Enclosure

-High Personal Identity


-Moderate Potential Shared Worspace/Team

Overlap

-Low-Moderate Visibility

-Low Density

-Low Project Team Mobility

-Low Acoustic Transmission

Fig. 19



Fig. 20


Sound Intesity

Plan Detail

Visual Overlap

LowHigh

8. Sociology

Overview

Office Buildings are usually constructed for one of two purposes. One is a more speculative

approach, in which developers foresee a market need for a new office building. The second

is a privatized approach, in which large companies want to create a flagship office building or

have the resources and need for an office building of their own. In the latter there is room for

innovation as well as a driving force which wishes to create a high-quality structure.

The layouts of office buildings; however, are driven by the users. This can result in one of

three typical floor plans. One is the hierarchical layout, in which private offices and conference

rooms are located on the perimeter of a floor and the general employees and their cubicles

are located at the center. The second one is an inverted-hierarchical layout. In this plan the

workers and their workspace are located at the perimeter of the plan and the private offices

and rooms are at the center. The third layout is the non-hierarchical layout. This is an open

plan, in which workers have more interaction and are able to be more productive.

This chapter will explore all three of these types of layouts and how they are used in office

buildings. Multi-tenant plans will also be explored, in which a mix of these three plan layouts

can be applied to one floor.

Chapter Contents

9.1 Hierarchical PlanProfessional Usesbasic Floor LayoutTypical bay SectionOffice Infrastructure / Interaction

9.2 Inverted-Hierarchical PlanProfessional Usesbasic Floor LayoutTypical bay SectionOffice Infrastructure / Interaction

9.3 Non-Hierarchical PlanProfessional UsesFloor Layoutsbay SectionOffice Infrastructure / Interaction

9.4 Multi-TenantsFloor ConfigurationsOffice Infrastructures / InteractionsFloor Requirements

136

8.1 Hierarchical Plan

In this type of plan there is a private outer ring and

a communal inner ring. Located in the outer ring

are private offices and conference rooms. The

inner ring contains the lower ranked workers as

well as spaces for them to collaborate, eat, and

interact.

This type of hierarchy was the typical office layout,

but more companies are moving towards an

inverted- hierarchical plan. In the hierarchical plan,

the common worker aspires and strives to have his

or her own office. They can move up the ladder of

success, and it will be solidified and commended

by having their own personal space.

In this flow of hierarchy the highest ranked workers

are on the outer ring and those at the lower ranks

are centralized and surround the core. This loca-

tion of rank allows for those in charge to open their

doors and delegate to those below them. Such is

the scenario in law firms, corporate offices, and

other companies with a ladder of success.

Common Inner Ring

Common Inner Ring

Common Inner Ring

Typical bay

Typical bay

Typical bay

Core

Core

Core

Private Outer Ring

Private Outer Ring

Private Outer Ring

45’

45’

45’

45’

45’

45’

Typical Upper Level Plan

Typical Mid-Level Plan

Typical Suburban Plan

136 8.1 Hierarchical Plan


Typical bayIn this perspective view, you can see the typical

bay of a hierarchical plan, and it becomes evident

of the aspiration that a lower ranked employee

could have. The conference rooms and private

offices on the perimeter of the building provide

both the clients and those in charge a sense of

importance. Sunlight and views are very important

as they make employees more productive. For this

reason companies are now using glass walls to

separate the private offices and conference rooms.

The glass allows more light to come into the office,

thus making everyone a more productive

employee. The glass also allows easier for those in

charge to interact with those below them. Making a

better work environment.

Common Inner Ring

Typical Hierarchical bay

Core

Private Outer Ring

8.1 Hierarchical Plan 137

138

8.2 Inverted-Hierarchical Plan

The inverted-hierarchical plan is self explanatory.

The private offices and conference spaces that

crowded and blocked the outside world are moved

towards the core and the lower ranked employees

are given the perimeter. As a result of increase

productivity from natural light and fresh air, this

model is more appealing to companies that are

driven by average employee. It still provides the

hierarchy required to evoke aspirations and com-

petitiveness amongst the employees who want to

climb the ladder of success, while making the work

environment friendlier and more productive.

These types of layouts are found in progressive

law firms and corporate offices as well as in design

fields such as architecture firms, engineering firms,

advertising, and other such fields.

Inverted-hierarchical plans also allow workers to

interact and collaborate easier than the hierarchi-

cal plans. They force interaction within the open

plan in the outer ring and the private offices in the

inner ring.

Common Outer Ring

Typical bay

Core

Private Inner Ring

45’

45’

Typical Upper Level Plan

Common Outer Ring

Typical bay

Core

Private Inner Ring

45’

45’

Typical Mid-Level Plan

Common Outer Ring

Typical bay

Core

Private Inner Ring

45’

45’

Typical Suburban Plan

138 8.2 Inverted-Hierarchical Plan


Common Outer Ring

Typical Inverted

Hierarchical bay

Core

Private Inner Ring

Typical bayIn this perspective view, you can see how those in

charge can oversee more efficiently the employees

around them. It is also easier to see how the aver-

age workers would become more productive when

they have a better light and ventilated working envi-

ronment. This plan focuses those in charge to look

and interact with those working for them, thus mak-

ing office interaction and communication easier.

The workers are happy, those in charge still have

their private office, and hierarchy still exists.

8.2 Inverted-Hierarchical Plan 139

140

8.3 Non-Hierarchical Plan

As the office layout evolves the plans become

more worker oriented and open, with minimal

privatization. In the non-hierarchical plan the

private ring is consumed by the open plan ring,

and the necessary private offices and conference

rooms are then brought back and scattered around

the plan. Factors driving this type of office layout

are the increase in employee productivity, environ-

mental agendas, and economical planing.

In this open plan the employee interaction is facili-

tated through open plan. Collaboration is easier

encountered and productivity increases. This is

why this layout is currently very popular in creative

professional environments. These fields include

architecture, engineering, planing, advertising, and

other such fields.

This type of plan also allows developers to create

more office buildings without being hindered by

speculation of use and marketability. The layout

can be manipulated and laid out to accommodate

the users more easily because of the nature of the

plan.

Common Open Plan

Common Open Plan

Common Open Plan

bay

Core

Scattered Private Spaces



Suburban Plan

bay

Core

Mid-Level Plan

bay

Core

Upper Level Plan45’

45’

45’

45’

45’

140 8.3 Non-Hierarchical Plan


Non-Hierarchical bay

Core

Shared Open Plan



bayIn this perspective view it is evident how an open

plan can facilitate office interaction while at the

same time keeping its necessary private spaces.

The conference room is on the outside of the plan,

while the office stays closer to the core, keeping

blurred the line of hierarchy. If hierarchy does need

to be established, this can be done more openly

and subtly through the assigned office furniture. It

puts those in command in direct contact with the

lower ranked employees.

8.3 Non-Hierarchical Plan 141

142

8.4 Multi-Tenants

When dealing with one tenant per floor, it is easier

to locate a receptionist space. However, when

dealing with multi-tenants more careful planning is

required to keep the separate offices independent

while allowing them to share common program,

such as rest rooms and means of egress.

If two or more tenants occupy a space, it becomes

necessary to create a dedicated reception space

for each tenant. This creates the need for a cor-

ridor connecting the different offices. In these

layouts you can find two of the same types of

layouts divided in one floor or two or more different

office configurations in one floor. These office

floors are usually taken up by smaller firms who

don’t need an entire floor to themselves. This can

create a bigger profit for developers, depending on

how they are charging the rented space. They can

charge the various offices for use on the common

space, making profit on what would normally be

charged once by charging it two, three or even four

times.

Private Spaces

Open Plan

Open Plan

Common Open Spaces

Open Spaces

Private Spaces

Reception Spaces

Reception Spaces

Reception Spaces

Corridor

Common Egress

Core

1

2

1

1

2

2

Two Tenant Mixed-Plans

Four Tenant Mixed-Plans

Two Tenant Open Plans

43

Core

142 8.4 Multi-Tenants


Core

Open Plan

Private Spaces

Reception Spaces

Multi-Tenant Perspective

Tenant 3

Tenant 4

Multi-Tenants PerspectiveIn this perspective we see just one of many config-

urations in which a multi-tenant floor plan can be

laid out. It shows the approach that needs to be

considered when arriving to the offices. As well as

the very different atmospheres created within each

office as a result of the layout.

8.4 Multi-Tenants 143

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OFFICE BUILDING

ARCH G691 GRADUATE DEGREE

PROJECT STUDIO

FALL 2008

This publication has been prepared as

part of a five week graduate thesis studio

assignment in the Northeastern University

School of Architecture for the Fall 2008

Architecture G691 course. Other publications

in this series include urban retail, hotel, and

parking garage typologies, all produced

by graduate students in the Northeastern

University architecture program.

Office Building

Documents

Transcript of Office Building