/..l c, I-

Review of Industrial Hygiene Principles and Health Effects of Commonly-Used Solvents

I

Catherine Bodurow Joseph, MSPH Research Scientist

Georgia Tech Research Institute Atlanta, Georgia 30332

June 29, 1995

Industrial hygiene is the anticipation, recognition, evaluation and control of hazardous occupational conditio& and behaviors.

anticipation - foreseeing potentially hazardous workplace conditions and behaviors; understanding potential routes of exposures for chemicals used in the workplace and the toxicological properties of these chemicals.

recognition -- identifying potential workplace conditions and behaviors which can produce hazardous exposures, such as physical, chemical, ergonomic or biological.

evaluation -- quantifying the hazard (e.g. sampling for air contaminants or noise); comparing results of quantification to current occupational health standards and guidelines.

control - limiting exposure to occupational hazards via: 1) "engineering controls", 2) "administrative controls", and 3) the use of personal protective equipment (as an interim intervention).

Recognition of Occupational Hazards

The various occupational factors or stressors which may cause illness, impaired health, and/or significant discomfort in employees may be grouped into the following categories: chemical, physical, ergonomic, and biological.

Chemical hazards arise from excessive airborne concentrations of mists, vapors, gases, or solids (in the form of dusts or fumes). In addition to the hazard of inhalation, many of these materials may act as skin irritants or may be toxic by absorption through the skin. Physical W u r & include excessive levels of electromagnetic and ionizing radiations, noise, vibration, and extremes of temperature and pressure. Ernonomic hazardr include improperly designed tools or work areas. Improper lifting or reaching, poor visual conditions, or repeated motions in an

1

I

awkward position may result in accidents or illnesses in the occupational environment. Biological hazards include insects, molds, fungi, and bacterial contaminants (sanitation and housekeeping items such as potable water, removal of industrial waste and sewage, food handling, and personal cleanliness). Biological and chemical hazards often overlap.

Routes of ExDosure

A harmful agent must contact or enter the body through inhalation, skin absorption, or ingestion in order to exert its toxic effect on an individual. Chemical compounds in the form of liquids, gases, mists, dusts, fumes, and vapors may cause problems by inhalation (breathing), absorption (through direct contact with the skin or mucous membranes), or by ingestion (eating or drinking).

Znhalatioq involves those airborne contaminants which can be inhaled directly into the lungs and can be physically classified as gases, vapors, and particulate matter (which includes dusts, fumes, smokes, and mists). Inhalation, as a route of entry, is of particular toxicological importance because of the rapidity with which a toxic material may be absorbed in the lungs, pass into the bloodstream, and reach various organs. Inhalation is also important due to the large surface area of the lungs in which contaminants come into contact, ranging from 28 to 93 square meters. Inhalation is the major route of entry for many hazardous chemicals in the work environment .

Penetration through the skin can occur quite rapidly if the skin is cut or abraded. Intact skin, however, generally offers a reasonably good barrier to chemicals. Unfortunately, there are many compounds which can be &sorbed through intact skin. Some substances are absorbed through the openings of hair follicles and sweat glands, and others dissolve in the fats and oils of the skin, such as organic lead compounds, many nitro compounds, and organic phosphate pesticides. Compounds which are good solvents for fats, such as toluene and xylene, can also cause probkms by being absorbed through the skin. Many organic compounds, such as cyanides, and most aromatic amines, amides, and phenols, can produce systemic poisoning through direct contact with the skin. Absorption of toxic chemicals through the skin and eyes is the next important route of entry after inhalation. It is often overlooked in risk assessment models, although the skin’s surface area is approximately 1.9 square meters.

Individuals can unknowingly b t harmful chemicals in the work environment if they do not wash their hands and face before eating or if they store drinking containers in the work environment. Toxic compounds are capable of being absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract lnto the bloodstream. Lead oxide can cause serious problems if people working with this material are allowed to eat or smoke in work areas. In this situation, careful and thorough washing is required both before eating and at the end of every work shift. Inhaled toxic dusts can also be ingested in small amounts which may cause trouble. If the toxic dust swallowed with food or saliva is not soluble in digestive fluids, it is eliminated directly through the intestinal tract. Toxic materials which are readily soluble in digestive fluids can be absorbed into the bloodstream from the digestive system.

2

Phvsical Classification of Air Contaminants

Dusts -- solid particles generated by crushing, grinding, drilling, etc.; particle size 0.1 to lo00 microns @article of approximately 50 microns is visible to the naked eye).

Fumes -- solid particles formed when a volatilized solid condenses in cool air; hot vapor usually reacts with oxygen to form an oxide; welding and metalizing produce fumes; extremely small particles of size 0.01 to 1.0 micron.

Smokes -- carbon-based particles with many other chemicals adsorbed; results from incomplete combustion of organic matter (e.g. wood, coal, oil); usually a mixture of droplets and dry particles; particles range from 0.01 to 2 microns.

Mists -- suspended liquid droplets; from condensation to liquid from vapor state or atomization from sprays or bursting bubbles (e.g. oil mist, acid mist, fog).

Gases -- substances which remain in the gaseous state at normal temperature and pressure; they diffuse rapidly and naturally fill the entire space in which they are contained.

Vapors -- gaseous state of a substance which is normally a liquid or solid at normal temperature and pressure.

Liquids -- substances which remain in the liquid state at normal temperature and pressure.

Discidinan, ADD roaches to C hemical Health Effects

Three categories of disciplinary approach are generally accepted in the occupational health arena: epidemiology, clinical studies, and toxicology. EDidemiolw investigates populations of communities and diseased groups. This allows for several strengths in their studies. The study groups are comprised of populations with natural exposures, in which exposure extrapolations are not required, vulnerable groups are normally represented in the study populations, and potentially long-term, low-level effects to chemicals can be determined. Epidemiology studies, however, are often weak in quantifying both chemical and physical exposures and distinguishing between association and causation of chemical or physical exposure. In addition, they have many covariates and fail to elicit minimal dose-response data.

ainical studies are performed on experimental subjects and diseased subjects. These studies normally have few covariates, controlled exposures and precise dose measurements. The mentioned study strengths allow for the collection of effective cause-effect data. However, exposures in clinical studies are generally artificial, not imaging occupational exposures, and long-term exposure data are rarely collected. Hazards, of course, exist for subjects participating in clinical studies which create concerns for public acceptance of such studies.

Populations in toxicolony studies are either animals, cells, or biochemical systems. These studies reveal maximal dose-response data, cause-effect relationships in the populations being

3

I

tested, and allow for rapid data acquisition. The mechanism of response can also be determined in these studies. However, a concern is whether these studies are realistic models of human injury, illness, and disease. The method of extrapolation of toxicological data is a topic of great debate in the occupational health field, because the studies do not determine a threshold of human response.

3 b e s of Toxic Response

Allergic -- hypersensitive or pathological reaction to environmental factors in amounts which do not affect most individuals.

Idiosyncratic -- physiological or temperamental peculiarity of an individual or group.

Immediate vs Delayed -- individuls may experience an immediate or delayed response following exposure to a toxic chemical.

Reversible vs Irreversible -- individuals may have a reversible or irreversible response to a toxi; chemical.

Local vs Systemic -- individuals may experience a contained, local effect following a chemical exposure or the chemical may enter the blood system to affect the entire body system.

Factors AffectinP Biological Variation

Age -- older individuals may have a lower tolerance for chemicals due to metabolic changes; organs of younger individuals may b, more susceptible to certain chemicals.

Gender - women have a greater percentage of body fat than men; different hormones may effect reproductive susceptibilities; some cancers are sex-linked.

Genetic Variation -- some ethnic groups are predisposed to certain diseases; some individuals have predisposition to diseases.

Habits - individuals who smoke may be at greater risk for lung injury or illnesses associated with certain chemicals; an individual's nutritional status may affect the body's ability to metabolize certain chemicals.

Sensitization - some individuals may have been exposed to certain chemicals, even in small quantities, and have been sensitized to them (e.g. formaldehyde and toluene diisocyanate).

4

Organ Svstem Effects

Dermatotoxins -- damage to the skin; approximately 50% of all occupational diseases are skin diseases; may cause irritant contact dermatitis, allergic contact dermatitis, pigment disturbances, ulcerations, neoplasms and chloracne (e.g. alkalis, acids, cleaners, metals, oils, organic solvents, oxidants, reducing agents).

Eye toxins -- damage to the eye; may affect vision; may cause conjunctivitis, corneal damage (e.g. alkalis, acids, detergents, lacrimator, metallic salts, organic solvents).

Hematotoxins -- damage to blood-forming organs and blood cells, such as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets (e.g. benzene, butyl cellusolve, carbon tetrachloride, chlordane, trinitrotoluene).

Hepatotoxins -- damage the liver; the liver is the organ in which most metabolism of chemicals occurs (e.g. aflatoxin, acrolein, arsenic, beryllium, iron, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, trichloroethylene).

Nephrotoxins - damage the kidney; kidneys eliminate waste products from the blood; they maintain acid-base balance and maintain electrolyte balance (e.g. arsenic, cadmium, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, chromium, lead, mercury, perchloroethylene).

Neurotoxins - damage the nervous system (NS); NS responsible for behavior, integrates and coordinates functions of other organs; may impair protein synthesis, may impair propagation of electrical impulses, may impair neurotransmitters, may impair maintenance of myelin sheath (alcohol, carbamate insecticides, carbon disulfide, DDT, mercury, methylene chloride, organophosphate insecticides, toluene).

Pulmonotoxins -- damage the lung; may damage the clearance mechanism (mucociliary escalator) and alveoli, overwhelm alveolar macrophages; may cause lung cancer, pneumoconiosis; may irritate upper airways (e.g. asbestos, cadmium, mercury, nickel, particulate matter, silica).

Reproductive toxins -- affect both male and female reproductive capacity; damage may occur to sperm forming cells, sperm, ovum, and fertilized ovum; may cause infertility, spontaneous abortion, birth defects, mutations to future generations (e.g. cadmium, carbon disulfide, chloroprene, DDT, dibromochloropropane, diethylstilbestrol, methyl mercury, nickel, pyridine, thalidomide, vinyl chloride).

5

I

Evaluation of Occupational Hazards

The Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) estimates there are nearly 11 million known chemicals. Approximately 600,OOO chemicals are used in industry, but only 60,OOO are used regularly. Of these chemicals, about 10,OOO have been characterized to determine their toxicity, and approximately 700 chemicals have exposure limits and/or guidelines. Therefore, although there are many chemicals in the work environment which may be of concern, most evaluations of occupational chemical hazards are driven by regulation of specific chemicals.

Congress promulgated the Occupational Safety and Health Act in 1970 to protect employees’ health and safety in the work environment and define health and safety rights and responsibilities for both employers and employees. Congress founded the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in Washington, D.C. to regulate occupational safety and health under the Act. States were given the opportunity to promulgate more stringent regulations than the federal government, if they so chose. Their regulations were, however, required to be at least as stringent as federal regulations. Some states have their own plans, while others have assumed the federal regulations. The country was divided into ten regions, each with a regional OSHA office located in the region, and the entire administration was divided between compliance and consultation. Each state had its own compliance officers and consultants.

Compliance officers evaluate compliance with OSHA standards under the Act. If a company is not in compliance with OSHA standards, the officers cite the employer for the violation and assess the employer a fine. Consultants also evaluate compliance with OSHA standards under the Act, but they are commissioned to assist employers in coming into compliance with OSHA standards, not to cite them for their deficiencies. The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) was also provided for in the Act to gather research information for OSHA which would be used in the promulgation of health and safety standards and to provide national information and training in the field of occupational safety and health.

OSHA originally established 212 toxic substance Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs), and all employers were required to maintain exposures to air wntaminants below these OSHA PELs. Later, OSHA considered 428 substances as part of its toxic substance rulemaking which ended in 1989. This rulemaking left 52 substances set at limits exactly as in 1971 and established 212 more protective PELs than those from 1971. In addition, 1989 standards established 164 new substance PELs which were not covered in 1971. In July 1992, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the OSHA PELs of 1989 must be vacated. The Court stated OSHA failed to justify the exposure limits as being either feasible for employers or appropriate for reducing significant risks to worker health. This decision sent all federal state programs back to the pre-1989 PELs. The ruling, however, did not affect states which had already established more stringent, independent regulations than the federal regulations.

The current PELs are not necessarily similar to recommendations made by NIOSH, as was originally provided for in the Act. NIOSH has and continues to generate Recommended Exposure Limits (RELs) for hazardous chemicals. However, most of the PELs were essentially adopted from another organization, namely the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). ACGIH began publishing exposure guidelines in 1942. Their guidelines were initially called Maximum Allowable Concentrations (MACs), however, in 1948, the organization changed the name of their guidelines to Threshold Limit Values (TLVs). Most of

6

the TLVs set in 1968 were essentially adopted by OSHA as the PELs of 1989. To reemphasize an important point: PELs are standards enforceable under the

OSH Act. RELs are recommendations made by NIOSH to be used in the promulgation of standards by OSHA. TLVs are guidelines (which are not legal standards) but may be more protective than current PELS in many cases. All of these exposure limits are intended to protect employees' health, but they are not sharp dividing lines between "safe" and "unsafe" exposure levels. Caution should be used in evaluating chemical exposure, as some individuals may display sensitivities to certain air contaminants well below these exposure limits.

Definition of Current Occupational ExDosure Limits

Time-Weighted-Average (TWA) -- exposures are averaged throughout the work shift

Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL) -- exposures are averaged over a fifteen minute period

Ceiling (C) -- instantaneous exposures

Calculation of Time-Weighted-Averape (TWA)

TWA =

Where:

C,T! + CIT, + C,T, + .... + C,T, TlcltAl

C, represents air contaxinant concentration taken during time period T, C2 represents air contaminant concentration taken during time period T2 C3 represents -air contaminant concentration taken during time period T3 C, represents air contaminant concentration taken during time period T, Tw represents total time sampled (e.g. T, + T2 + T3 + ... + Td

IXS - of Air Contaminant Concentrations

Gases and vapors -- concentrations are generally expressed as parts of contaminant (gas or vapor) per million parts of air (ppm)

Solids, liquids, and mists -- concentrations are generally expressed as weight of contaminant (solid, liquid, or mist) per unit volume of air (milligrams per cubic meter)

7

OSHA PELs

OSHA PELs protect workers against a wide variety of health effects that could cause material impairment of health or functional capacity. This includes protection against catastrophic effects, such as cancer, cardiovascular, liver and kidney damage; lung diseases, as well as more subtle effects resulting in central nervous system damage, narcosis, respiratory effects, and sensory irritation.

ACGM TLVs

Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) refer to airborne concentrations of substances and represent conditions under which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day without adverse effect. Because of a wide variation in individual susceptibility, however, a small percentage of workers may be affected more seriously by aggravation of pre-existing condition or by development of occupational illness.

Definitions:

'JLV-TWA is a time-weighted-average for a normal 8-hour work shift and 40-hour work week to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed, day after day, without adverse effect.

TLV-STEL is the concentration to which workers can be continually exposed for a period of up to 15 minutes continually without suffering irritation, chronic or irreversible tissue damage, or narcosis of sufficient degree to increase the likelihood of accidental injury, impair self-rescue, or materially reduce work efficiency.

TLV-C is a ceiling concentration not to be exceeded at any time during the work shift.

Basis of TLVs:

24% based upon chemical analogy 27% based upon animal experiments 38% based upon human epidemiological data 11% based upon human volunteer experiments

Of the 49% which involve human exposure data, guidelines were set by the following :

50% set to prevent toxic systemic effects

1.5% based upon cancer prevention ~ 40% based upon irritation

8

I

5% based upon narcosis 2% based upon odor 1.5% based upon allergic sensitivity

Control of Occupational Hazards

The definition of control is to exercise a restraining influence. In industrial hygiene, the word control has specific connotations. OSHA distinguishes between "engineering controls", "administrative controls", and personal protective equipment when addressing the topic of control of occupational hazards. OSHA regulations require the implementation of engineering and administrative controls, when feasible, and allow the use of personal protective equipment as an interim measure, until suitable controls are instituted. Only in rare instances does OSHA consider it acceptable to use personal protective equipment as a final solution. Hence, a very important concept for control of occupational hazards: it is better to control contamination at the source of generation by active intervention, rather than to defend against it once it is in the environment. It is also preferable to control the hazard in a manner which minimizes human intervention as a requirement of control. A convenient way to remember the industrial hygiene lines of defense is with the acronym I SAVE PETS.

I SAVE PETS

&dation of the contaminant source (e.g. hot cells used to contain radioisotopes and restricted areas in which carcinogens are handled).

Substitution of a less toxic substance/mixture or a less hazardous process (e.g. use of terpenes, such as d-limonene, rather than carbon tetrachloride in degreasing operations; please note: careful consideration of the process and new substance is needed before substitutions can be made).

Automation of a process. This entirely removes the employee from the hazardous environment. In the case of extremely hazardous tasks when other methods are not acceptable or feasible, this may be the only solution (e.g. automa5on of degreasing operations and assembly line automation in the auto industry to eliminate ergonomic risk factors).

Ventilation of the contaminant source. Both dilution ventilation and local exhaust ventilation have been proven effective, depending upon the contaminant toxicity and position of employees in work environment (e. g. welding, electroplating, biological hazards).

Elimination of a process. This is the easiest to perform if the substance or process can simply be removed from the entire process line. Tasks may also be contracted out of the company if it is too hazardous for a particular industry to handle within their economic constraints (e.g.

9

recycling of solvent mixtures generated in waste streams).

Personal Drotective equipment may be used while engineering controls are being implemented or as a "last resort" when no feasible engineering control can be found (e.g. respirators, gloves, safety glasses/goggles, ear plugs, etc.).

&&cation of employees, managers, and public about hazardous substances and processes. Although this is not an engineering control, it may be considered a very important administrative control. With attention on "right-to-know" legislation, employers must keep everyone informed.

Training on proper work practices for employees. This refers to good work practices which help minimize employee exposures to hazardous substances and processes. Again, an administrative control.

SuDervision by management and enforcement of health and safety regulations. administrative control which may quarantee employees safety in the work environment.

A crucial

10

I

Health Effects of Commonly-Used Solvents

CAS Name: 2-Butanone

Identifiers: CAS 78-93-3; RTECS EL6475000; DOT 1193, label required: "Flammable liquid" Synonyms: ; Ethyl methyl ketone Chemical formula: C4H80

Select physical data: Molecular weight: 72.10 Specific gravity: 0.805 at 20 "C Boiling point: 79.6 "C Melting point: -86.5 "C Vapor pressure: 77.5 torr at 20 "C Clear and colorless liquid

&led reactivity data: Incompatibilities: strong oxizing agents Hazardous decomposition products: fire involving methyl ethyl ketone may liberate formaldehyde and carbon monoxide.

Select flammability data: Closed cup flash point: 24 OF ( -4 "C) Autoignition: 960 OF (515.5 OC) Flammable limits in air, % by volume in air: lower, 1.8; upper, 12

Warning properties: Odor threshold: 5 ppm; odor similar to that of acetone Eye irritation reported to occur between 200 and 350 ppm exposure

Routes of exposure: Inhalation, ingestion, dermal and eye contact

Human health effects: Acute exposure can cause headache, dizziness, drowsiness, vomiting, and numbness of the extremities. Imtation to the eyes, nose, and throat can also occur. Chronic exposure can cause dryness and irritation of the skin.

Exposure limits: OSHA PEL-TWA 200 ppm

~ NIOSHREL-TWA 200ppm ACGIH TLV-TWA 200 ppm (1976) ACGIH TLV-STEL 300 ppm (1976)

11

!

CAS Name: 2-Butoxyethano1

Identifiers: "St. Andrew's Cross and Flammable Liquid" Synonyms: Butyl Cellusolve; B-Butoxyethanol; @Butyl ethylene glycol; Butyl glycol; Butyl oxitol; Glycol butyl ether; Monobutyl ether of ethylene glycol; n-Butoxyethanol; Dowanol EB; Ektasolve EB; Gafcol EB; Jeffersol EB; Poly-solv EB; EGBE Chemical formula: C,H,,O,

CAS 111-76-2; RTECS KJ8575000; DOT UN 2369 26, label required:

Select physicaI data: Molecular weight: 118.17 Specific gravity: 0.9012 at 20 "C Boiling point: 171.2 "C Melting point: -70 "C Vapor pressure: 0.8 mm Hg (0.76 torr at 20 "C) Clear, colorless liquid

Select reactivity data: Conditions contributing to instability: heat, sparks, and open flame Incompatibilities: contact with strong oxidizers or caustics may result in fires or explosions. Hazardous decomposition products: fire involving ethylene glycol monobutyl ether may liberate carbon monoxide.

Select flammability data: Closed cup flash point: 141 OF (62 "C) Autoignition: 472 OF (238 "C) Flammable limits in air, % by volume in air: lower, 1.1; upper, 12.7

Warning properties: Odor threshold: 0.35 ppm; pleasant, ether-like odor

Routes of exposure: Inhalation, ingestion, dermal and skin contact

Human health effects: Acute exposure can cause imtation to eyes, nose, and throat, with pain and tearing of the eyes, runny nose, and cough; skin irritation with redness and cracking; and narcotic effects with difficult breathing. Chronic exposure can cause dermatitis and hematuria.

Exposure limits: OSHA PEL-TWA 50 ppm

12

NOSH REL-WA 5 ppn:

ACGIH TLV-TWA 25 ppm (1987) SKIN ACGIH TLV-STEL 75 ppm (1987) SKIN

SKIN - cutaneous route of exposure (including mucous membranes and eyes) contributes to overall exposure

CAS Name: Dichloromethane

Identifier: CAS 75-09-2 Synonyms: , Methylene dichloride Chemical formula: CH2C1,

Select physical data: Molecular weight: 84.94 Specific gravity: 1.3255 at 20 "C Roiling point: 40.1 "C Melting point: -96.7 "C Vapor pressure: 350 mm Hg (440 torr at 25 "C) Colorless liquid

.

Select reactivity data: Conditions contributing to instability: heat and moisture Incompatibilities: contact with strong oxidizers, strong caustics, and chemically active metals, such as aluminum or magnesium powder; sodium and potassium may cause fires and explosions. Hazardous decomposition products: fire involving methylene chloride may liberate hydrogen chloride, phosgene, and carbon monoxide.

Select flammability data: I Closed cup flash point: None with normal test method in air

Autoignition: 624 "C Flammable limits in air, % by volume in air: lower, 12.0; upper, 19.0

Warning properties: Odor threshold: 25 to 150 ppm (not clear from references); "not unpleasant", sveetish odor Methylene chloride has very poor warning properties, as individuals adapt to the odor relatively quickly.

Routes of exposure: Inhalation, ingestion, dermal and eye contact

Human health effects: Inhalation -- acute inhzlation may cause dizziness, nausea, tingling or numbness or

13

extremities, sense of fullness in the head, sense of stupor or dullness, lethargy and drunkenness; lightheadedness and sustained elevation of carboxyhemoglobin have been observed. Higher concentrations will cause narcosis. Dermal -- prolonged exposure can cause dermatitis and other imtation; when held in contact with the skin, may cause bums. Eye contact -- splashes to the eyes may cause severe damage; vapor exposure can cause irritation.

Exposure limits: OSHA PEL-TWA 500 PPm OSHA PEL-Ceiling lo00 ppm NIOSH REL-TWA lowest feasible concentration ACSIH TLV-TWA 50 ppm (1988) A2 = Suspected human carcinogen

~ CAS Name: Dimethvlbenzene

Identifier: CAS 1330-20-7 for xylenes mixed; CAS 95-47-6 for o-xylene; CAS 108-38-3 for m- xyline; CAS ............................ 106-42-3 for p-xylene Synonyms: Xy&@.; .............................. : Xylol Chemical formula: CsHIo

Select physical data: Molecular weight: 106.16 Specific gravity: 0.08801 (ortho); 0.8684 (meta); 0.86104 (para) Boiling points: 144 "C (ortho); 138.8 OC (meta); 138.5 "C (para) Melting points: -25 "(2 (ortho); -47.4 T (meta); 13-14 "C (para) Vagx pressure: 7 mm Hg (7 to 9 torr at 20 "c) Mobile, flammable liquid

Select reactivity data: Conditions contributing to instability: elevated tempatures may cause containers to burst Incompatibilities: contact with strong oxidizers may cause fires and explosions. Hazardous decomposition products: fire involving hexane may liberate carbon monoxide.

Select flammability data: Closed cup flash points: 63 to 77 O F (17 to 25 "C) Autoignition: 465 - 530 "C Flammable limits in air, % by volume in air: lower, 1; upper, 6 - 7

Warning properties: I Odor threshold: 1 ppm; aromatic odors 1 . Eye irritation reported to occur at 200 ppm.

14

Routes of exposure: Inhalation, ingestion, dermal and eye contact

Human health effects: Acute exposures may cause imtation to eyes, nose, and throat. At high concentrations, xylene vapor may cause severe breathing difficulties; may cause dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. Chronic exposures may cause disturbed vision, dizziness, tremors, salivation, cardiac stress, CNS depression, confusion and coma; may cause damage to the liver and kidneys. Ingestion of xylene will cause severe gastrointestinal distress. Skin exposure may result in defatting, dryness, cracking, blistering, and dermatitis.

Exposure limits:

OSHA PEL-TWA 100 PPm NIOSH REL-TWA 100 ppm NIOSH EL-Ceiling 200 ppm . ACGIH TLV-TWA 100 ppm (1976) ACGIH TLV-STEL 150 ppm (1976)

.................................. .... ') :.:H ik".a CAS "lux rr.:. ........................ e ...?..

Identifier: CAS 110-54-3 Synonyms: Hexyl hydride; normal hexane Chemical formula: C6HI4

Select physical data: Molecular weight: 86.17 Specific gravity: 0.660 at 20 "C Boiling point: 68.95 "C Solidifies: -95 "C Vapor pressure: 150 mm Hg (124 torr at 20 "c) Colorless, very volatile liquid

Select reactivity data: Conditions contributing to instability: heat Incompatibilities: contact with strong oxidizing agents may cause fires and explosions Hazardous decomposition products: fire involving hexane may liberate carbon monoxide

Select flammability data: Closed cup flash point: -23 O F (-30.56 "C) Autoignition: 225 "C Flammable limits in air, % by volume in air: lower, 1.2; upper, 8

15

Warning properties: Odor threshold: none quantified; faint , pecuIiar odor Eye and upper respiratory tract irritation reported to occur at 880 ppm

Routes of exposure: Inhalation, ingestion, dermal and eye contact

Human health effects: Inhalation -- acute inhalation may cause lightheadedness, giddiness, nausea, numbness of the limbs, and headache. It may also cause irritation to eyes and noise. Higher concentrations may cause unconsciousness and death. Ingestion -- may cause nausea, vertigo, bronchial and general intestinal irritation and CNS effects. Dermal -- hexane is a skin irritant; it is a defatting agent and can cause dermatitis from prolonged exposure.

Exposure limits: . OSHAPEL-TWA 500ppm

NOSH REL-TWA 100 ppm ACGIH TLV-TWA 50 ppm (1982) ACGIH TLV-TWA for other isomers 500 ppm (1982) ACGIH TLV-STEL for other isomers loo0 ppm (1982)

.......\.......I.. . ... . _.. ..... ::. :..

Identifier: CAS 67-56-1 Synonyms: Methyl alcohol; Carbincli; Wood spirit; Wood alcohol Chemical formula: CI-I,,O

Select physical data: Molecular weight: 32.04 Specific gravity: 0.7915 at 20 "C Boiling point: 64.5 "C Melting point: -97.8 "C Vapor pressure: 92 mm Hg (92 at 20 T) Flammable, poisonous, mobile liquid

Select reactivity data: Conditions contributing to instability: heat Incompatibilities: contact with strong oxidizers ma cause fires and explosion Hazardous decomposition products- fire involving methanol may liberate carbon

~ monoxide and formaldehyde.

16

Select flammability data: Closed cup flash point: 54 "F (12 "C) Autoignition: 878 "F (470 "C) Flammability limits in air, % by volume in air: lower, 6.7; upper, 36.5

Warning properties: Odor threshold: 2000 ppm; slight alcoholic odor when pure; crude material may have a repulsive, pungent odor Very high concentrations irritate eyes, skin, and mucous membranes; therefore, methanol has very poor warning properties.

Routes of exposure: Inhalation, ingestion, dermal and eye contact

Human health effects: Inhalation -- acute inhalation may cause headache, fatigue, nausea, visual impairment or complete blindness (may be permanent), acidosis, convulsions, liver damage, circulatory collapse, respiratory failure and death. Ingestion -- ingestion of less than 30 milliliters of methanol has been reported to be fatal; ingestion of small quantities may cause optic neuropathy and severe acidosis. Dermal -- direct skin contact with methanol may cause dermatitis, erythema, and scaling.

Exposure limits: OSHA PEL-TWA 200 PPm N O S H REL-TWA 200 ppm NOSH REL-Ceiling 800 ppm ACGIH TLV-TWA

ACGIH TLV-STEL 250 ppm (1976)

200 ppm (1976) SKIN - potential significant contribution to overall exposure by cutaneous route

CAS Name: ZMethoxyethanol

Identifier: CAS 109-86-4 Synonyms: ; Glycol monomethyl ether; Methyl loxitol; Ektasolve; Jeffersol EM Chemical formula: C3H802

Select physical data: Molecular weight: 76.09 Specific gravity: 0.9663 at 20 "C Boiling point: 124.2 "C Freezing point: -85.1 "C Vapor pressure: 6 torr at 20 "C

17

I

Colorless liquid

Select reactivity data: Conditions contributing to instability: heat Incompatibilities: contact with strong oxidizing agents may cause fires and explosions; contact with strong caustics may cause decomposition. Hazardous decomposition products: fire involving ethylene glycol monomethyl ether may liberate carbon monoxide.

Select flammability data:

Closed cup flash point: 107 OF (41.7 "C) Autoignition: 285 "C Flammable limits in air, % by volume in air: lower, 2.5; upper, 19.8

Warning properties: Odor threshold: 60 ppm; mild, non-residual odor

. Both odor and irritation warning properties are not sufficient to prevent exposure to concentrations which are physiologically significant.

Routes of exposure: Inhalation, ingestion, dermal and eye contact

Human health effects: Acute exposure -- may cause imtation to eyes, nose, and throat, drowsiness, weakness, and shaking. Swallowing this chemical may be fatal. Chronic exposure -- may cause headache, drowsiness, weakness, fatigue, staggering, personality change, and decreased mental ability. Anen'ia and other blood changes may result. Dermal -- the chemical is readily absorbed through the skin.

Exposure limits: OSHA PEL-TWA 25 ppm NIOSH REL-TWA 0.1 ppm SKIN ACGIH TLV-TWA 5 ppm (1984) SKIN

CAS Name: Methvlbenzene

Identifier: CAS 108-88-3 Synonyms: rbffi&z#; ...................... Toluol, Phenylmethane; Methacide Chemical formula: C7H,

.....................

...................

18

I

Select physicaI data: Molecular weight: 92.13 Specific gravity: 0.866 at 20 "C Boiling point: 110.7 "C Solidifies: -95 "C Vapor pressure: 20 mm Hg (28 torr at 25 "c) Colorless liquid

Select reactivity data: Conditions contributing to instability: elevated temperatures may cause containers to burst Incompatibilities: contact with strong oxidizers may cause fires and explosions. Hazardous decor liposition products: fire involving toluene may liberate carbon monoxide.

Select flammability data: Closed cup flash point: 40 OF (4.4 "C) Autoignition: 480 "C . Flammable limits in air, % by volume in air: lower, 1.3; upper, 7.1

Warning properties: Odor threshold: 10 ppm; aromatic odor resembling that of benzene Olfactory fatigue occurs rapidly when exposed to toluene; irritation to eyes, mucous membranes and upper respiratory tract may occur at low concentration; therefore, toluene does not have very good warning properties.

Routes of exposure: Inhalation, ingestion, dermal and eye contact

Human health effects: . Acute exposure -- may cause irritation of the eyes, resphtory tract, and skin. It may also cause fatigue, weakness, confusion, headache, dizziness, and drowsiness. Peculiar skin sensation may be produced such as a "pins and needles feeling" or numbness. Very high concentrations cause unconsciousness and death. Splashes to the eyes may casue irritation and temporary damage. Chronic exposure -- may cause drying and cracking of the skin and eventually dermatitis.

Exposure limits: OSHA PEL-TWA 200 ppm OSHA PEL-Ceiling 300 ppm N O S H EL-TWA 100 ppm NIOSH =-Ceiling 200 ppm ACGIH 7'LV-TWA 50 ppm (1992) SKIN

19

CAS Name: 1-Methvl-441-methvlethenvlkvclohexene

Identifier: CAS 138-86-3 Synonyms: d$b&e.wi; ....... . ....................... .... , . ... .... . , . , , , pMentha- 1,8diene; cinene; cajeputene; kautschin; dipentene; carvene Chemical formula: Cla16

. . . . . . . . . . . .~~,~,.'..,.,., . . . . . . . . _,.... , .....................

Select physical data: Molecular weight: 136.23 Specific gravity: 0.8407 at 20 "C Boiling point: 178.0 "C Melting point: -74.35 "C Vapor pressure: 1.5 mm Hg Liquid

Select reactivity data: Conditions contributing to instability: heat Incompatibilities: contact with strong oxidizers Hazardous decomposition products: fire involving d-limonene may liberate carbon monoxide.

Select flammability data: Flash point: 118 O F

Flammable limits in air, 96 by volume in air: lower, 0.7; upper 12

Warning properties: Odor threshold: 10 ppb; pleasant, lemon-like odor

Routes of exposure: Inhalation, ingestion, dermal and eye contact

Human health effects: Health effects currently appear to be limited to skin irritation which causes both irritation and drying of the skin; d-limonene is also a well known sensitizer, causing allergic dermatitis. Recent information shows d-limonene may be a respiratory irritant in a small percentage of individuals. This could aggravate preexisting lung mnditions.

Special remarks: Sparce health effect information is available for d-limonene. Although the chemical appears to be far less toxic than many other solvents, more information must be obtained to determine its potential health effects. With proper handling precautions, however, it currently appears that this solvent presents little health hazard.

lhposure limits: None

20

CAS Name: 2-Pro~anol

Identifier: Synonyms: Petrohol Chemical formula: C,H80

CAS . . . 67-63-0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; Isopropanol; Secondary propyl alcohol; Dimethyl carbinol;

Select physical data: Molecular weight: 60.09 Specific gravity: 0.78505 at 20 "C Boiling point: 82.5 "C Melting point: -88.5 "C Freezing point: -89.5 "C Vapor pressure: 33 mm Hg (33 torr at 20 "c) Flammable liquid

Select reactivity data: . Conditions contributing to instability: heat

Incompatibilities: contact with strong oxidizers may cause fire and explosions Hazardous decompostion products: fire involving isopropyl alcohol may liberate carbon monoxide.

Select flammability data: Closed cup flash point: 53 "F (11.7 "C) Autoignition: 852 OF (455.6 "C) Flammable limits in air, % by volume in air: lower, 2.0; upper, 12.0

Warning properties: Odor threshold: 50 ppm; slight odor resembling that of a mixture of ethanol and actone; slightly bitter taste Eye, nose, and throat irritation reported to occur at approximately 200 ppm

Routes of exposure: Inhalation, ingestion, dermal and eye contact

Human health effects: Inhalation -- acute inhalation may cause mild irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat; drowsiness, headache, and incoordination may also occur. Ingestion -- ingestion may cause drowsiness, unconsciousness, and death; gastrointestinal pain, cramps, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea may also result from swallowing isopropyl alcohol. Dermal -- prolonged exposure may cause drying, cracking and dermatitis; it is a defatting agent .

21

I

Special remarks: Although no chronic systemic effects have been reported in humans from isopropyl alcohol exposure, extensive wetting of the skin could lead to increased burden on the body, as isopropyl alcohol is readily absorbed through the skin. The additive effect of inhalation and skin absorption could have serious results.

Exposure limits: OSHA PEL-TWA 400 ppm NOSH REL-TWA 400 ppm ACGIH TLV-TWA 400 ppm (1976) ACGIH TLV-STEL 500 ppm (1976)

CAS Name: 2-ProDanone

Identifiers: CAS 67-64-1; RTECS AL3 15oooO; DOT 1090, label required: "Flammable liquid" Synonyms: d@to+@; Dimethyl ketone; B-Ketopropane; Pyroacetic ether Chemical formula: C3H60

Select physical data: Molecular weight: 58.08 Specific gravity: 0.778 at 25 "C Boiling point: 56.5 "C Melting point: -94 "C Vapor pressure: 180 mm Hg (180 torr at 20 "C) Volatile, highly flammable liquid

Select reactivity data: Incompatibilities: explosions Hazardous decomposition products: fire involving acetone may release ketene

contact with acids and oxidizing materials may cause fires and

Select flammability data: Closed cup flash point: 1.4 O F (-17 "C) Autoignition: 465 "C Flammable limits in air, % by volume in air: lower, 2.9; upper, 12.8

Warning properties: Odor threshold: 20 ppm; characteristic odor, pungent, sweetish taste Eye irritation reported to occur at 500 ppm

Routes of exposure: ~ Inhalation, ingestion, dermal and eye contact

22

Human health effects: Inhalation -- acute inhalation has produced narcosis, and repeated exposures have caused inflammation of the respiratory tract, stomach, and small intestine. Appears acetone is metabolized slowly and may accumulate in the body throughout work week. Short-term can cause eye imtation, dryness of the mouth and throat, nausea, vomiting, headache, sleepiness, dizziness, lightheadedness, weakness, incoordination, loss of energy, fainting, and unconsciousness; high concentrations may cause narcosis, but serious poisoning is rare. Inhalation -- chronic inhalation can cause dizziness and sleepiness; defatting, dryness, irritation, and inflammation of skin can also occur.

Exposure limits: OSHA PEL-TWA lo00 ppm NIOSH EL-TWA 250 ppm ACGIH TLV-TWA 750 ppm (1982) ACGIH TLV-STEL lo00 ppm (1982)

CAS Name: Tetrachloroethylene

Identifier: CAS 127- 18-4 Synonyms : Chemical formula: C2C14

; Ethylene tetrachloride; Tetrachlorethylene; Perk

Select physical data: Molecular weight: 165.85 Specific gravity: 1.6320 at 20 "C Boiling point: 121.2 "C Freezing point: -22 "C Vapor pressure: 19 torr at 25 "C Colorless, nonflammable liquid

Select reactivity data: Conditions contributing to instability: heat Incompatibilities: contact with strong oxidizers and chemically active methals, such as barium, lithium, and beryllium. Hazardous decomposition products: fire involving perchloroethylene may liberate hydrogen chloride, phosgene, and carbon monoxide.

Select flammability data: Flash point: None with normal test method in air

23

I

Warning properties:

Odor threshold: 50 ppm; ethereal odor Slight eye irritation reported to occur at approximately 100 ppm

Routes of exposure:

Inhalation, ingestion, dermal and eye contact

Human health effects:

Inhalation -- inhalation may cause headache, nausea, drowsiness, dizziness, incoordination, and unconsciousness; long-term exposures may cause anorexia, vertigo, CNS depression, and liver and kidney damage. Ingestion -- may cause irritation to throat, gastrointestional system; may cause liver and kidney damage. Dermal -- prolonged exposure may cause skin imtation and dermatitis. Eye contact -- splashes to the eyes may cause severe imtation.

Exposure limits:

OSHA PEL-TWA 100 ppm OSHA PEL-Ceiling 200 ppm NOSH REL-TWA lowest feasible concentration ACGIH TLV-TWA 25 ppm (1993) A3 = animal carcinogen ACGIH TLV-STEL 100 ppm (1993)

CAS Name: Tetrachloromethane

Identifier: CAS 56-23-5 Synonyms: ; Perchloromethane; Necatonna; Benzinoform Chemical formula: CCl,

Select physical data: Molecular weight: 153.84 Specific gravity: 1.589 at 25 "C Boiling point: 76.7 "C Melting point: -23 "C Vapor pressure: 91 mm Hg (89.5 torr at 20 "C) Clear, colorless, nonflammable, heavy liquid

Select reactivity data: Conditions contributing to instability: None

24

Incompatibilities: reacts with chemically active metals, such as sodium, potassium, and magnesium Hazardous decomposition products: hydrogen chloride, chlorine, phosgene, and carbon monoxide may be released when carbon tetrachloride decomposes.

Select flammability data: Flash point: None with normal test method in air; not combustible

Warning properties: Odor threshold: 50 ppm; ether-like odor Since the odor threshold is well above the PEL and since no quantitative data are available relating its warning properties to air concentrations, carbon tetrachloride is considered as a substance with poor warning properties.

Routes of exposure: Inhalation, ingestion, dermal and eye contact

Hurgan health effects: Poisoning by inhalation, ingestion or skin absorption! Acute exposure may cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headache, stupor, renal damage leading to anuria and azotemia, liver injury. Can be fatal. Chronic exposure causes primarily liver damage but kidney injury and visual disturbances also occur. Skin contact can lead to dermatitis through defatting.

Special remarks: EPA has listed this substance as a carcinogen.

Exposure limits: OSHA PEL-TWA 10 ppm OSHA PEL-Ceiling 25 ppm NIOSH REL-Ceiling 2 ppm ACGIH TLV-TWA 5 ppm (1993) A3 = animal carcinogen ACGIH TLV-STEL 10 ppm (1993) SKIN

occupational carcinogen (lowest feasible concentration)

Identifier: CAS 71-55-6; RTECS KJ29750 Synonyms: Methyl chloroform; chlorothene Chemical formula: C2H,Cl,

Select physical data: ~ Molecular weight: 133.42

Specific gravity: 1.4415 at 20 "C

25

Freezing point: -36.4 "C Boiling point: 113.7 "C Vapor pressure: 19 torr at 20 "C Nonflammable liquid

Select reactivity data: Hazardous decomposition products: fire will liberate phosgene, hydrogen chloride, and possibly dichloroacetylene.

Select flammability data: No flash point Flammability limits of inhibited 1 , 1,l-Trichloroethane in air, % by volume in air: lower, 10.3; upper, 15.5

Warning properties: Odor threshold: 100 ppm; typical sweetish odor

Routes of exposure: Inhalation, ingestion, dermal and eye contact

Human health effects: Inhalation -- acute inhalation may cause problems with equilibrium, coordination, alertness, and other signs of anesthetic action. Higher concentrations will cause serious CNS damage, liver damage, and may sensitize heart to epinephrine. Ingestion -- may cause nausea, vertigo, general intestinal irritation and CNS effects. Dermal -- defats the skin and can be absorbed into the body via intact skin.

Special remarks: 1, 1,l-Trichloroethane is probably the least toxic of chlorinated solvents, but its high volatility and careless use and abuse have resulted in several anesthetic deaths from gross overexposures, usually in confined spaces. The chemical will do long-term CNS damage.

Exposure limits: OSHA PEL-TWA 350 ppm NIOSH EL-TWA 350 ppm ACGIH TLV-TWA 350 ppm (1976) ACGIH TLV-STEL 450 ppm (1976)

CAS Name: Trichloroethene

Identifier: CAS 79-01-6; RTECS KX455000; DOT 1710, label required: "St. Andrew's Cross

Synonyms: ; Ethinyl trichloride; Tri-Clene; Trielene; Trilene; Trichloran; or)"

26

I

Trichloren; Algylen; Trimar; Triline; Tri; Trethylene; Westrosol; Chlorylen; Germalgene; Germdgene Chemical formula: C2HC1,

Select physical data: Molecular weight: 131.40 Specific gravity: 1.4649 at 20 "C Solidifies: -84.8 "C Boiling point: 87.1 "C Melting point: -86.4 "C Vapor pressure: 58 mm Hg (58 torr at 20 "c) Nonflammable, mobile liquid

Select reactivity data: Incompatibilities: contact with chemically active metals, such as barium, lithium, sodium, magnesium, and titanium. Aluminum may react with the free hydrogen chloride in trichloroethylene to produce aluminum chloride, which catalyzes a violent self-

Contact with strong caustics may cause formation of dichloroacetylene. Hazardous decomposition products: fire involving trichloroethylene may liberate hydrogen chloride, phosgene, and &on monoxide.

* polymerization reaction.

Select flammability data: Flash point: 32 "C Autoignition: 788 "C Flammable limits in air, % by volume in air: lower, 12.5; upper, 90

Warning properties: Odor threshold: 20 ppm; characteristic odor resembling that of chloroform Eye irritation reported to occur at approximately 400 ppm.

Routes of exposure: Inhalation, ingestion, dermal and eye contact

Human health effects: Inhalation and ingestion -- acute inhalation or ingestion of trichlorethylene has caused reversible peripheral nerve degeneration, injury to the liver and kidneys and to the cardiovascular and gastrointestinal systems, depression of the CNS, coma, and sudden death due to respiratory failure, cardiac arrhythmia, or liver or kidney failure. Chronic exposure has cause damage to the liver, kidneys, and nervous system. Skin -- repeated immersion of the hands into liquid trichloroethylene has caused paralysis of the fingers. Eye contact -- splashes to the eyes may cause severe irritation.

27

Special remarks: The ingestion of alcohol, caffeine, and some prescription drugs has been found to potentiate the effects of trichloroethylene intoxication. A dermal response seen as reddening of the face, neck, back, and shoulders (Degreaser’s Flush) has occurred in chronically exposed workers following the ingestion of alcohol.

Exposure limits: OSHA PEL-TWA 100 ppm OSHA PEL-Ceiling 200 ppm NIOSH EL-TWA 25 ppm (IO-hr TWA) potential human carcinogen NIOSH REL-Ceiling 2 ppm ACGIH TLV-TWA ACGIH TLV-STEL 100 pQm (1993)

50 ppm (1993) A5 = not suspected as a human carcinogen

28

Occupational Safety and Health Important Telephone Numbers

American Board of Industrial Hygiene (ABIH)

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)

American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA)

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

517-321-2638

5 13-742-2020

703-849-8888

2 12-6424900

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating & Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 404-636-8400

Amencan Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE)

Board of'certified Safety Professionals (BCSP)

Chemtrec Non-Emergency Center

Government Printing Office (GPO) [Superintendent of Documents]

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health (NIOSH) Information System

National Safety Council (NSC)

National Technical Information Service ( N T I S )

Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) Publications Eastem Georgia Regional Office 404-493-6644 Western Georgia Regional Office 404-984-8700 Southern Georgia Regional Office 9 12-652-4393

OSHA Notification Service

Toxic Substance Control Act (TOSCA) Information Service

World Health Organization (WHO) Publications Center USA

Revised by CBJoseph on 06/01/95

708-6924 12 1

2 17-359-9263

800-262-82C3

202-5 12- 1800

617-770-3000

800-35NIOSH

708-285-1 121

703-487-4650

202-219-4667

800-32 1-OSHA

202-554-1404

518-436-9686

I

Welcome to:

SOLVENT ALTERNATIVE CONFERENCE

ATLANTA, GEORGIA

JUNE 29, 1995

Presented by:

POLLUTION PREVENTION ASSISTANCE DIVISION GEORGIA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

7 MARTIN LUTHER KING JR D R S.W. SUITE 450

ATLANTA, GEORGIA 30334 (403) 651-5120

AND

ELECI'RO-OPTICS, EWRONMENT AND MATERIALS LABORATORY GEORGIA TECH RESEARCH INSTITUTE GEORGIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

ATLANTA, GEORGIA 30332 (404) 894-3806

In Conjunction With

CONTINUING EDUCATION GEORGIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

ATLANTA, GEORGIA 30332 (404) 894-2400