EFFECTS OF GROUP COUNSELMG WTH UNIVERSITY

STUDENTS WHO COMPLAM OF PROCRASTMATION

Natasha Kutlesa Department o f Educational Psychology

Submitted in partial fùlfilment of the requirernents for the degree of

Master of Education

Faculty of Graduate Studies The University of Western Ontario

London, Ontario May 1998

0 Natasha Kutlesa i 998

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Abstract

The Important Events Questionnaire (EQ) was used to investigate the dynamics of

procrastination and changes experienced by 8 group memben (4 men and 4 women)

participating in two, 5-session procrastination groups. Pre- and post-group scores on the

Procrastination Questio~aire were compared to assess changes in procrastination over

time. A follow-up interview was conducted afler the last session to assess effects of the

therapy. At the end of each session, group members descnbed the most important event in

the session, the reason for its importance, their thoughts and feelings about the event, their

thoughts and actions between sessions, and any change they experienced as a result of the

session. Three judges exarnined these Witten responses and identified cognitive,

behavioral, and affective changes expenenced by the group members. Fourteen themes

associated with dynamics of procrastination and nine themes associated with the

treatment of procrastination were identified. It was found that the number of themes was

correlated with the amount of change. Two patterns of associations among themes were

observed for dynamics of procrastination and one pattern for the treatment of

procrastination. Associations between gender and themes are discussed.

Keywords: Procrastination; university students; group therapy; change processes;

dynamics; treatment.

Acknowledgements

1 would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to al1 members of my

Advisory Cornmittee for their advice and feedback during data collection, analysis, and

writing of rny thesis: Dr. Aian Slemon, my thesis supervisor for his constant support,

guidancey and encouragement. He offered me insights and feedback t hat were invaluable

throughout this study; Dr. Anne Cumrnings, for her cornrnents and suggestions that guided

me in the clarification and editing of this study; Dr. Jack Russel for his enthusiasm,

inspiration, expertise in this area, and his willingness to CO-ordinate the group through the

Student Development Centre and to supervise the group facilitators. 1 would aiso like to

thank Daniela Cnstini and Pamela Silcox for their creativity, flexibility, and ingenuity in

facilitating both groups.

This thesis could not have been completed without the support fiom my fellow

graduate students, Brenda and Angela, who often set aside their tasks to assist with the

editing of my thesis. Their understanding and reassurance helped me overcome daily

obstacles and moments of discouragements. Words of gratitude are extended to my

parents for their constant support and encouragement in this endeavor. A final thank-you

to Virgile who in many ways was inspirational in the development of this thesis. His quiet,

consistent support and patience during my years of study have been greatly ippreciated.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate of Examination Abstract Acknowledgments Table of Contents List of Tables List of Figures List of Appendices

Introduction Definition of Procrastination Theoretical Models of Procrastination Correlates of Procrastination Treatment of Procrastination Research Questions

Method Participants Instrumentation Design and Procedure

Results Quantitative Analyses Descriptive Sumaries Thematic Analysis Correlations Among Themes and Correlations Among Students Gender and Procrastination Themes

Discussion Improvement vs. Nonimprovement Dynamics of Procrastination Treatment of Procrastination Correlation Among Themes Gender and Procrastination Themes Study Limitations and Future Research Suggestions Implications

Appendix A The Procrastination Questionnaire Appendw B Instructions for Codimg Change Appendix C General Themes for Each Group Session Appendix D Session Outhes Appendix E Approval of M.ED. Thesis Research Proposal

Page Il ...

Ill

iv v

vi vii . . .

Vlll

References

Vita

LIST OF TABLES

Table

1

Description

A Cornparison of Pretest and Postest Mean Scores for Six Scales on the PQ

Names, Definitions, and Examples of Themes

Summary of ûynamics of Procrastination

Summary of Treatment Approaches or Outcomes

Summary of Themes fiom Table 3 and Table 1

Correlations Among Themes Using Students as Units

Correlations Arnong Students Using Themes as Units

Correlations Between Thernes and Gender

Page

Figure

1

LIST OF FIGURES

Description Page

Patterns of Relations Among Themes That Correlate r z 1.70 ( 70

vii

Appendix

Appendix A

Appendix B

Appendix C

Appendix D

Appendix E

LIST OF APPENDICES

The Procrastination Questionnaire

Instructions for Coding Change

General Themes for Each Group Session

Session Outlines

Approval of M.ED. Thesis Research Proposal

S..

Vlll

Page

99

1 O4

1 O6

1 O7

121

1

Introduction

University counseling centres are often presented with students who are bright and

capable but whose achievernent does not reflect their true potentiai. One of the reasons for

not meeting one's potentiai is chronic procrastination. Although everybody procrastinates

at one time or another, chronic failure to begin or complete assigned tasks interferes with

academic achievement. It often results in stress, and it can lead to senous physical or

psychologicai problems. ültimately, the pattern of chronic procrastination becomes self-

defeating. To understand the underlying causes and correlates of this self-defeating

behavior, it is important to examine not ody behaviorai but also emotional and cognitive

aspects of procrastination. For this reason, this study examines in detail the behavioral,

emotional, and cognitive changes that occurred during treatment of eight students who

participated in group therapy for procrastination.

Definition of Prclcrastination

Chronic procrastination or a repeated pattern of delaying academic tasks is a

common problem for college students (Ellis & Knaus, 1977; Muszynski & Akamatsu,

1991; Rothblum, Soiomon, & Murakami, 1986). It has been estimated that at least 25

percent (McCown, Johnson, & Petzel, 1989) and possibly as high as 40 percent

(Rothblum et al., 1986) of students suffer from high or severe levels of procrastination.

Solomon and Rothblum (1984) defined procrastination as the "act of needlessiy delaying

tasks to the point of experiencing subjective discomfort" (p. 503). Milgram (1 99 1)

expanded this definition and emphasized four components necessary for procrastination:

(a) a behavior sequence of postponement, (b) resulting in a substandard behavioral

2

product, (c) involving a task perceived by the procrastinator as important to perform, and

(d) resulting in a state of emotional upset. Though Milgram's definition is one of the

broadest definitions to date, it does not include the difference between dysfunctional

(irrational) and functional (rational) procrastination.

Procrastination can be hnctional for people who need intense levels of stimulation

to be motivated. Procrastination can also be used as an excuse for poor performance,

especially by people who accomplish their tasks only at the last minute. McCown and

Roberts, 1994 (as cited in Ferrari, Johnson, & McCown, 1995) argue that dysfunctional

p~ocrastination can be defined as "the time past the optimal beginning point for

completion of an important task that has a high probability of needing completion and that

does not have unreasonable demands of personai cost s associated wit h attempted

completion" (p. 12 ). On the other hand, rational or functional procrastination is "similar

behavior evoked for actions that have a low probability of needing completion or have

excessively hi& costs associated with personal completion at their optimal time" (p. 12).

The present research focused on the dysfunctional or irrationai side of acadernic

procrastination. Academic procrastination was defined as involving both behaviord delay

and persona1 discodon or upset about the delay (Rothblum, et al., 1986; Solomon &

Rothblum 1984). The goal of the present group therapy program was to increase clients'

awareness of how and why they procrastinated through examining and changing their

thinking, emotions, and actions.

3

Theoretical Models of Procrastination

Though researchen have not yet agreed upon a definition of procrastination, it has

been related to severai cognitive, behavioral, and affective constructs and is regarded as a

"dysfunction of important human abilities" in routine tasks and critical life tasks (Milgram,

Sroloff, & Rosenbaum, 1988, p. 2 10). Psychoanalpic theorists made one of the earliest

attempts to explain procrastination. Freud (1953) discussed the role of anxiety associated

with avoidance behavior in his monograph Inhibitions, Symptoms, and A m k t y . He

postulated that tasks are avoided pnmarily because they are threatening to the ego. One of

the most obvious problems with this theory is that its concepts cannot be easily tested.

Bimer ( 1 993 ) attempted to describe procrastination from the psychoanalytic point of

view--a defense against impulses and separation. He proposed that procrastination is a

result of psychologically or physicaily dangerous maturation and growth processes.

According to his theory, procrastinators are best seen as passive children who are afiaid to

assert themselves actively.

Psychodynarnic theorists tend to reject rigid Freudian concepts and emphasize the

symbolic meaning of early childhood e1.notions that can be expressed later in life. For

example, procrastination may be an hdirect expression of previous childhood experiences

such as childhood traumas (van der Kolk, 1987). McCown, Carise, and Johnson (199 1)

found that adult children of alcoholics score higher on procrastination measures than other

college students.

Missildine (1 963) argued that chronic "procrastination syndrome" is caused by

faulty childrearing practices, that is, parents who "overcoerced" achievement and set

4

unrealistic goals for children. Because the children are unable to meet their parents'

expectations or goals, they become anvious and feel wonhless. These feelings are

reexperienced and reenacted later in iife when seemingly well-functioning adults cannot

meet the demands of the work environment. MacIntyre (1 964) also focused on faulty

childrearing practices @oth authoritarian and permissive) as directly related to

procrastination in adulthood. Recently, Ferrari and Olivette ( 1994) found that

procrastination scores arnong 84 young women were significantly related to their father's

authoritarian parenting style. They concluded that by delaying the beginning or completion

of tasks, wornen in their study were able to release their anger at their authoritarian fathers

in a more socially acceptable way. These women used procrastination as a passive-

aggressive strategy that helped them cope with controlling fathers. The results of the

above study are consistent with previous research that also demonstrated the influence of

parenting styles on personality development (Buri, Louiselle, Misukanis, & Mueller, 1988;

Fischer & Crawford, 1992).

In contrast to Ferrari and Olivette (1 994), Ferrari's (1 99 1 a) studies did not find

significant gender differences arnong male and fernale procrastinators. In addition, Ferrari

and Emmons' (1994) study that investigated relations between procrastination and

ïevenge, where it was hypothesized that procrastination might be a means of getting

revenge for rnistreatment by others, found no sigruficant gender differences on either the

procrastination or the revenge d e s . On the other hand, Solomon and Rothblum (1984)

found that women reported si@cantly more fear of failure than men as an antecedent of

procrastination. Similarly, Milgram, Marshevsky, and Sadeh (1995) found that among low

5

delay-high upset students, men more fiequently than women reponed time management

problems which was consistent with previous research by Milgram, Batori, and Mowrer

(1993). The women in their study reponed adverse social consequences of doing too well

academicaily which was consistent with previous research (Deaux, 1976; Homer, 1972)

on gender differences and pursuit of success. The research on gender differences and

procrastination is not conclusive. While some studies show significant relations between

gender and procrastination, others report no such findings.

The psychodynamic, like the psychoanalytic perspective, continues to be very

popular in our culture (e.g., Burka & Yuen, 1983), despite a number of difficulties in

empirical evaiuation. Current research has established only an indirect relation between

parental authority and the development of dysfunctional procrastination as a form of

passive-aggression. To demonstrate a more direct relation between parental authonty

styles and procrastination, "more direct tests of this hypothesis are needed" (Ferrari &

Olivette, 1994, p. 98).

Behavioral researchers (e.g. , Eysenck, 1953; Kantor, 1953) have been very critical

of psychoanaiytic and psychodynamic theories. Skinner (1953) suggested that behavior

exists because it has been reinforced. According to reinforcement theory, procrastination

is seen as a result of a previous history of successfûl procrastination. Students who

procrastinate may have previously found other tasks that are more reinforcing than

studying (Bijou, Morris, & Parsons, 1976). Classical learning theory postdates that

procrastination occun because the "procrastinator" has been either rewarded or not

punished sufficiently for it. McCown and Johnson (1 991) indirectly tested this hypothesis

6

by examining the types of activities performed by students when avoiding studying.

Activities that students found more reinforcing than studying included either planned

social activities (such as sports, dating, religious activities, club participation) or impulsive

activities (such as listening to music, extraneous reading, day dreaming, telephone calls,

etc.). While extraverted students preferred to associate with larger numbers of people,

introverted students tended to prefer more isolated settings when they avoided studying.

Results of this study suggest that procrastination is reinforced by engaging in activities

that are more enjoyable (more rewarding) than studying. Solomon and Rothblum (1 984)

examined acadernic procrastination in 342 college students. A factor analysis of the

fiequency and reasons for academic procrastination indicated t hat student s tended to

procrastinate on tasks that they found unpleasant or aversive, again suggesting the utility

of a behavioral account of procrastination (Ferrari et al., 1995).

Contemporary leaming theory has expanded the traditional reward and punishrnent

tenets of classical reinforcement theory. Procrastination is seen either as escape or

avoidance behavior (e.g., escaping or avoiding responsibilities, Ferrari et al., 1995). The

stimulus that controls the avoidance cm be internai or extemal. Burka and Yuen ( 1983)

and Solomon and Rothblurn (1984) suggested that oce stimulus for procrastination is

anxiety. They showed that students with extreme levels of anxiety are most likely to

procrastinate. The avoidance of the anxiety associated with studying is reinforcing.

Ainslie's ( 1975, 1992) theory of specioirs rewmdr can also be applied to

procrastination. His theory is described.as a positive-reinforcement variation of avoidance

conditioning. It assumes a human tendency to choose short-term over long-term goals if

7

the short-term goal is imrnediately pleasurable. The procrastinator's intentions to complete

a task (long-term goal) are often intemipted by short-term rewards such as leisure

activities. The result is decreased anxiety and avoidance of the task which often develops

into a habit that may result in a lower than optimal performance (Ferrari et al., 1995).

Behavioral leaming theory describes procrastination as a form of avoidance or

escape conditioning and as dependent upon a person's reinforcement history. However, it

does not account for individual differences in procrastination behavior. It has been shown

that some people procrastinate only with particular tasks and at specific times in their lives

(e.g., doctoral dissertations, Muszynski & Akamatsu, 199 1 ). To account for individual

differences and to look for individual factors that could explain these differences,

cognitive-behavioral theorists (Ellis & Knaus, 1977; Knaus, 1973) related procrastination

to irrational cognitive processes (irrational fears and self-criticisms).

Ellis and Knaus (1977) suggested that procrastination is a maladaptive behavior

that results fiom imtional and illogical beliefs about the world and oneself They also

related procrastination to perfectionism (with its excessive need for social approval), guilt

(as a result of not ficing up to self-imposed standards in a rational fashion), anxiety (by

overgeneraiizing and taking a pessimistic view), and to self-fulfilling prophecies

(expectations of failure). Based on their clinical experiences, they concluded that

procrastinators are ofien unsure of their ability to complete a task. ï'hey delay starting the

task because of an irrational fear of what constitutes an adequately accomplished task.

According to Ellis and Knaus, one of the major irrational beliefs that lads to

procrastination is the idea that "1 must do well" to prove "1 am a worthwhile person."

8

Inevitably, procrastinators fail to accomplish the task because t heir standards are simply

too high. As they fail to accomplish their tasks, the irrational beliefs they hold often

produce a loss of self-esteem. To avoid the emotional consequences of repeated failures,

procrastinators tend to delay starting and completing their work until it cannot be

completed satisfactorily. Procrastination is then used as a convenient excuse that protects

the individuai fiom ~el~esteem threats. Taylor and Brown (1 988) showed that fiequently

excuses are usehl for the maintenance of a positive self-image and adaptive for mental

health and perceived well-being. For student procrastinators, a preference for multiple

excuses has also been demonstrated by Mandel and Marcus (1988) in their work on

academic underachievers.

Fear of failure was first systematically implicated in procrastination behavior by

Solomon and Rothblum ( 1984) through the analysis of factors that influence

procrastination. They found that fear of failure accounted for alrnost 50% of the variance

in factor analysis of reasons why students procrastinate (independent of their level of

procrastination). Fear of failure was also positively correlated with depression scores and

included evaluation amiety, low self-confidence, and perfectionistic standards for one's

performance. Milgram et al. (1995) demonstrated that students who were concerned

about their tendency to delay performing on academic tasks showed an underlying fear of

failure. Their study showed that the reasons students gave for their delaying behavior

included more socially acceptable behaviors such as poor time management. Poor time

management is probably less threatening to the self-esteem than fear of failure, and,

therefore, more easily acknowledged. They also showed that the strongest predictor of

9

interest in changing delaying behavior was students' concem about the consequences of

delay, rather than the delay itself

Correlates of Procrastination

Ferrari, Parker, and Ware ( 19%) and Tuckman ( 1 99 1 ) argued t hat fear of failure

arnong academic procrastinators is related to low self-efficacy. They suggested that

college students procrastinated in order to protect themselves from self-knowledge

regarding lack of ability or competence. Ferrari ( 199 1c) also found that procrastinators

chose easy tasks with little diagnostic ability over tasks that would enable them to get

more diagnostic information about themselves. He hypothesized that avoiding such

diagnostic information probably stems from fear of failure. By avoiding and shielding

themselves from self-knowledge about lack of ability or competence, female

procrastinators in Ferrari's ( 199 1 b) study were able to protect their "vulnerable seif-

esteem. "

A moderate relation between sel f-esteem and procrastination has been established

and replicated several times (Beswick, Rothblum, & Mann, 1988; Burka & Yuen, 1983;

Ferrari, 199 1c; Ferrari, 1 992a) . L'Abate (1994) characterized low self-esteem as a

product of a prolonged history of failure to meet internally generated expectations. Ferrari

( 1 994) extended his previous research findings (Ferrari, 199 1 b; Ferrari, 1 WZb) by

exarnining the relation between two types of dysfùnctional procrastination (decisional and

behavioral) and self-esteem, interpersonal dependency, and self-defeating patterns. He

described decisional procrastination as "the purposive delay in making decisions within

some specific tirne fiame" (p. 673). Behavioral procrastination was defined as delaying

10

tasks to protect a vulnerable self-esteem. Results of his study showed that interpersonal

dependency was a significant predictor of decisional procrastination, while self-esteem was

a significant predictor of behavioral procrastination, suggesting separate factors in the two

types of task delays. Decisional procrastination was related to self-defeating behaviors

such as failing to cornplete crucial iasks, inciting anger in others and rejecting others who

treat one well. Behavioral procrastination was related to failing task completion, rejecting

others who treat one well, feeling guilty after a positive event, and choosing handicapping

situations. These results suggest that procrastinaton are not a homogeneous group and

that personality variables may be useful for identifying different ways people chose to

procrastinate.

Schill ( 1990) has described eight criteria characterizing the self-defeating

personaiity. These eight criteria include (a) choosing people and situations that lead to

disappointment, failure, or rnistreatment, even when better opportunities exist; (b)

rejecting or neutralizing assistance from others; (c) feeling guilty after personai positive

events; (d) promoting anger or rejection in others; (e) rejecting pleasure or denying

pleasure within oneselt ( f ) failing to accomplish tasks necessary to obtain a personal

objective, even though one has the ability; (g) feeling apathetic toward others who treat

one weii; and (h) engaging in excessive self-sacrifice. Ferrari's (1994) study showed that

the composite, overall index of dysfunctional procrastination was significantly related to

the four criteria of Sctllll's selfdefeating personality: choosing disappointment or failures,

inciting anger in others, failing task completion crucial to an objective, and rejecting othen

who treat one weli. These findings suggest that chronic procrastination is self-defeating

11

toward the achievement of one's life goals. C hronic procrastinators, when compared to

nonprocrastinators, have reported higher rates of anger, hostility, and depression and have

been found to handicap their own performance (Ferrari, 199 1 c, d; Lay, Knish, & Zanatta,

1 992; McCown et al., 1989).

Self-handicapping behavior (a pattern of self-deceiving excuse making) and

procrastination share sirnilar underlying motives (Lay et al., 1992) and cm be rnanifested

in sirnilar ways, such as lack of practice (Tice & Baumeister, 1990), reduction of effon

(Rhodewalt & Fairfield, 199 1 ), and selection of unfavorable performance settings (Ferrari,

199 1 b). These behaviors can be viewed as both procrastination and self-handicapping.

However, there is a difference between these two concepts. Procrastination involves a

temporal dimension, while some self-handicapping behaviors do not (Lay et al., 1992).

Although both procrastination and self-handicapping have been positively related to the

protection of one's self-esteem, procrastination was greater on tasks regarded as

unpleasant and tasks that required skills that procrastinators did not believe they possessed

(Milgram et al., 1988). Procrastinators have also been described as hi& in neurotic

disorganization (Johnson & Bloom, 1999, suggesting that the protection of self-esteem

may not be the pnmary motive for procrastination-in contrast to the interpretation of self-

handicapping that focuses mainly on the protection of self-esteem.

Depression and anxiety have been considered as possible correlates of

procrastination (L'Abate, 1994). Beck (1987) viewed depression as partly characterized

by negatively distorted cognitions comprised of distorted thought processes, negative

automatic thoughts, and dysfunctionai attitudes. Depression is also related to the inability

12

to complete things promptly; however, it is not clear whether the specific failure to

complete tasks causes depression or depression results in the inability to complete tasks on

time (Ferrari et al., 1995). Beswick et al. (1988) examined the relation between

depression, measured by the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck & Beamesdorfer, 1974),

and students' tendency to procrdstinate. They found significant correlations between self-

reported procrastination and depression. Similar findings have been reported by McCown

et al. (1989).

Depression, anxiety, and procrastination have oflen been seen as independent

concepts. Only recently have researchers begun viewing overlapping features between

depression and anxiety (Block, Gjerde, & Block, 199 1 ; Clark & Watson, 199 1 ) and

exarnining their relation to procrastination (Lay, 1994). Lay's (1 995) study demonstrated

that procrastinators experience higher levels of dejection (depression)-related than

agitation (anxiety)-related emotions when compared to nonprocrastinators. Lay further

hypothesized that procrastinators may not experience higher levels of agitation because

they may be especially immune to the "ought tom aspects of the academic world due to

their rebelliousness or lower levels of responsibility.

Johnson and Bloom (1 995) examined the relative contribution of major personality

factors to variance in academic procrastination. Their results showed procrastination

scores to be significantly correlated with lack of Conscientiousness and Neuroticisrn. They

suggested that low conscientious coliege students may demonstrate increased levels of

neuroticism due to their environmental situation. Low conscientious students may also

expenence a rise in anxiety (with a later increase in Neuroticism) when presented with a

13

task because they lack organizational skills needed for the successful completion of

academic tasks. At the same time, Schouwenburk and Lay ( 1995) examined the sources of

trait procrastination within the five-factor personality structure. Trait procrastination in

their study was associated with Conscientiousness and, to a lesser degree, with

Neuroticism. In both studies, the relation between procrastination and Yeuroticism was

primarily traced to non-anxiety facets such as impulsiveness (a tendency to give in to

temptations; Costa and McCrae, 1980) and vulnerability (an inadequacy in dealing with

problems of stress).

Another factor, perfectionism, has also been linked to procrastination. Burka and

Yuen ( 1 983) suggested that when personal standards regarding task completion are too

high, tasks are often not completed promptly. They suggested that procrastination stems

from excessively high standad-setting behavior, in part, Frorn being raised in a demanding

farnily that doubted the child's ability to achieve. Sadler and Sacks ( 1993) administered

measures of multidimensional perfectionism, academic procrastination, and depression to

undergraduate and graduate students. Their findings suggest a relation arnong self-

oriented and sociaily prescribed perfectionism, procrastination, and depression. They

hypothesized that students' depression is related to their attitudes toward themselves,

including self-evaluation and attainment of perfection, and cm be exacerbated with an

increase in d e t y due to procrastination. Sadler and Sacks suggested that possible

cognitive and behavioral cornponents of perfectionism and procrastination should be

assessed in the treatment of students experiencing depressive symptoms.

14

Both perfectionism and procrastination have been related to irrational beliefs

involving the need for high levels of performance and the need for social approval

(Beswick et a 1 ., 1988; Flett, Hewitt, Blankstein, & Koledin, 199 1 ). Another comrnon

characteristic of perfectionism and procrastination is that both are associated with

elements of Type A behavior (Flett, Hewitt, Blankstein, & Dynin, 1994). Effert and

Ferrari (1989) showed that procrastinators exhibit more impatience and speed which are

components of Type A behavior. Fear of failure is another cornmon factor of

procrastination and perfectionism (Pacht, 1984). Flett, Hewitt, Blankstein, and Mosher

( 199 1 ) confinned a close link between perfectionism and fear of failure. Similarly,

Rothblum ( 1990) and Schouwenburg ( 1992) have dernonstrated a relation between

excessive concem with failure and procrastination.

However, there are some important differences between procrastination and

perfectionism, especially with regard to the distinction between self-onented and socially

prescribed perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1 99 1 ). Self-oriented perfectionists have a strong

motivation to be perfect, set and hold unrealistic self-standards, have personal doubts

about their actions, and usually focus on flaws and past failures (Frost, Marten, Lahart, &

Rosenblate, 1990). On the other hand, socially prescribed perfectionists hold beliefs that

others have unredistic standards and perfectionistic motives for personal behaviors, fear

negative social evaluation, believe in the extemal control of reinforcement, and have a

strong need for the approval of others (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Socidly prescribed

perfectionism more closely resembles procrastination than self-oriented perfectionism.

Recent studies have shown that procrastination and socially prescribed perfectionism

15

relate to broad trait dimensions of personality as measured by the NEO-PI (Costa &

McCrae, 1989). Both socially prescribed perfectionism and procrastination were linked

with Neuroticism, while self-oriented perfectionisrn was associated with

Conscientiousness. Johnson and Bloom (1 995) suggested that the conscientious individual

is characterized by a high level of self-oriented perfectionism and a low level of

procrastination while the neurotic individual is characterized by both socially prescribed

perfectionism and procrastination.

Procrastination has also been associated with achievement motivation. Briordy

( 1 980) suggested that procrastinators show less achievement motivation t han

nonprocrastinators. However, Taylor ( 1979) found no significant differences in

achievement motivation between students that procrastinate and students that finish their

tasks on time. McCown ( 1 994) examined achievement motivation and procrastination in

college students. Procrastination was negatively related to the need for achievement.

Achievement motivation is also aftiected by lack of purpose or a failure to define specific

goals, especially in acadernic settings where students who have not decided upon their

careers may not be as motivated to succeed as students with clear career goals.

Gallagher's (1992) survey showed a large number of students reporting concems such as

career uncertainty, lack of motivation, and procrastination. On the other hand, hi&

achieving women have been shown to use behavioral fonns of self-sabotage such as

procrastination, perfectionism, failure to priontize activities, and overcommittment. Post

(1988) Mewed these behaviors as an expression of conflict related to vulnerable self-

esteem and to women's sex-role socialization. Results of these studies suggest that not

16

only lack of achievement motivation but also high achievement motivation may be related

to procrastination.

Procrastinators and nonprocrastinators have been compared on intelligence

measures. Ferrari (1 99 1 c) found that they did not differ significantly on intelligence

measures such as verbal or abstract-thinking abilities. Aitken (1 982) found that academic

procrastinators had slightly higher math SAT scores than nonprocrastinators. She

hypothesized that procrastination is more common in capable students because their

cognitive abilities enable them to postpone their work until the last minute and still do well

in school. Ferrari et al. ( 1995) reported results of the largest but unpublished study by

McCown and Ferrari ( 1 99 5) regarding academic procrastination and intelligence. Their

results showed a slight but signifiant correlation between SAT scores and tendency to

procrastinate. High verbal ability was associated with procrastination on verbal tasks,

while low math ability was associated with procrastination on mathematics-based tasks. It

seems that students who do poorly in math and science may procrastinate more on these

subjects. However, the researchers did not explain the relation between high verbal ability

and procrastination.

Based on their clinical expenences, Burka and Yuen (1983) suggested a relation

between procrastination and inability to estimate time correctly. McCown (1 986) found

that procrastinators tended to underestimate the time necessary to cornplete a task, while

nonprocrastinators tended to overestimate this time, even though both procrastinators and

nonprocrastinators required equal time to cornplete a task. However, most studies suggest

that c hronic procrast ination involves behavioral, cognitive, and affective component s

17

beyond those accounted for by ineffective time management (Le., Ferrari, 199 1 b; Lay,

1988; Saddler & Sacks, 1993).

In summary, empincal and theoretical findings on procrastination can be divided

generaily into two groups; the first group emphasizes task performance and goal

completion while the second group examines individual differences and personaiity factors

that may be useful in trying to understand procrastination (Johnson & Bloom, 1 995). Most

of the studies also share this limitation: they rely on questionnaire results. Most

questionnaires that measure procrastinating behavior are self-report devices based on

researchers' preconceptions about the nature of procrastination without direct

observations of procrastinators in the act of procrastinating (Boice, 1996).

. . of P r o c m

To date, hardly any literature exists on outcomes of treatment for procrastination.

Data obtained are usually used for intemal evaluation of treatment programs and have not

been published. Treatment recommendations for procrastination have mostly been based

on clinical experience. Ferrari et al. (1 995) in their book on Procrasrinatior~ mzd T i k

Avot'riance described several therapeutic interventions that may be helpful for

procrastinaton. For student populations, a group therapy format was recommended.

Students were descnbed as very rnotivated to overcome their procrastination due to poor

grades. In contrast to the student population, Ferrari et al. (1995) found that the attrition

rates of adult clients are so high that group treatment for adult procrastinators is usuaily

not feasible. Rather, they recommend individual therapy programs for adult, nonstudent

populations.

18

The group therapy prograrn (Ferrari et al., 1995) for student procrastinators was

aimed at changing anxious cognitions and altering conscientiousness. Students were

treated primarily with behavioral and cognitive methods (Ellis & Knaus, 1977; Greco,

1985; Knaus, 1973; Rorer, 1983). The efficacy of the treatrnent was assessed by

adrninistenng the procrastination inventory (the Aitken Procrastination Scale, Aitken,

1982) at the beginning and the end of treatment and at 3-, 6-, and 12-month intervals &er

treatment. Preliminary outcome data suggest a treatment effect of . 70 over no treatment

and .35 over a general academic-skills workshop of similar length. Follow-up results

showed effect sizes of .52, .44, and .5 1 for 3-, 6-, and 12-month intervals, respectively.

Ferrari et al. (1995) acknowledged that additionai work is needed to evaiuate the efficacy

of t heir treatment prograrn. Currently, t hey are experirnenting wit h specific techniques t hat

may increase the effect of treatment.

The research to date has focused rnainly on the relation between procrastination

and a wide varîety of variables ( eg , depression, disorganization, time management,

irrational beliefs, self-esteem) assessed by questio~aires that were adrninistered to a large

number of students. Sarnple-based procrastinators and nonprocrastinators were then

cornpared on different behavioral, affective, and cognitive measures. No systematic

analysis of behavioral, affective, or cognitive dynamics or effects during the treatment of

academic procrastination has been reported. The purpose of this study was to examine

how procrastinating students perceive and interpret their behavioral, affective, and

cognitive processes.

19

Procrastination is viewed as a self-defeating behavior energized by feu that can be

modified by acting differently, thinking differently, and developing strong feelings

supporting the change of farniliar patterns. To change patterns of procrastination, the ABC

model (Ellis & Knaus, 1977) was applied. This model has been used frequently with

college students (Ferrari et al., 1995) and has been recognized as an effective treatment for

procrastination. It invoives challenging and changing cognitive distort ions and

misperceptions. For the purpose of this study, it was hypothesized that cognitive

misconceptions play an important role in procrastination. One reason for choosing this

model was its theoretical foundation; it is based on the assumption that processes such as

thinking, feeling, and acting are not disparate entities, but that they significantly overlap

(Walen, DiGiuseppe, & Dryden, 1992). The model also stresses the importance of the

therapeutic relationship for personality change and emphasizes collaboration between the

therapist and the client. For the purposes of this research, thinking, feeling, and acting

were seen as closely interrelated and necessary components of change that can be

facilitated by an accepting t herapeutic relationship.

According to the ABC model, activating events andor inferences about these

events (A's) engage evaluative beiiefs (B's), which in turn lead to feelings and behaviors

(C's). The A in this framework (activating event) can be either intemal or extemal. B

stands for beliefs which are evaluative cognitions or constructed views of the world that

are either rigid or flexible. Rigid beiiefs are called irrationai beliefs and take the form of

muas, absolute shoulds, have to's, got to's, and so fonh. hational beliefs restrict us to

the road of self4efeating behavior. C in the ABC framework stands for emotional and

20

behavioral consequences of beliefs about A. The C's that follow fiom irrational beliefs

about negative A's are called inappropriate negative consequences. Inappropnate negative

emotions that are associated with an activating event usually (a) lead to a great deal of

physical pain and discodort; @) motivate self-defeating behavior; and (c) hinder behavior

necessary to reach one's goals. On the other hand, appropriate negative emotions, where

C's follow from flexible, rational beliefs about negative A's, (a) alert one that goals are

being blocked but do not immobilize; (b) motivate self-enhancing behavior; and (c)

encourage the successful execution of behavior necessary to reach goals (Dryden &

DiGiuseppe, 1 990).

The purpose of this research was to help group memben identify the irrational

beliefs and inappropriate negative emotions and to substitute these beliefs and emotions

with rational beliefs and more appropriate emotions and actions. The goal of therapy was

twofold: (a) to facilitate a therapeutic change by recognizing cognitions, feelings, and

behaviors associated with procrastination, and (b) to start restnicturing this thinking,

feeling, and acting to fùrther suppon self-esteem and self-efficacy as the end result of the

change process.

To examine the changes procrastinators expenenced in the group, Goldfiied7s

(1991) transtheoreticai description of therapeutic change was used as a theoretical basis

for this study . Although there are many theones of change in counseling (e-g., Greenberg

& Rhodes, 199 1 ; Heppner & Claiborn, 1989; Mahoney, 199 1 ; Rice & Greenberg, 1984),

their primary emphasis is on either cognitive or affective components of change, rather

than on the integration of these processes. To examine al1 possible cognitive, affective, and

2 1

behavioral processes that may occur during therapy and to avoid focusing too narrowly on

either of these processes, Goldfiied's (199 1) mode1 of change was used. Goldfried

identified several cornmon eiements of theories of change in counseling: (a) ofering a

sense of hope to clients; (b) developing a good therapeutic relationship where the client

perceives the therapist as caring, understanding, and knowledgeable (this therapeutic

alliance is also characterized by an agreement between the client and therapist on the goals

of therapy and the means by which these aims can be accomplished); (c) helping clients

becorne more aware of their feelings, thoughts, motives, and actions and connections

between thoughts and feelings, between feelings and actions, the impact that clients'

actions have on others, or the impact of others on them; (d) encouraging corrective

experiences which involve clients taking certain risks in doing what they previously had

been reluctant or afraid to do (this corrective experience may represent the core of the

therapeutic change process); and (e) providing continual reality testing where the clients

are repeatedly provided with information or hypotheses that help them correct their false

beliefs, emotional distress, and other problematic patterns of behavior. Goidfned viewed

increased self-eficacy and self-esteem as the endpoint of the change process in counseling.

The present study exarnined the change processes in procrastination group therapy

based on Goldfned's (1991) mode1 of therapeutic change. It was assumed that students

entering the procrastination group were most likely to do so because the cognitive,

emotional, and behavioral patterns that have hel~ed them so far were no longer working.

For example, students who were able to procrastinate and did well in high-school or

during their first years in college, might find that because of their delaying behavior and

22

the increasing difficulty of the program they were no longer able to meet their persona1

standards. This awareness might result in emotional distress. By joining the procrastination

group, these students hoped that they could be helped; an essential first step in the change

process. In order to stop procrastinating, these individuais were supported by accepting,

insightfùl, and helpful therapists as well as other group members with whom they were

working closely to achieve agreed-upon t herapeutic goals.

The role of facilitators in this group was to help members become aware of ways

in which they might sabotage or undermine their academic achievement. Through gaining

an awareness of why and how they procrastinated, it was proposed that students might be

better able to develop strategies to stop procrastinating. It was hypothesized that for

change to occur group members would have to take certain risks, challenge their

maladaptive beliefs, and confront any painfùl feelings. As this process is repeated several

times, students might gain more insight into why and how they procrastinate. The task of

the group facilitators in this last stage was to provide students with new hypotheses and to

encourage them to test these hypotheses in real life.

It was expected that students would benefit from group treatment because of close

peer support which seems helpful in promoting behavioral changes needed for overcoming

procrastination (Ferrari et al., 1995). It was also believed tbat exchanges among the group

members would be instrumentai in bringing about change. In contrast to individual

therapy, group therapy provides group suppon, caring, challenging, and other qualities

that are not found to the same degree in individual therapy. The support, challenge, and

divenity within the group would likely help group members discover a number of

23

possibilities for changing their pattems of thinking, feeling, and acting. Group members

would likely benefit from the feedback received from both the group facilitators and other

group members who are stniggling with sirnilar issues. Empathy and support from other

group members might help students identifi what and how they want to change

(Corey & Corey, 1 997).

Research Questions

To describe personal dynamics and effects of counseling, client-recalled important

therapeutic events were used (Cununings, Martin, Hallberg, & Slemon, 1992). To

preserve the richness of clients' descriptions of their experiences in the group, qualitative

analyses of their written and verbal statements about events that they viewed as most

influentid were performed. The written statements by group mernbers d e r each session

and the statements fiom the transcnbed stimulated recall interview af'ter the last session

were organized into a narrative summary to identi@ significant pattems and perceptions of

each group member and of the group as a whole. The study investigated the following

research questions:

(a) What pttems of c w are evident in each individual and in the procrastination

group as a whole?

(b) What cognitive, behavioral, and affective of procrastination are identified

by different clients over time?

(c) What of procrastination are identified by clients as most helphl?

(d) What of relations arnong dynamics and treatment of procrastination are

evident in the procrastination group.

24

(e) What genddifferenca cm be found with respect to dynamics and treatment of

procrastination between men and women?

More specifically, this study looked at &namics of procrastination and examined

whether students report any ç h a w in cognitive (pefiectionism, motivation), emotional

(fear of failure, anxiety), and behavioral (time management, self-discipline, intention-

behavior discrepancy) correlates of procrastination. It was hypothesized that by the end of

j h e r ~ students would report an increase in self-acceptance and a decrease in need to be

perfect at al1 times. They would better recognize why they were not motivated to do

certain school-related tasks. It was also expected that there would be an increase in self-

esteem, more awareness of fear of failure, less anxiety associated with evaluation, better

time management techniques, and a decline in excuse-making to explain intention-behavior

discrepancy. It was also hypothesized that there would be some g-differences found

between men and women with respect to procrastination behavior, thoughts, or feelings.

Because no systematic analysis had been reported of cognitive, affective, and

behavioral changes over time in the treatment of academic procrastination, this study

examined in detail changes in the procrastination group. It was hoped that by identifjmg

and descnbing cognitive, affective, and behavioral themes in client protocols, it would be

possible to extend our understanding of the dynamics and treatments of procrastination,

and thereby expand previous research findings and suggest new approaches to the existing

treatments of procrastination.

Method

. . participanrs

membersL Sixteen students (2 graduate and 14 undergraduate), enrolled at

the University of Western Ontario, volunteered to participate. The sample was divided

into two groups. Initially, the first group consisted of seven students (three women and

four men), and the second group consisted of nine students (three women and six men).

The group size was limited to facilitate exploring individual needs, interacting with others,

and developing a sense of group cohesion. The ages of students in the first group ranged

fiom 19 to 35 years (mean age = 23.3 years). The ages of students in the second group

ranged from 19 to 42 years (mean age = 24.7 years).

Two students (one woman and one man) did not complete the firn group, and six

students (one woman and five men) dropped out of the second group, leaving five

students (two women and three men) who completed the first and three students (two

women and one man) who completed the second group. Within the first group, one

student dropped out &er the first session and another &er the second session. Out of the

six students who did not complete the second group, five attended the first session, four

remained for the second, and only one completed the third session. On average, the

rernaining eight group rnembers (four women and four men) who completed the 5-session

program attended 4.6 sessions (range = 4 to 5).

Students were recruited through advertisements at the Student Developrnent

Centre of the University of Western Ontario, in the university newspapers, and on fliers

posted around the campus. Students who inquired about the procrastination group were

26

informed that there was a 5-session, stmctured group experience dealing with issues that

are comrnon to procrastinators. Group membership was closed to protect group

cohesiveness. Except in one case where a group member missed the first session, new

group members were not added after the first session.

. . oup facwors . Both therapy groups were CO-facilitated by two, second-year,

female graduate students enrolled in the M.Ed. counseling psychology program at the

University of Western Ontario. They were closely s u p e ~ s e d by a counsellor in the

Psychological Services Unit who had 25 years of expenence in leading therapy groups and

in supeMsing group counseling. Group facilitators undenvent training with this supervisor

and the coauthor of "Overcoming Procrastination: A Program for Self Enhancement"

group manual. The role of the group facilitators was to structure the activities of the

group; to facilitate interaction arnong group members; to provide information about new

alternatives of thinking, feeling, and behaving; to encourage group members to t rader

their insights into new actions; and to help establish and clari@ personal goals and goals of

the group (Corey & Corey, 1997).

The data were analyzed by 3 judges: Alan Slemon, the author, and one of

the group facilitators. Dr. Slemon is a clinical psychologist with 13 years experience in

clinical psychology and 30 yean experience in research and teaching psychology. The

author and Daniela Cristini, one of the group facilitators, are second year students in the

Master of Education program in counseling psychology.

27

Instrumentation

estiQMPire (IEQL The IEQ (Cummings et al., 1992) has been

used in numerous studies (Cummings & Hallberg, 1995; Cummings, Hallberg, Martin, &

Slemon, 1992; Cummings, Hailberg, & Slemon, 1994; Cumrnings, Slemon, & Hallberg,

1993) and contains five questions: (a) "What was the most important thing that happened

in this session (Le., what stood out for you)? Please be as specific as you can"; (b) "Why

was it important and how was it helpfùl or not helpful?~ (c) "What thoughts and feelings

do you recall experiencinghaving duhg this time in the session?'; (d) "What did you find

yourself thinking about or doing during the time in between sessions that related in any

way to the last session?" and (e) "Are you expenencing any change in yourself? If so,

what?'The first three questions are session specific, while the last two questions elicit

client processes and experiences outside sessions.

terview, A stimulated recall i n t e ~ e w was used following the

five treatrnent sessions. Six group members agreed to participate in a one-hour interview.

Each participant was given a copy of his or her EQ and asked to elaborate on each

question he or she answered after each session.

P r o c r a s w n . .

Ouestiowe (PO L Studies of factor analyzed

procrastination questionnaires were exarnined (Ferrari et al., 1995). Four factors were

identified as important characteristics of procrastination: perfectionism, lack of

motivatiodtask aversiveness, fear of failure, and low worldself-discipline. The

Procrastination Questionnaire (PQ) was designed by Kutlesa and Slemon ( 1997) to

measure these four aspects of procrastination as expressed in behavior, thought, and

28

feeling. In addition, two scales (oppositional and dependent) from Day and Mensink's

(1 997) preliminary procrastination questionnaire were included. The PQ consists of 53

items. Statements are rated on 5-point scales ranging fiom Strongly Disagree (1) to

Strongly Agree (5). Current procrastination questionnaires, with the exception of Day and

Mensink's preliminary questionnaire, focus mainly on procrastination behaviors and do not

include thoughts and feelings. The PQ inciudes not only behaviors associated with

procrastination but dso thoughts and feelings expenenced when procrastinating (see

Appendix A). A pilot study was done with a group of ten undergraduate and graduate

students at the University of Western Ontario to test the wording of this questionnaire and

minor wording adjustments were made.

. . iston, of P r o c r w o n Information about procrastination included

demographic information, questions regarding how long procrastination had been a

problem, the degree to which academic work was impaired, what the student had

attempted to do about this behavior, other difficulties that were being experienced, and

whether the student was in therapy.

Participants were divided into two groups. The first group met from the beginning

of October to the beginning of November, and the second group met from the beginning

of November to the beginning of Decernber. Both goups met for five weeks (one two-

hour session each week). Students were randornly assigned to either the fira group

(starting in October) or the second (starting in November). Upon agreeing to pmicipate in

29

the research project, dl students answered questions about their history of procrastination

and completed the PQ. The PQ was also given to the students at the end of therapy.

M e r each session, group members completed the Important Events Questionnaire

(IEQ; Curnrnings et al., 1992). Within a week d e r their last session, six out of eight

students participated in an individuai, one-hour stirnulated recall i n t e ~ e w which was

audio recorded and transcribed. Al1 the responses were analyzed by a research team of

two members. Each member of the research tearn read each participants' responses for

every session on the IEQ and for the transcribed stimulated recall i n t e ~ e w s and wrote

separate narrative summaries for each participant over al1 sessions. Cognitive themes

expected to emerge were: need to be perfect, lack of interest/motivation, career

indecision, task aversiveness, low confidence in one's abilities, and rebelliousness.

Emotional themes expected were: increased anxietyhension, depression, feeling

inadequate, low self-esteem, fear of failure, and fear of parentaVeducationa1 authority.

Proposed behaviorai themes were: low work discipline, lack of self-discipline, difficulties

with time management/prioritizing activities, and intention-behavior discrepancy.

Three judges examined participants' responses on the IEQ and the stimulated

recall i n t e ~ e w s and independently ranked clients fiom the client who changed most to the

one who changed least. Agreement among the three judges was measured using Kendall's

coefficient of concordance, = -94, XY22, = 3) = 19.74, p < .001. The final rank

assigned to each client was based upon the means of the three ranklngs. Change was

dehed as an improvement in clients' seKreported thinking, feeling, or acting (Cummings

et ai., 1994). Change was assessed through exarnining specific statements of improvement

30

or change in response to questions four and five on the EQ. Change was aiso assessed

more wholistically for each group member over the entire group process. For example, at

the beginning of group therapy, a student who procrastinates on academic tasks might

describe a need to be thoroughly competent at al1 times. According to Cummings et al.

(1994), the student's thinking pattern would be considered changed or improved if the

student cornes to recognize that success does not detemine one's worth as a person or

that it is impossible for anyone to be perfectly competent. Following the ranking

procedure students were divided into: (a) two students who displayed rnost improvement

or change fiom their perspective (e.g., "1 started to analyze things in steps instead of doing

everything in one day."), (b) four students showing some change or improvement, and (c)

two students with littie or no change or improvement (e.g., "1 thought about nothing

significant between sessions."), (see Appendix B for examples of each category).

m e n t , Each session ran for two hours. A group manual "Overcoming

Procrastination: A Program for Self Enhancement" (Labadie, Conigiio, Nair, & Russel,

1990) was used (see Appendix C for a lia of generai themes for each session, and

Appendix D for a more detailed description of each session).

There were two main goals for the program: (a) to give an understanding of the

problem and (b) to give suggestions and to introduce strategies for change. The emphasis

was on the interaction among cognitive, affective, and behaviorai components of

procrastination. M e r defining procrastination in the first session, group members were

presented with a procrastination goal sheet to help them speciS, goals for this group,

followed by the self-defeating patterns of procrastination, costs, and reasons for

3 1

procrastination. Group members were then introduced to the 3 A's mode1 (where an 'A'

stands for awareness, mswers, and approach). Goal setting and time management were

reviewed and rewards and reinforcements for accomplishing weekly contracts were

discussed. Consequences of procrastination were explored through the Price Wheel

exercise that helped group members identify the personal prices of procrastination. They

wrote the words "Putting Things Off7 in the circle and with the help of stimulus questions

(e.g., What happens to myself when 1 avoid things? What happens to other people in my

life when 1 avoid things? Do 1 experience physical symptoms related to procrastination?

How does it make me feel?) drew lines to other circles putting in each circle the new

consequence of the previous circle. This exercise was followed by The Self-in-Situation

Mode1 where thoughts feelings and behaviors were exarnined in relation to the outer

world. The concept of self-taik was discussed to recognize the intemalized messages that

often dictate Our thoughts, feelings, and actions. Irrational beliefs and cognitive distortions

related to procrastination were examined using Ellis7 Rational Emotive techniques. In their

last session, group members practiced new ways of thinking, feeling, and acting and made

plans for the future.

Results

The results of this study are presented in five sections. First, quantitative results

obtained fiom the pre- and post-group PQs will De exarnined. Pre-group PQs obtained

from participants who completed the group will be compared with the pre-group

questionnaires from participants who did not complete the group. Also, gender differences

between women and men who completed the group will be exarnined. Second, descriptive

surnrnaries of the eight students who completed counseling are given. The students are

classified into three categories: (a) two who displayed most irnprovement or change, (b)

four who showed some change or improvement, and (c) two who displayed little or no

change or improvement. Third, an analysis of the IEQ and stimulated recall transcriptions

will be performed in order to identifi themes associated with the dynamics and treatment

of procrastination. Fourth, relations among themes will be explored. Fifih, relations

between gender and procrastination themes will be discussed.

Three multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAS) were performed on the

scores obtained from the PQs. One MANOVA compared pre- and post-group PQ scores

for each scale for eight participants who completed the group. The second MANOVA

compared pre-group scores for each scale for eight participants who completed the group

with eight participants who dropped out, and the third MANOVA examined gender

differences for each scale between four men and four women who cornpleted the group.

An alpha level of .O5 was used for al1 statistical tests. None of the three MANOVAS was

statistically significant. In all cases Pillai's multivariate test of significance was used.

33

In the first case, differences between the pre- and post- group scores were not

significant, E(6,10) = .60, p = .73. In the second case, no significant direremes were

found between participants who completed the group and participants who dropped out,

E(6, 10) = .34, p = .W. No significant gender differences between women and men who

completed the group were found in the third case, E(6, 10) = 2.41, = . 1 1 . Table I shows

pretest and postest mean scores and standard deviations of the students who completed

the group.

Table 1

A Comp~son of Pretest and P o s s

Pretest Postest

- -

Scale 1

Scde 2

Scale 3

Scale 4

Scaie 5

Scaie 6

Note.

Scale 1 = Perfectionisrn

Scale 2 = Fear of Failure

Scale 3 = Lack of Motivation/Task Aversiveness

Scale 4 = Low WorWSelf-Discipline

Scale 5 = Oppositional

Scale 6 = Dependent

. . escnptive Summaries

The Narratives

Responses to the post-session IEQ and the transcribed stimulated recall i n t e ~ e w s

were sumrnarired based upon each participant's view of his or her improvement or

change. Rank order from (improvement or change) to a (no improvement or

change) was assigned to each participant and then they were grouped into one of the three

categories of change. The narratives will be surnrnarlled and described below using some

direct quotations from each participant.

f i

Linda and Lisa (al1 names are pseudonyrns) showed most improvement or change

in their behavior, thoughts, and feelings about procrastination. Both identified fear of

failure and perfectionism as the underlying factors in their procrastination. They both

agreed they lacked work discipline and acknowledged the triviality of their procrastination

behaviors. Linda described herseif as very anxious, especially when it comes to decision

making. Lisa also felt the need to relax when doing school work. Both reported self-

devaluating thoughts and fear of disapproval. They reported spending time thinking about

procrastination, reflecting on their feelings, and practicing new behaviors not only during

the sessions but also between sessions.

Linda, a 23-year-old female, is a third year undergraduate in Biology. She

has been procrastinating since elementary school and described that problem as "severely

distressing." She reported that she laves everything (e.g., assigned readings, writing

papen/essays, lab reports) until the last minute. As a result, she believes her grades do not

36

reflect her knowledge (her last year's GPA was 64%). Previously, she had tried to make

"strict schedules" for herself but found they were not very helpful. Moreover, she has been

experiencing financial difficulties and is not sure whether she would be abIe to "get by on

the money I have."

Linda recognized that procrastinating is a persona1 choice. She is not powerless

and she can control her procrastination. Identifjing procrastination behavion was helpful

because it helped her think more about their nature and extent. She realized that she spent

too much time on doing low priority, trivial things (e.g., washing dishes, sitting immobile

in Front of TV). She expressed a desire to change so she would no longer "need to rush it

every minute."

Linda realized that some of her fears are irrational: "My biggest fear was to çet a

zero on the exam. It was not acceptable for me to get anything less than perfect." She also

feared disappointing people and letting them down. She often wondered how she could

stop getting in her own way and preventing her own success. She used to expenence great

anxiety about decision making and would oflen devalue henelf "You don't have anything

to say, so what are you doing?"

The Price Wheel exercise helped her expand her awareness about consequences of

procrastination. She recognized that she ofien msferred her own distress to others. "My

relationships with others were afEected because 1 was stressed out and really angry a lot."

She often blarned heaelf for procrastinating but beaune more self-accepting during the

third session.

By the fourth session, she recognized the importance of analyzing tasks, developing

subgoals, and evaiuating the costs and benefits of putting things off Ln contrast to doing

37

everything the night before her weekly lab reports were due, she would go to the Iibrary,

make an outline, and then start to write the report. Recognizing her progress with her

weekly assignments made her feel happy. She found herself achieving more goals and

finding that '4 actually have more time now because 1 am achieving more." She continued

to feel more accepting of herself and others, happier, and less stressed.

In her final session, she discussed how to motivate herself and maintain task-

oriented behavior. She reported some anxiety and apprehension about the workshop

ending. She feared she was "going to go right back where it was before." However, she

decided to try to keep up with her weekly contracts. She felt more confident about herself

and was reinforced by her success: "1 feel great each time 1 accomplish something."

Although she waç reluctant about them at the beginning, she considered weekly contracts

to be the most important strategy for overcoming procrastination. Another very important

thing was realizing that "1 didn't need to be perfect al1 the time because 1 was too hard on

myself most of the time." She concluded that "getting over my fear of failure helped me a

lot." She also started to analyze things in steps înstead of doing everything in one day. She

had one assignment that was due at the end of semester. She reported that: "I've already

started doing research for it. I'm kind of trying to break it dom. And that never happened

before."

Lisa. Lisa is a 2 1 -year-old undergraduate in her second year, majorhg in

Sociology. Procrastination has been a problem for her for "as long as 1 can remember."

She characterized her dficulty with procrastination as "moderately distressing" and

descnbed herself as not working up to her potential because she starts studying for exarns

38

too late. Previously, she had attempted unsuccessfully to start projects/essays as soon as

they were assigned and made study schedules that started two weeks before an exarn.

Lisa identified fear of failure as an important factor in her procrastination: "It7s not

like a real fear. It's sort of . . . It's hard to really see it in me, but as 1 thought more about

it, 1 realized that that was definitely a factor in my waiting too long to do things." She

proçrastinates in other things besides academic work (e.g., paying bills or retuming library

books). She felt she "had figured something out" in the second session but needed more

time to try it out at home. She left the session feeling hopeful and looked forward to

"think about things when nobody else is around me."

She discussed parental influences with respect to procrastination during the third

session. At first, Lisa could not recall any specific comments made by her parents. Later,

she realized that "there were things that my father said to me." She recalled hirn saying she

was lazy: "You are just like your mother," he would Say7 suggesting that both Lisa and her

mother were lazy. As a result, Lisa realized that her "low self-esteem was a bigger issue"

than she had previously thought. She also recognized that "1 am a perfectionist with a lot

of things and sometimes fear of failure as well." At that tirne, she saw her low-self esteern,

feu of failure, and perfectionism as separate factors: "1 haven7t seen the co~ect ion yet."

Lisa reported feeling disappointed about not being able to meet her contract. She

had an exam at the end of the third week and felt hstrated because she had

underestimated her required study t h e . She suggested that her fear of failure might lead

to slowness, especially fear of not being able to assimilate everything before an exarn. She

was also beginning to realize that "1 never give myselfrewards."

39

During the fourth session, Lisa was working on disputing irrational beliefs about

her pefiectionism. She identified the circularity of her avoidance patterns: "1 don? want to

go to work out until I am in great shape but then you can't get in a great shape unless you

work out." She practiced using positive and less rigid statements and, by the fifth session,

reaiized that she "had already begun to use positive thinking in a natural way." She

acknowledged the triviality of her procrastination behaviors. She used to "convince

herself7 that she could not work unless her room was tidy. Now, "1 am happy as long as

the bed is made in my room."

Lisa remembered being surprised and very happy "realizing that 1 have started to

change," which, in tum, "made me feel very good about myself" She also gained more

insight into the association between her low self-esteem and fear of failure. She recognized

how she used to become discouraged when studying was going too slow and how she

hoped she could perform better and faster just before an exam. She is now trying to

change this pattern by setting up more realistic schedules, incorporating rewards into her

studying, and "breaking things down into small pieces."

S u m m Both Lin& and Lisa reported substantial behavioral, cognitive, and

emotional changes during and afler the group. They displayed a genuine cornmitment to

processing counseling experiences and applying them to their specific situations, started to

hand in their school work earlier, focused on their time management skills by improving

their planning and scheduling techniques, acknowledged the importance of breaking things

down into smaller, more manageable units, reported increased awareness and acceptance of

self, and worked toward overcoming their fear of fàilure and setting more realistic

40

expectations of thernselves. As a result, they noted a decrease in stress and were satisfied

with the behavioral, cognitive, and emotional changes they had made.

Four group members reported some improvement or change in either their

procrastination behavior or in their thinking and feeling about procrastination. Al1 four

reported lack of motivation as one of the factors in their procrastination, Al1 four also

reported experiencing physical symptoms as a result of procrastination and recognized the

triviaiity of their procrastination behavior. Three of these four group members identified a

need to improve their work and study habits, descnbed their behavior as oppositional, and

reported experiencing either anxiety or depression. Two of them identified fear of failure

as an important factor in fading to complete their school work on time, while one group

member strongly denied experiencing any feu. Need for support, self-devaluation, and

manipulation were also described as important factors underlying their procrastination

(two group members per factor).

S i m o ~ Simon, a 23-year-old male in his final year in English and Film,

acknowledged that he has had a problem with procrastination since grade 7. When he

registered for the workshop (following a strong suggestion from his parents), Simon

described his procrastinating behaviors as "moderately distressing." Due to

procrastination he has received academic penalties of 10%. He reports other obstacles in

his life such as recovering fiom back surgery, consequent weight gain, and distress over

conflicting career and academic goals.

41

Simon gained insight by comparing his own procrastination behavior with others'

during the initial sessions. He felt different from others because he was able to succeed in

school despite procrastinating (his last year's GPA was 78%). At the same time, he

described himself as similar to othen, that is, "doing anything to get away from what you

have to do." He described the cause of his problern as uniqueiy different from others'; his

own procrastination was not linked to the fear of failure or parental pressures. He argued

that disinterest in academic programs, lack of motivation, (i.e., "classes are just last on my

list of priorities because 1 don't feel it's going to get me anything"), and disorganization

have been the biggest reasons for his procrastination.

Simon also recognized that his scheduling was too complex and, as a result,

ovenvhelrning. He found it helpful to simplifi his schedules by reducing the number of

goals. He also identified problems with details of time mismanagement as another

contnbutor to his procrastination: "1 don? have a concept of how long the things wil1

take." Recopizing his own limitations appears to be a serious problem, and he has

involved himself in a daunting number of extracumcular activities. The challenge has

become disruptive rather than activating. The Price Wheel exercise, used during the third

session, helped him to gain insight into the consequences associated with his

procrastination. Although Simon describes himself as a 'skilled rnanipulator' with his boss

and his professors, he does show feelings of vulnerability to others. Additionally, Simon

has gained some insight into his own susceptibility to rnisleading self-talk, descnbing how

he could easily trick himself into procrastinating.

42

During the fourth session, Simon explored his inational thoughts about allowing

himself to procrastinate. He mentioned that his skills permit his circumventing the course

requirements: "There is a deadline with essays, but the deadline is so grey, and I'm able to

push it up." Also, he has such good writing skills that he does well "even though 1 haven't

read it [the book] myself" He prefers exarns because they have firm deadlines.

In the last session, he found a relaxation exercise helpful in reducing his stress. He

had also gained more insight into his level of personal stress and explored his mixed

feelings about his computer consulting job. He concluded that lack of motivation was

really his problem because he never procrastinated for his TV show, but "for school, 1 just

don't care anymore."

Pnor to the workshop, Simon blamed disorganized work patterns and time

pressures for his procrastination. No changes in procrastination behavior were reported

during the first two sessions. He did not have tirne between the sessions to think a lot

about procrastination. "1 can see myself walk out of the door [after the session] and it's

gone, and the chaos again. So, 1 haven't been thinking toc much about it." By the third

session, scheduling helped siightly. He handed in one essay on time, but he could not

explain why the change occurred. At the same tirne, he realired that insight alone did not

assure change. By the last session, Simon procrastinated again on an essay, probably due

to his indifference: "It wasn't even a hard essay, but 1 couldn't do it." He felt that setback

was "sort of [a] let down" because he did well the week before. His academic

procrastination wonened, but his work-related procrastination improved. He concluded

that he had expanded his awareness, but he was still unsure of how to stop procrastinating.

43

He seemed concerned about his severe manipulation which helped him to avoid many of

the penalties associated with procrastination, but he seemed to Iack the ingenuity to find

solutions.

Mcbael. Michael is a 23-year-old undergraduate majonng in French literature.

Currently, he is in his third year. He is attending school for the third time. He has been

suspended twice, each time for a year due to "not finishing up my work." He feels this is

his last chance: "17ve missed two years of school and this emotionally kind of messes you

up a bit." His parents told him "not to bother to go back to school anymore," as he

disappointed them "far too many tirnes."

He described his procrastination probiem as "severely distressing." In the past, he

failed several courses, lost scholarships, lost summer intemships, and had to switch

majors. He has received academic and psychological counseling, attended leaming skills

and time management workshops, read self-help books, used persona1 reward/punishrnent

systems and received support fiom his fnends and some of his teachers. Currently, he is

experiencing "financial hardship," depression, and debilitating injuries.

During the first session, Michael found that writing helped him clan@ some of his

procrastination cognitions and behaviors. He was distressed about seeking outside help.

He felt "sad and guilty for not being able to figure it out" himself. His procrastination

problem seemed to control his behavior no matter what the situation or consequences: "It

didn't seem to make a difTerence . . . whether I thought the teacher was a great teacher or

an absolutely pathetic teacher . . . whether a teacher set an absolute deadline or not."

44

Frequently, Michael was spending time thinking out excuses in order to get extensions

rather than studying.

Michael often focused on others and compared himself with others in the group.

He felt worse off than anyone else. He described himself in relation to others as: "I've

already been to jail," while others "got off on a suspended sentence." He identified most

procrastination behaviors as doing "simply useless things," that is, repetitively throwing a

bal1 against the wall, staring at the ceiling, or watching TV. He concluded that "most

people who procrastinate don? procrastinate by going out and doing some really fun

social activity . . . but do something that is mindless and stupid."

Michael has difficulty both with starting and continuing his work. In the second

session, he identified his procrastination behavior as "1 never stop at one stage" and being

unable to move ont0 the next stage (e-g., becoming lost in the details of research). He

realized that one "cm have al1 the intelligence and ability and motivation, but if you don?

have organizational skills, it's not going to get you anywhere." Michael expressed many

mixed emotions during the first two sessions. He felt guilty because he was not able to

solve problerns on his own. He reported being depressed, hstrated, sad, imtated, and

impatient with the group process.

Dunng the third session, he felt more optimistic about himself and others, but he

still felt hstrated that he had not used the pressure of school to his advantage. He felt

angry at past events and was unable to becorne motivated. He was embarrassed and felt

guilty for failing to meet his contract and was concemed about the "costs of putting things

off' that becarne evident through the Pnce Wheel exercise.

45

hiring the fourth session he was able to dispute some of his irrational beliefs and

felt that writing facilitated expression of his affect. That was the first time that Michael

reported change beyond an expanded awareness of his problem. Though he did not think

as much about procrastination between the third and fourth session as he did between the

first three sessions, he still managed to accomplish a great deal of work. He felt satisfied

with the change and hopeful about gaining more knowledge and ability to complete work

on time.

Michael evaluated treatment alternatives in the last session. His optimism about the

change process was more pronounced. He also felt more motivated and set a goal contract

for the future. He still felt angry with himself for procrastinating but reponed that he was

"slipping into old habits less oAen."

Andrew, Andrew is a 23-year-old undergraduate rnajoring in Psychology. He has

been procrastinating since Grade 9. He believes that this procrastination is due to being

placed in a new foster farnily when he was in Grade 8. He described the move as "a

difficult adjustment for me" and characterized Grade 9 as "a little bit more difficult to keep

up." The following year, in Grade 10, he "just decided that 1 didn't really care about

school and 1 just started flunking out big time."

Andrew descnbed his procrastination problem as "severely distressing." He never

feels he is "reaching [his] full potential." He had attended similar workshops that were

'hot redy helpfùl because 1 didn't realize at that tirne that 1 realiy had a procrastination

problem." He had also tried to "write a to do list" and attempted to "stay on schedule7' but

with lirnited success. Currently, Andrew is in counseling because he is experiencing

46

depression and is taking antidepressants to help him overcome this problem. He has also

been diagnosed with a "speed of processing" disability "which means that 1 read and write

slower."

During the first session Andrew suggested that his procrastination was due to his

rebelliousness and not having his "mind set to work." He feit reassured that he was "not

aione." He also realized that "1 have to take control and make some changes" to overcome

procrastination which he believed was "just a matter of will power." He also descnbed

another reason for procrastinating: not having "an outlet" in his life and not "getting out

of it what 1 wanted. I sort of walked away from my drama and as a result 1 was just feeling

unfulfilled." While procrastinating, Andrew would usually watch TV or play computer

games.

Andrew did not "really feel like corning" to the second and third session because "I

was dealing with my own persona1 problems, depression." However, "being here [in the

workshop] and organizing myself has given me some energy and sense of control." Dunng

the second session, he identified fear of failure as a cause of his procrastination ("the fear

that it's going to be too hard") and that reaiization gave him "a sense of control in my

Me." He started feeling "somehow empowered," tried scheduling, and got more work

done than usuai.

Andrew realized in the third session that "being a perfectionkt and having low self-

esteem when 1 was younger and being told that I am stupid" also contributed to his

procrastination problem. He was "looking at schedule" between sessions but was not

following it. As a result, he felt "a little pessimistic" by the end of the third session.

47

In the fourth session, Andrew realized that "1 know al1 about procrastination." He

was able to observe his procrastination behavior during the week and began to feel the

importance of small gains (i.e., "1 should be happy with small accomplishments because

they add up.") He felt more confident and determined "to overcorne these obstacles." His

optimism increased during the session. However, he was still procrastinating. He was

afiaid he would not be able to meet his contract but reported "greater awareness" about

his procrastination.

Andrew wishes that he could "be proud of the small achievernents and be

optimistic about the fùture." It would be desirable to "reward myself for srnall things and

'hot get down on myself " He felt depressed and tired "but more optimistic" dunng the

last session. He reported having "a bit more motivation " (he started to study for the

upcoming exam). He also decided to take a dance course which "has been exciting me and

gives me sornething to look fonvard to." Andrew concluded that scheduling was not

effective for him. However, he hoped that he would be able to "get up in the rnoming and

write down things to be accomplished." Scheduling in the moniing would help hm

"organize my chunks of time more in my head." He felt that he needed to be more focused

in the future, "keeping task in rnind and just get going."

Jm Irene is a "speciai" student in her rnid 30's who already has a General BA in

History and is now taking five extra courses toward her Honours BA. Eventually, she

would like to continue her studies at a master's level. Procrastination has been "a really

severe problem" for her for the past 14 years. She easily identified the vicious cycle of her

procrastination: she puts things off until the last minute, then she rushes and panics,

48

receives low grades, and, as a result, berates herself for not trying hard enough.

Previously, she had tried to establish routines but was not successful. Currently, Irene is in

therapy. Her counsellor told her that "overcoming procrastination is viable" and t hat she

has to take ownership for herself However, she does not know how to do this.

Lrene feels that she is getting older: "When it's going to happen for me [to stop

procrastinating]?" She found sharing ideas in the first session helpful because she could

easily identi@ with another female group member who "could not motivate herself enough

to do it" and whose parents placed extra pressure on her. She could also relate to people

who were angry with themselves because they were procrastinating.

Irene has a problem starting school projects. Though she might read a book, at

times she cannot start writing a report on it. By the first session, she had already dropped

two courses. She just "couidn't do it." She also switched courses several times suggesting

avoidance behaviors. When procrastinating, Irene feels very d o u s : "I just panicked. I

panicked yesterday." She gets hstrated and angry with herself She feels "huge guilt"

because she is ofien "immobilized, it's like you are stuck in the cernent," while

unproductively watching television. She also gets depressed at times: "1 was tired and 1

wasn't eating well, and I was crying half the week." Things usuaily seem hopeful for Irene

at the beginning, but then "it's son of like the bottom falls out of my world."

In the second session, Irene recognized that: "My time management skills aren't

what they reaiiy need to be." Though she has schedules, she never follows them. She also

observed that her overly negative fears about her future, that is, being forced to live out on

the Street, "reaiiy aren't as bad as I make it out to be." The general fear she expenences

49

"can be physical sometimes." It can be "just temfymg. It is tem@ng. It was absolutely

temfjmg." She described herself as "a start-stop person, like a stopwatch." She works on

a project for a while but then "there is a message in my head saying I can't do it." She

experiences mixed reactions toward others. Sometimes she is confrontational, sometimes

she tends "to latch ont0 someone" or to "kind of separate myself ' from others, and

sometimes she neglects her own needs to "look afler other people's."

The Price Wheel exercise in the third session made her more aware of the realistic

consequences of procrastination. At the sarne tirne, she acknowledged feelings of

hopefulness. She was "not so anxious about the future" and realized she "can rnake a

diRerencen in her own life. In the fourth session? she recognized that irrational beliefs

(e.g., ending up on the street) "cm be disputed and tumed into rational beliefs," (e.g.,

finding a job). She was optirnistic about being able to change but reported experiencing no

change by the founh session. She did not attend the fifth session. For Irene, change is

"fnghtening" because procrastination has been "a survival mode for so long."

Irene did not do much thinking about procrastination between sessions. She tned

scheduling between sessions but with only intermittent success. She acknowledged that

following the group experience she had more insight into her procrastination problem but

reported no behavioral change.

S u r n m q The four group members who described improvement or change

in their procrastination reported experiencing other difficulties in their lives at the time of

the workshop (health problems, depression, anxiety, learning disability, financial problems,

etc.). Three were seeing individuai counseilors during the workshop. AU four of them

50

reponed a ''greater awareness" about their procrastination at the end of the workshop but

did not repon experiencing much change beyond an expanded awareness of the problem.

Though some changes were reported, mostly afler the third and founh session, (i.e.,

scheduling, disputing inational beliefs, exarnining underlying feelings) they were only

temporary.

Three group memben spent a lot of time analyzing the reasons for their behavior,

thoughts and feelings about procrastination but seemed unable to move beyond the

analysis of the problem. They spent a lot of time thinking about the problem rather than

actively solving it. As a result, the analysis sometimes became another form of

procrastination. Their levels of commitment to processing counseling experiences and

applying them in practice varied. The arnount of time spent thinking about procrastination

between sessions also varied from session to session and from one group member to

another. They often reported not having enough time or feeling too stressed and

overwhelmed to be able to think about procrastination outside the sessions.

or No Imorovement or C h a w

Two group members reported expenencing very linle or no improvement or

change in their procrastination behavior, thoughts, or feelings. In contrast to the other two

groups ('Improvement or Change' and 'Some Improvernent or Change'), Mark and

Sandra did not identify as many underlying factors of as other group members. Both

strongly denied fear of failure. They both felt the workshop did not meet their

expectations.

5 1

Mark, Mark is a 20-year-old undergraduate majoring in English and Film. He

described problems with procrastination "since school began." When he signed up for the

workshop, he said his problem was "slightly distressing." At that time he was concemed

whether a degree would be useful within the job market. Previously, he had attempted to

schedule 'study time' but found himself falling into his past patterns.

During the initial session Mark acknowledged issues around procrastination which

caused him to begin "thinking consciously about the problem." He found cornfort in

knowing that he was "not alone in this problem." In the second session, he identified

scheduling, setting goals, and discussing goals with others as helpfbl strategies. He felt

gratified that there were others who were "worse procrastinators" than he. He denied

having any feus associated with procrastination and showed some tendency to blarne

others for his procrastination problem. During the third session, he discussed how his

parents and significant others had influenced his procrastinating behaviors which helped

him expand his awareness about the problem. He had an opportunity to do some role

playing in the founh session dunng which he felt he was "an okay actor" thereby

increasing his self-confidence. By the fifih and final session, Mark gained a greater

awareness associated with procrastination and set a goal for himself to maintain his

planning behaviors. He felt relaxed during the last session and experienced some

motivation for the fiiture.

Between the t h e Mark signed up for the workshop and the first session he

descnbed himself as continuing to pmcrastinate. He denied any fear of failure which the

group had discussed during the first session. For the remaining three sessions he reported

52

that " I tend to be busy enough [school, extracurricular activities] that I rarely think about

the sessions outside of them." He continued to work on scheduling, that is, determining

weekly goals (which he had already been doing before the workshop). He acknowledged

he had a problem with procrastination and that he had developed more awareness about it.

However, at the end of the workshop he denied behavioral change beyond expanding his

awareness of the problem. He argued that the reason for his procrastination was mainly

motivational, and "other than more awareness of what I do and how to prevent it" he did

not experience much change in himself

a Sandra is a 2 1-year-old undergraduate majoring in Political Science. She

has been procrastinating since her "early teenage yean." She described her procrastination

behaviors as "severely distressing." Procrastination "lowered my confidence acadernically"

and resulted in "obtaining results that are probably a fraction of what I am capable of"

Previously, she had attended a time management serninar and had tried to set schedules

and deadlines for herself but was not successful. She is currently seeing a counsellor at the

Student Development Centre with whom she discusses time management. She reports

expenencing "academic stress" and is also concerned about "financial matters."

During the initial session Sandra found comfon in knowing that "others have the

same habits and excuses as I do." She realized that "1 am not the only one7' and hoped

that "we may arrive at a common solution." She felt that procrastination fears discussed

dunng the 6rst session were "the onîy thing that 1 felt didn't really apply to me." She did

not perceive much change in herself. D u ~ g the second session, she felt that "the contract

was a good idea." She looked fonvard to "trying to stick with ity' and found it heipful to

53

write things down because "it looks more pressing on paper and when you'll actually have

to account for it, you take it seriously." The Pnce Wheel exercise (introduced in the third

session) provided some insight into ber procrastination. Sandra became more aware of

consequences through the exercise, but denied the exercise was helpfbl. She felt that "this

is nothing 1 didn't already know." She characterized the workshop as 'Tust an awareness

workshop. 315 of the workshop is over and 1 am no better off." She felt guilty about not

following her contract and denied any change in her procrastination behaviors. In the

fourth, her last, session (Sandra did not attend the fiflh session) she acknowledged that "1

am easily influenced by my own negative self-talk." She gained insight about others'

comments realizing that "1 should not take what others say personally." She felt impatient

with the process: "1 have yet to l em something 1 didn't already know." On the other

hand, she recognized that "this workshop has taught me to "apply" them [techniques for

overcoming procrastination]." Sandra felt angry for "not sticking to contract."

During the tirne between sessions Sandra did not think much about the sessions. At

the beginning, she felt she had already "slipped back into old habits." By the fourth

session, she reported thinking about "nothing significant" between sessions, or "close to

what 1 had hoped for when 1 first started these sessions." Overall, she denied the

workshop had an effect on her procrastination.

Sandra and Mark showed little evidence of committing themselves to

either cognitive, emotional, or behavioral change. They tended to examine their behavior,

thoughts, and feelings about procrastination on a firly supedcial level. They rarely

thought about the sessions outside the workshop. Both suggested that they had some

54

insight, more awareness, and more confidence but denied experiencing any significant

change.

T h e d c An-

During thematic analysis, participant statements were surnmarized. Surnrnaries

were then examined and themes given by each student were identified. The thernes were

the basis for the analyses of dynamics and of treatment processes that will be discussed.

Two judges first scanned the transcriptions of (a) the records given by the

participants following each session and (b) the stimulated recall in te~ews. Judges then

independently wrote brief surnmaries of the themes for each participant sratement. At this

initial stage, there was no defined categorization system, but rather the judges described

each theme that they perceived. A cornparison of the identified themes indicated that the

judges agreed on 84%.

This part of the analysis was based upon the surnmaries. Sumaries were

examined and themes that had been identified by both judges were narned and defined. Six

of the themes were those that had been identified in the initial review of factor analyses of

procrastination scales. The remainder of the themes were only retained if they appeared in

two or more participant records. Each participant was identified as displaying or not

displaying the theme. In three instances students denied themes applied to thern. M e r the

themes were identified, they were placed in one of two categones: (a) themes that were

5 5

judged to be related to dynamics of procrastination and @) themes that were judged to be

associated with or were an outcome of the counseling process.

Table 2 gives the narne and definition of each theme that was retained. Fourteen

themes were found that related to dynamics of procrastination and nine themes that were

related to the treatment of procrastination. Within dynamics of procrastination the

following themes were identified: fear of failure, perfectionism, low work or self-

discipline, lack of or low motivation or task aversiveness, oppositional behaviors,

dependent or need for support, anxiety or depression, self-devaiuation, self-criticism or

guilt, feu of disapproval, deniai, manipulation, physical syrnptoms, and triviality of

procrastination behaviors. Within treatment approaches to procrastination the following

themes were found: empowerment, irrational beliefs, analysis or setting subgoals,

scheduling or contracting, insight, self-reward or positive thinking, self-acceptance, and

realizing consequences of procrastination.

Table 2

Examples of Themq

I Motiva tionmask

Aversiveness

OpPosi tional

ûefini tion

Fear of failing.

uncertainty about

success.

Lack of or poor

scheduling. time

misrnanagement. and

general

disorpization not

only with school work

but also in other areas

of Me.

Little interest in. or

aversion to. academic

program or tasks.

Challenging the niles

or e.upectations set by

others, rebelliousness.

Requiring a lot of

support from othcr

people. need for help

or direction h m

others.

An-: "1 wodd probably say fear of failure. The fear

that it's going to be too hard"

m: "1 iâentified that some of the fa r s that 1 hace

about failure are imtional."

Lin&: "Most of the tirne 1 han& my stuff in. but thcre

have been times 1 just didn't because it wasn't good

cnough. Either I'm going to do it perfectly or nothing."

$mon: "My bills are scattemi they are not men in a

pile. so 1 can't pay my bills becau it's going to take me

two hours to find them. And 1 never have two hours. so 1

procrastinate and procrastinate."

b: "1 am beginning to see that the time lirnits 1 put for

specific tasks aren't enough. 1 need to give myself more

tinte."

--

Simon: "Motivation is really my problem. For rny TV

show 1 never procrastinatc. For school 1 just don't care

anymore and this is the root of my problem."

w: "lt didn't seem to make a difierence at dl . 1 did

the same thing no matter what the tacher was saying."

b: "And 1 was clinging on them [fkiends]. Like a

synchronized swim. 1 g m k d on to someone . . . and she

was fine but she couldn't hancile me."

Self-Devalution

Manipulation

Distress associated

with anxiety or

depression.

Devaluation of self.

reduction in self-

esteern

Concern about

disapprovai, cri ticism.

rejection

Denial of behavior,

intention or emotion

Manipulating others

or planning to do so

w: "There were two or three times that 1 didn't

redly feel like coming [to the workshopj. 1 was M i n g

with my own personal problems. depression. 1 would have

rather just stayed home and slept."

Irene: ". . . 1 was just. 1 was petrifiai My han& were

trembling. 1 was sitting on my hands. and 1 was so

xared 1 thought . . . I had a panic attack. a minor one. . .

It was just tem@ng . . ."

Irenc: -1 go dong fine, and then there is a message in my

head saying 1 can't do it. u, what the hell 1 am doing

herc?"

Lin&: 1 tell myself: "You don't have anything io say. so

what are you doing? You have this paper but you have

nothing to =y." - - - . --

Mich& '*. . . the more 1 get fnistnted and imtated that I

havcn 't solvcd i t myself [procrastination problem J .

Bccaux you should bc able to solvc the problcm yourseIf.

It 's your problem."

&: "1 thought about my father who used to tell me 1

was lazy. He used to say: "You are jus1 like your mother."

and he said my mother was laq.

Mai.k: "1 guess. if anytiung, i think about how my

p r o d n a t i o n is minute compared to others in the

coluse."

M m : "And 1 spend most of the night before [an e.uam.

or handing in a paper] thinking of excuses 1 will tell my

teacher. So. 1 get exîensions and then I usually don' t

finish it by the first extension. Usually. 1 need a second

extension."

m: "1 kind of smooth-talk my professors dl the

time."

Empowerment

Irrationd Beliefs

Physicdly il1 as a

result of

proaasthating either

due to exhaustion,

tension. panic. or

other emotions (e.g..

fnistntion. guilt.

anger. dcspair).

Procmstinating

behavior is trivial

- --

Taking persona1

respnsibility. feeling

capable of adjustment.

frrational beliefs

about self or

environmental threats.

Identification of

subgoais required to

accomplish tasks.

Prepare a schedule.

commit self to a

contract.

Andrqy: "1 would =y that p r d n a t i n g just increases

my stress and more stressed 1 am, easier 1 get sick. 1 get

il1 a lot."

M i c w : "1 procrastinated so much and 1 tried so hrird to

catch back up 1 got mono . . . 1 got it b u s e I'm abusing

my body . . . During the first year 1 was addicîcd to

caffeine pills."

Mich;iel: ". . . most people who procrastinate don?

procmstinate by going out and doing some rcally fun

social activity but they procnstimtc by doing something

that is mindess and stupid just likc throwing the bal1

against the wall or staring at the cciling or watching TV

they don't men like."

m: "1 dways gct an excuse to bc on the computer.

mainly games. when I ' rn trying to procrastinate. not even

work but games."

b: "It's very slow [change], but it feels good 1 feel

much more in control."

u: "1 am feeling more confident about my abilities. 1

feel great each time 1 accomplish something."

m: ". . . That it's not the worst case scenario.

Sometimes the irratiod thoughts can be rationalized,

therefore it's not as t e r w n g to have them."

u: "1 learned that many of the things that hold me

back are irrational." -

m: "It was helpfd because 1 usually only see the final

goaI and not the process to achieving the goal. 1 am

leaming to break things down."

Irene: "I've manageci to keep up with my contract. off

and on. 1 was able to follow my schedule for a period but

then 1 didn't."

-

Insight

Self-Reward

Positive

Thinking

Self- Acceptance

Need to Relax

Obtluning insight,

identifYing critical

variables.

Need to reinforce.

think positively about

self.

Acceptance of self.

sense of persond

worthiness.

Consideration of

consequences or

actions.

Intentional relaxation

to ovcrcome muiety

or stress.

hm: "1 realized that 1 know d l about procrastination

and 1 now pretty much feel like 1 completely understand

why 1 procrastinate. . . 1 should be happy with small

accomplishments b u s e they add up."

h: "I'm realizing that i never give mysclf rewards. 1

want to try and use thcm more. maybe it will hclp get the

work done."

Lin&: "I've redized it didn't have to be perféct. A lot of

timcs 1 was e'cpccting other people to live up to my high

standards. If they didn't. 1 would get angry at them. 1

s m e d to accept that not everything is perféct d l the

timc. . . Feeling more accepting of myself and othcrs."

M î c w : "1 get emotionally screwed up when 1 don't

finish things on timc. 1 gct in trouble with my professors . . . 1 get sick when 1 procrastinate because 1 pull thesc

monumental dl-nighters several in a row and my body

just can't take that . . . And 1 started losing friends and so

on . . ."

b: "Dunng a relaxation exercise. I rerilized thrit 1 h d

alwdy begun to use positive thinking in a natumi way."

60

Table 3 shows the results of analyzing the presence or absence of themes related to

dynamics of procrastination, and Table 4 shows analysis of presence or absence of themes

associated with treatment approaches or outcornes for each participant. Table 5

summarizes the total number of themes from Table 3 and Table 4. Participants are

arranged from the one who changed the most on the left to the one who changed least on

the nght. It can be seen that the two participants who changed most and the two who

changed least are those who display most and fewest themes respectively. The correlation

between mean rankings of change and number of themes is r(2 1) = .9 1.

Change Ranking*

C h a n = S o m e C h a n g e No C h a n =

Fear of Failure + + - + + - -

Perfectionism + + +

Low WorWSelf- + + + + Discipline

Lack of or Low + + + + + + + Motivatiodïask Aver siveness

Oppositionai + + +

Dependentmeed for Support

Anxietyl Depression

Self-Devaiuation + + + + +

Self-Criticisd Guilt

Fear of Disapproval +

Manipulation + +

Physical Symptoms + + + +

Subtotal 1 10 7 7 9 8 8 3 5

Note. + Acceptance of Theme

Absence of Theme

- Denial of Theme

* Change Ranking: Three judges rank ordered al1 the participants from 1 to 8 according to

their reported degree of improvement or change where (1 ) indicates greatest

improvement or change and (8) indicates least improvement or change.

Table 4

ent Approaches or Outc~mes

,-, zChanne N o C h a n =

Change Ranking* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Empowennent + + + +

Irrational Beliefs - -- -

Anal y sidSubgoals + + - - -

Schedulingl Contract

Self-Reward/ + + + Positive Thinking

Self- Acceptance + + +

Consequences + + + + -

Need to Relax + +

-- --

Note, + Acceptance of Theme

Absence of Theme

* Change Ranking: Three judges rank ordered aii the participants fiom 1 to 8 according to

their reported degree of irnprovement or change where ( 1 ) indicates greatest

improvement or change and (8) indicates least irnprovement or change.

Table 5

C h a n = S o m e C h a n n e N o C h a n =

Change Ranking 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Subtotal 1 10 7 7 9 8 8 3 5

Total (Table 3 & 4)

Correlations Amonn Themes and Correlat ons Among Studenb

Intercorrelations were perfomed among the themes in order to explore patterns of

relations among themes. Because the sarnple is very small conclusions about relational

pattems are tentative. Only correlations of .70 or greater were examined. This level of

correlation indicated approximately 50 percent or more cornmon variance between

variables. Table 6 shows al1 the correlations among the themes dealing with dynamics and

with treatment of procrastination.

Correlations among students showed some similarities and differences among

students. Simon states that his procrastination expenences are quite different from those

of the others and his thematic pattern (as show in Table 7) displays only low to moderate

correlations with the others. On the other hand, there are some sirnilarities; the two

students who display g e a t a change show considerable relation in their themes, r(20) =

.8 1. At the same time, the two students who show the & change also display

considerable relation in their themes, ~(20) = .76. Overall, Simon has lowest relation to

others, Linda and Lisa have highea correlation, followed by Linda and Irene, and Andrew

and Irene.

Table 6

Correla~pns Amorip Themes 1 TsiwStudentsashlnits

F a r of Perfect- Low Lack OU ûpp Depend. .h.uiW Self- Failure ionimi. Wqrw Low sitional N d tor %;;- Devn-

Selt Dis Motivat. S U P P O ~ ~ luauon

Low Woriû Self Discipl.

Lack o f h w Motivation

Dcpcndentl Need for Spt.

Self- Devaluation

Self-Criticism

Manipulation

Irnt. Beliefs

Analvsid Subgoals

Self-Rewardl Positive Think

Need to Relax

Self- Fm of mi- Phys id Tnviality E m p irrational Criticism Disap Denial pulabon Synptom of wennent Belie fi;

Gult proval Procrast .

F m of Ch sapprova l

Denial

Manipulation

Pysicai Symptoms

Triviality of Procrastimt .

Ernpower- ment

lrra tional Beliefs

Analysid Subgoais

Schedulingl Contract

Self-Rewardl Positive Thinking

Self- Accep tance

Conqumce

Need to Relax

- - - -- - - --- - - - - - - - - - -

Analy sis/ SchdulUig/ Self-Reward/ Self- Conse- N d to Subgoals Contract Posit. Thuiking Acceptance quaces Relax

Scheduline/ 0.22 Contrac t

Self-Reward/ 0.75 0.29 Positive Thinking

Self-Acceptame 0.75 0.29 0.47

Need to Relax 0.33 0.22 O. 15 0.15 0.00

Table 7

Correlations Amou S h d ~ I Jsiqg Themes as U& -- -

Linda Lisa Simon Michael Andrew Irene Mark

Lisa .8 1

Simon . 3 5 .32

Michael .66 .57 .5 5

Andrew .75 .80 .3 3 .58

Irene .80 .72 .57 .80 .80

Mark .79 -68 .43 .65 .73 .75

Sandra .68 .52 .4 1 .59 .68 .70 .76

69

In Figure 1, lines show correlation of .70 or greater between themes. Al1

correlations are positive except the two that are negative: (a) correlation between self-

acceptance and physical symptoms and (b) correlation between self-devaluation and

manipulation. Figure 1 suggests that there are at least two serni-independent groupings or

patterns among the themes representing dynarnics. The first dynarnics pattern has

perfectionkm at its centre which is c o ~ e c t e d to fear of failure and to fear of disapproval.

The second dynarnics pattem connects oppositional behavion with manipulation and has

no direct connection with the first pattern. There also appears to be one pattem arnongst

the treatment themes which includes self-rewadpositive thinking, empowerment,

analysis/subgoals, and self-acceptance.

7 1

Gender and Procrastination Themes

This part of the analysis was also based upon the surnmaries. Table 8 shows means

and standard deviations of themes by gender. Pearsons 1's were performed between

gender and presence or absence of themes. Although correlations were performed with

only eight people, some interesting patterns of positive and negative correlations within

dynamics and within treatments were found with respect to gender. Within the dynamics

of procrastination, there were two themes found with 1 > * .70. Men were more likely to

describe themselves as oppositional (c = .78) , while women were more likely to report

feelings of self-devaluation (1 = - .78). Within the treatment of procrastination no

correlations above .70 were found.

More specifically, more woma than men (with a difference of at least two people)

identified fear of failure, low work or self-discipline, self-devaluation, fear of disapproval,

empowerment, and analysis or setting subgoals. More men than women (with a difference

of at least two people) identified oppositional behaviors, manipulation, and physical

symptoms. No d fference~ between men and women (or a difference of only one person)

were found in the following dynamics and treatments of procrastination: perfectionism,

lack of or low motivation or task aversiveness dependent or need for support, anxiety or

depression, self-criticism or guilt, denial, triviality of procrastination behaviors, irrational

beliefs, scheduling or contracting, insight, self-reward or positive thinking, self-

acceptance, consequences, and need to relax.

Al1 four women in this study reported feelings of self-devaluation, while only one

man, Andrew, identified similar feelings. Correlations in this study showed that self-

devaluation was positively correlated with empowerment (1 = .78) and negatively

correlated with manipulation Ir = 9.78). SelFdevaluation was aiso correlated with fear of

failure = .66), perfectionisrn ( 5 = .60), and self-reward and positive thinking (1 = .60).

Three men described themselves as oppositional. Correlations in this study showed

that oppositional behaviors were positively correlated with manipulation (1 = .75) and

physicai symptoms (r = .75).

Table 8

Correlations Between Themes and Gender

Female Male

Fear of FaiIure

Low WorWSelf- Discipline

Lack of or Low Motivatiodïask Aversiveness

Oppositional

Dependenweed for Support

Anxiety/ Depression

Self-Devduation

Self-criticisml Guilt

Fear of Disapproval

Manipulation

Physical Syrnptoms

Ernpowennent 0.75 0.50 0.25 0.50 -.50

Irrational Beliefs 0.75 0.50 0.50 0.58 -.36

Anaiysis/Subgoals 0.50 0.58 0.00 0.00 -.58

Sc heduling/ 1 .O0 0.00 0.75 0.50 -.38 Contract

Female Male

Theme Mean SD Mean SD Z:

Self-Rewad Positive Thinking

Self- Acceptance O. 50 0.58 0.25 0.50 -.26

Consequences O. 50 0.58 0.50 0.58 . O0

Need to ReIax 0.25 O. 50 0.25 0.50 . O0

Dynamics of Procrastination

Treatment

Total 13 .25 4.65 10.50 3 .O0 -.38

Students who showed most improvement or change identified most themes and

were engaged in the process of counseling by exploring their behavior, feelings, and

thoughts about procrastination, while students who showed least change identified less

themes and tended to examine their behavior, thoughts, and feelings about procrastination

on a more superficial level. Thematic analysis of themes showed fourteen themes that

related to dynamics of procrastination and nine themes that related to the treatment of

procrastination. Correlations among themes showed two patterns among dynamics of

procrastination and one pattern amongst the treatment themes. Correlations among

students showed that the two students who changed most and the two students who

changed least displayed considerable relation in their themes. With respect to gender

differences, women were more likely to report feelings of self-devaluation, while men

were more likely to describe themselves as oppositional.

76

Discussion

The present study examined cognitive, behavioral, and affective dynamics of

procrastination as identified by individual group members over time and explored

dynamics of procrastination and patterns of change that were seen in the procrastination

group ai; a whole. More specifically, the study looked at dynamics and treatment of

procrastination and examined whether students report any changes in cognitive, emotional,

and behavioral correlates of procrastination.

The following sections discuss in more detail what the thematic analysis suggests

about (a) improvement vs. nonimprovement, (b) dynamics of procrastination, (c)

treatment of procrastination, (d) correlations among themes, (e) gender and

procrastination themes, (f) study limitations and future research suggestions, and (g)

implications.

b~rovement vs. Nonim~rovemeny b

The results of the qualitative analysis of themes which participants considered

important dunng counseling sessions indicate great diversity in how procrastination

manifests itself and how it is infiuenced by intervention. Evidently, students who changed

involved themselves in the process of counseling by exploring their behaviour,

thoughts, and feelings and were amenable to developing, explonng, and practicing

treatment options. On the other hand, those who changed Ieast did not display the same

engagement and other than gaining some insight and trying contracting did not seem to

become very personaiiy involved.

77

The present study found that by the end of therapy students who reported mosl or

some change, described an increase in self-acceptance, decrease in perfectionism, increase

in motivation to do school-related tasks, increase in self-esteem, more awareness of fear of

failure, less anxiety associated with evaluation, better time management techniques, a

decline in excuses to explain intention-behavior discrepancy, and challenging irrational

beliefs and cognitive distortions and misperceptions which was consistent with the

research hypothesis. This study also showed that therapeutic change is possible through

recognizing cognitions, feelings, and behaviors associated with procrastination which was

consistent with the research hypothesis.

Consistent with Goldfried's (1991) mode1 of change, group members that showed

most or some change in this group had a hope and high motivation for being helped which

is an essential first step in the change process. They acknowledged that procrastination is a

problem for them and with the help of group facilitators and other group members defined

and carried out specific goals. They becarne aware of their feelings, thoughts, and actions

related to their procrastination and their impact on themselves and others. They took

certain risks and were provided with idormation that helped them modiS, their false

beliefs, emotiond distress, and other challenging patterns of behavior. In contrast to

students who showed change, two students who reported little or no change did not

appear to be as motivated to work on their procrastination, one of them did not fùlly

acknowledge the p r o b l a they failed to carry out specific goals, did not reflect back on

their session betweg sessions and appeared less aware of their thoughts, feelings, and

behavion associated with procrastination.

mamies of Procmt . . inatiw

. . and ~erfectionism, These themes were

identified as important and were al1 present in the responses of pariicipants who displayed

most change. Students who have excessively high achievement standards find it very

difficult to meet their personal demands, and it is reasonable to expect that many would

have an excessive fear of failure. One problem for such people when they are faced with a

task such as an essay, is cornrnitting themselves to a particular approach and then carrying

it out without interfering doubts and hesitations. Some simply avoid decisions until they

are forced to make them at the last moment. Many students are sufficiently talented so that

this approach is adequate until they reach the university setting. At that time, their lack of

practice in analyzing, planning, and carrying out complex assignrnents becomes a serious

problem.

Sirnilar to the findings of Burka and Yuen (1983), the results of this study suggest

that when personal standards regarding completion of school projects are too hi@, tasks

are not completed prornptly. This tardiness could partly stem from being raised in a

demanding family. For example, Lisa has been raised in a family where her father used to

tell her she was lazy, and he doubted her ability to achieve. To avoid this disapprovai, she

began to place overwhelrning pressure and unredistic demands on herself She responded

to her father's doubts by striving for perfection and has developed a strong need for

approval. In her case, procrastination can be seen as a response to a forrn of socially

prescribed perfectionkm (Hewitt & Flett, 199 1) where L ia responded to the perceived

standards imposed by her father by believing that othen will be satisfied only if she meets

79

their expectations. This inability to establish personal control over others' standards often

leads to avoidance of tasks that involve evaluation by others.

On the other hand, self-oriented perfectionists (Frost et al., 1990) such as Linda,

have a strong motivation to be perfect, io set and hold unredistic self-standards, and to

have personal douks about their actions. They are not concemed as much about others as

are the socially-prescribed perfectionists. Rather, they hold irrational beliefs that they must

be perfect at al1 times (e.g., Linda: "It was a lot of al1 or nothing. Either I'm going to do it

perfect or nothing."). This "all-or-nothing" thinking is often found among self-oriented

perfectionists and ofien leads to perfectionists being afiaid of making mistakes. If their

performance is inadequate (e.g., receiving a B instead of an A), they ofien overreact by

overgeneralizing these experiences and fear failure in the future. To avoid receiving

another "B" or receiving a mark that is less than perfect, Linda would not complete or

hand in her work "because it wasn't good enough." Strategies for completing her school

work became selfdefeating. Her standards would become inaccessible at times, creating

feelings of guilt, fiustration, and self-criticism, and in both Linda and Lisa's cases, leading

to anxiety, depression, and feelings of self-devaluation.

Three students who identified feu of failure also identified perfectionism as a

factor in their procrastination. This relation has been demonstrated several times in

previous studies where close links between perfectionism and fear of failure have been

found (e.g., Flett, Hewitt, Blankstein, & Mosher, 199 1 ; Pacht, 1984). The present study

confimied hdings of previous studies that examined the relations among fear of fdure,

perfectionism, and procrastination.

80

Low work or self-discipline, Six students identified low work discipline as a factor

in their procrastination. Sirnilar terms applied by researchers are lack of conscientiousness

or disorganization (Johnson & Bloorn, 19951, poor time management skills, or failure to

prioritize tasks. One way of alleviating this probiem is to teach procrastinators some

organizational or time-management skills. This study demonstrated that simply leaming

time management skills is not enough to overcome procrastination. Five out of six

students in this study who described themselves as lacking work or self-discipline,

recognized that scheduling and contracting was beneficial. However, the study showed

that teaching scheduling alone without modimng associated cognitions, feelings, and

behaviors was not very heipfùl. Similarly, insight alone without behavioral changes was

not very effective. Students who reported most change recognized that procrastination is

not just a bad habit that can be overcome by better time management skills. Rather, it

involves complex psychoiogical processes and serves different functions such as protecting

one's vulnerable sense of self-esteem or self-worth.

Similar to the findings of McCown (1986), this study found evidence that

procrastinators tend to underestimate the time necessary to complete a task. Andrew

cornrnented on his perception of time: "1 also lose track of how much time 1 have or how

much I can accomplish in a certain time h e . . . And then, you know, two or three

hours go by and I've only read one article . . ." Although strengthening one's time

management skills and improving one's time perception may be a helpful strategy for

overcorning procrastination, this study suggests that concentrating on such limited

behavioral techniques may not be very effective.

8 1

Lack of or low mot . . ivation and task aversiveness, Past research has shown that

procrastination is negatively related to achievement motivation and positively related to

task aversiveness. However, the research findings with respect to motivation have been

contradictory. While some researchers found significant differences in achievement

motivation between procrastinators and nonprocrastinators, others found no such

differences. Seven out of eight students in this study identified a lack of, or decrease in

their motivation to do academic work, especially on tasks that they disliked or considered

aversive, unpleasant, or too difficult (e.g., lab reports, papers, essays). The finding that

students procrastinate more on academic tasks that they find difficult, unpleasant, or

boring is not surprising and is consistent with previous research (Milgram et al., 1995).The

cornmonsense view is that "we approach pleasant activities with alacrity and negative

activities with reluctance" (Milgram et al., p. 153) and this view has been confirmed with

the present sarnple.

This study also found that lack of motivation was further exacerbated by concems

such as career uncertainty or lack of purpose and failure to define specific goals. For

exarnple, Simon was not motivated to do acadernic work and procrastinated on most of

his acadernic tasks. His behavior cm be descnbed as avoidance-avoidance conflict: avoid

an uninteresting task until the last minute when avoidance of the reprimand consequent

upon failure becomes so strong that activity finally occurs. Other students in this study

talked about "not being motivated" but did not describe in detail whether lack of

motivation was due to career uncertainty, lack of specific educationaücareer goals, or

because of some other factor.

82

. ositional behavior. Procrastination can be used as a means of challenging the

niles or expectations set by others. M e n others, such as parents or professors, impose

real or perceived mles and expectations on students (Frost et al., 1990), some students

respond by refusing to meet these expectations through procrastination. Three male

students in this study described some behaviors and thoughts that could be classified as

oppositional. Resistance to niles and rebelliousness seemed to be the underlying issues in

these students. The question remains whether this rebelliousness or resistance prevented

them from making full use of what the group offered.

r o r t f o r Need for support was expressed by two students,

Irene and, to a larger extent, Michael. It appears that trene and Michael require a lot of

support and have a need for help or direction from others. When this support is not

immediately available or when it does not meet their needs or expectations, they tend to

procrastinate.

ession Similar to the previous research (e.g., Block et al., 199 1 ;

Clark & Watson, 1991) this study found overlap among depression, anxiety, and other

correlates of procrastination. Although it is not possible to draw conclusions about

causality, depression andlor anxiety were reported by five participants in this study. Four

out of these five participants also reported fear of failure, irrational beliefs, low work or

self-discipline, and feelings of ~e~devaluation. Johnson and Bloorn ( 1 995) found that low

conscientious students may expenence a rise in anxiety because they lack organizational

skills. The results of the present study also indicate a relation between these two concepts.

When students who lack work/self-discipline are presented with a task that requires the

83

use of organizational skills ( e g , wtiting papers), they respond to the demand by

experiencing a rise in anxiety which in Irene's case can escaiate to a point of "feeling

irnmobilized" and not being able to approach the task. Similady, students' depression in

this study was related to their attitudes toward themselves (e.g., self-devaluation, irrational

beliefs about one's abilities) and was probably exacerbated by increased anxiety due to

procrastination.

Alt hough sorne researchers argue that anxiety is a pnmary motive in chronic

procrastination (e.g., Johnson & Bloom, 1993; McCown, Petzel, & Rupert, 1987), the

present study suggested that anxiety was more apt to be secondary, that is, related to

concerns about reaching one's personal perfomance standards, except in Irene's case,

where a more generalized trait anxiety has been a dominant factor in her procrastination.

In contrast to Irene, Lisa felt that anxiety was a of her procrastination. The role of

anxiety in procrastination is still not clear. Ferrari et ai. ( 1995) argue that amiety may

serve as a motivator rather than as an obstacle in doing academic tasks. The relation

between anxiety and procrastination probably depends on each individual's threshold with

respect to how much anxiety can be expenenced before it becomes debilitating rather than

activating .

. . . Self-deval~~fl~n. self-cn- A link between self-devaiuation, self-

criticism, and procrastination has been found in this and previous studies. Research to date

(e.g., Flett, Blankstein, & Martin, 1995) has shown that procrastinators tend to have

negative self-concepts and negative views of themselves. They perceive themselves as

having many negative attributes: they tend to denigrate themselves (Muszynski &

84

Akarnatsu, 199 l), repon having low self-esteem (Effert & Ferrari, 1989), and possess low

self-efficacy (Tuckrnan, 199 1 ). Five out of eight students in this study described various

forms of self-devaluation and three of them reported self-cnticism and expenencing guilt

when procrastinating. Rather then finding out about their true abilities, these students tend

to procrastinate to avoid painhl feelings associated with their doubts. They are unsure of

their cornpetence to attain the high standards that they themselves or others have set and

lack the confidence to deal with challenging tasks. As a result, their negative thoughts

interfere with decision making and distract them fiom focusing on academic work.

aiiipulation. The results of Roig and DeTommaso's (1 995) study suggest that

procrastination may be one of many factors in academic dishonesty. Their scores for

cheating and plagiarisrn were positively correlated with self-reported procrastination.

However, none of the participants in the present study admitted to plagiarisrn or cheating,

although no direct questions about academic dishonesty were asked. What this study did

find was two cases of marked interpersonal manipulative behavior associated with

procrastination. Manipulation of others where time is spent devising excuses for rnissing

deadlines or seeking extensions of deadlines appeared in two student records, but it was a

particulary important theme in Simon's case where manipulation was an important device

to avoid the worst consequences of procrastination. Although manipulation was also

rnentioned by Michael, it appeared in the quite different context of anxiety, self-criticism,

and need for support. In his case, manipulation appears to be a need to obtain special

treatment due to feelings of helplessness.

85

Phvsicai sgptoms. Rothblum et al. (1986) found that "both high procrastinators

in general and fernale high procrastinators in particular are more likely to report presence

of physical symptorns" (p. 393) related to anxiety. Four students in the present study,

three men and one woman reported being physically il1 as a result of procrastinating, either

due to exhaustion, tension, panic, or other emotions such as hstration, guilt, anger, and

despair. It appears that the comrnon condition for physical illnesses related to

procrastination is stress. Flett et al. (1 995) reported that procrastination was associated

with significantly higher levels of daily hassles, negative life events, and perceived stress,

supporting their hypothesis that procrastination and stress were related.

Many procrastinators descnbe t heir lives as stressfil (e.g., suffenng fiom sleep

disturbance due to "monumental dl-nighters severai in a row" or excessively using

stimulants such as cafeine). A combination of chronic stress and procrastination can lead

to senous psychological and physical symptoms such as depression (reported by Andrew

and Michael in the present study), anxiety and ulcers (reported by Irene), frequent

infections (Michael: "1 dropped out of school because of mono, but 1 got it because 1 am

abusing my body7'), weight gain (reported by Simon) where food probably is another

distraction used while procrastinating, aithough the causality between these symptoms has

not been detennined.

. . . . . nvialitv of p r o c r m o n be- It is remarkable how trivial the

procrastination behaviors appear to be in this sample. Six out of eight students descnbed

their procrastination behaviors as neither exciting, interesting, nor personally satisfjmg.

86

In contrast to McCown and Johnson (1991)' this study found no evidence of students

engaging in planned social activities, but found that students do activities that are rather

impulsive and superficial (e. g., computer games, watching TV). According to McCown

and Johnson, extraverted students prefer to associate with larger numbers of people when

procrastinating, while introverted students tend to prefer more isolated settings. If their

theory is correct, the students in this study appear to be introverted because they

procrastinate by engaging in activities that do not involve other people.

Ainslie's (1 975, 1392) theory of specious rewards may be more relevant to this

sample. The students in this study had a tendency to choose shon-term and immediately

pleasurable, nonchallenging distractions ( e g , watching TV, cleaning a room) over long-

term goals that are not as easily achievable. These behaviors were reinforcing because the

anxiety associated wit h working on long-term tasks was decreased. However, avoiding

such anxiety-provoking tasks can develop into a habit which results in lower than optimal

performance in the future (Ferrari et al., 1995).

Treatment of Procrastination

Although the sample in this study is very small, it is probably indicative of current

student concems as more and more demands are placed on them and competition gets

more difficult each year. The results of the present study indicate that different types of

procrastination must be considered when planning a therapeutic group. Different people

may have dissimilar patterns of procrastination. Simon summarized it very nicely: "1 didn't

think there would be so many different people with so many different levels of

procrastination." Groups might be based on similar "types" of procrastination. Some

87

reasons for procrastination (such as fear of failure) are more difficult to acknowledge than

other reasons that are less threatening to self-esteem (e.g., lack of motivation,

disorganization, time management). The treatment facilitators should be aware that the

reasons given for procrastination may be influenced by social desirability.

In order to identifL students that are highly motivated to change, the severity of the

problem and the levei of concem rnight be assessed. In this study, four out of eight

students who completed the group rated their concem with procrastination as "severely

distressing," while only two out of eight students who dropped out rated their

procrastination problem as "severely distressing." One student, Mark, who completed the

group, but rated the severity of his procrastination problem as "slightly distressing"

seemed to be least motivated for change. He mentioned (on four out of five

questionnaires) that he was too busy to think about procrastination outside the group.

Although he felt his awareness about the problem increased, he did not acknowledge any

change.

The following themes reflect treatment approaches and outcornes. It is remarkable

how two students (Linda and Lisa) who changed the identified eight out of nine of

these themes each, while two students (Mark and Sandra) who changed the identified

oniy three and two themes, respectively. Students who reported some change, identified

an average of four themes.

Ern~owerment. Four students (three women and one man) reported feeling more

empowered by the end of the group through taking personal responsibility for their

thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and becorning more capable of adjusting to new ways of

88

overcoming procrastination. One of the roles of group facilitators in this study was to help

members empower themselves by identifjmg and developing their potential. Several

students felt they were not reaching their full potential. Group facilitators helped them to

expand their awareness about ways in which they undermine their achievement. They also

worked together to develop strategies to stop procrastinating through taking risks,

chailenging their rnaladaptive beliefs, and confîonting any painful feelings. As this process

was repeated several times students gained more insight into why and how they

procrastinate, and as a result felt they had more control over the thoughts, feelings and

behaviors associated with procrastination.

mf. A great emphasis has been placed in this program on recognizing

one's irrational beliefs about procrastination. Sessions four and five were based largely on

exploring the irrationai beliefs that procrastinators hold about their abiiities. It was

hypot hesized t hat a therapeutic change could be facilitated by recognizing irrationai beliefs

and inappropriate negative emotions associated with irrational beliefs and by substituting

rational beliefs and more appropriate emotions and actions. The results of the present

study, as expected, indicate that irrational beliefs play an important role in procrastination.

Five students (three women and two men) reported they held irrational and

illogical beliefs either about themselves or others. There was considerable support found in

this study for Ellis and Knaus' (1 977) finding that procrastinators delay starting tasks

because of an irrationai fear of what constitutes an adequately accomplished task. The

irrationd beliefs that procrastinators hold (e.g., Irene is &aid that one day she will end up

on the street if she does not get her "act together soon7') often result in failure to

89

accomplish tasks, and, if repeated, this failure can lead to a loss of self-esteem.

Procrastinators oflen delay starting or compieting work that might potentially result in

failure and negative emotions, until the work cannot be completed satisfactonly. As a

result, performance does not reflect tme ability because the tasks cannot be completed

satisfactonly. Instead, performance reflects only how well tasks can be accomplished at

the last minute. Therefore, procrastination prevents people from discovering their optimal

abilities.

AnalvsidsubPoals. Linda and Lisa, the two students who showed the most change,

recognized that they needed training and practice in partitioning tasks into realistic and

sequential subgoals. They reported expenencing difficulties in analyzing tasks, setting

subgoals, and spending an optimal amount of time on various phases of projects.

When Linda and Lisa were presented with a challenging task such as writing an

essay or studying for an exam, they felt that they lacked the skills to analyze and execute

the work, and therefore, they postponed or avoided it until the last possible moment. They

oflen invested a lot of tirne and effort into ruminating about the project or, in some cases,

denying the existence of the impending deadlines. Thoughts pervaded with self-doubt, fear

of failure, or perfectionkm often hindered their decision making process. Linda used to see

tasks, such as writing papers or studying for exams as a "24-hr marathon" and then she

would coilapse while one of the most helpful lessons for Lisa was "breaking things down

into small pieces." It appears that procrastinators are used to thinking about their tasks as

too big and too global and as a result too overwhelrning. Procrastinators mua avoid

preoccupation with the final product and leam how to divide the task into a series of

90

intermediate neps or subgoals which are smaller, more manageable, and easier to

accomplish.

Schedulinp or coiitractine Initially, scheduling appeared to be difficult for these

students because their estimates of the time required for tasks were inadequate, and they

violated contracts for a number of reasons. At the end of each session, each group

member contracted with the group to accomplish two goals that had to be observable and

defined in specific terms. They were encouraged to break tasks into small and achievable

goals, to establish or set prionties, to define the time needed to accomplish goals, and to

incorporate a system for reinforcing progress toward their goals. They were also

introduced to the "five minute rule/contract" where the most important part is to start the

project. Meeting the first "five minute contract" is considered a first step, and then one has

a choice whether to continue or not.

Seven out of eight students recognized the importance of preparing schedules or

cornmitting themselves to contracts. It appears that scheduling and contracting were

helpful tools for at least some of these students. A few of them had previously taken time

management workshops but did not find them helpfùl. Possibly these workshops were not

helpful because they did not address the underlying issues related to scheduling such as

fean, perfectionism, anxiety, or other factors. This finding is consistent with the previous

research (e.g., Burka & Yuen, 1983) which had emphasized the importance of both,

improvement of time management skills and exploration of underlying causes of

procrastination.

. . The present study showed that procrastinators

ofien resort to self-criticism and self-devaluation which results in guilt or d e t y and

depression. T O overcorne these negative thinking patterns, positive thinking and rewarding

oneself for small accomplishrnents were strongly encouraged. The emphasis was on

rewards rather than on punishments because it was believed that more progress would be

made with rewards and positive thinking than with self-cnticism and punishment. Self-

reward and positive thinking were related to fear of failure, fear of disapproval, and

perfectionism. It appears that students who set unrealistic standards for themselves or

whose standards are imposed on them by others are oflen afiaid of failure and fear

disapproval Rom others. They oflen expenence feelings of self-devaluation and self-

cnticism. This study showed that those were the students who benefitted most from

incorporating rewards into their studying and substituting their negative thoughts with

positive thinking.

Self-acce~mce, Three students identified self-acceptance as a helpful strategy for

overcoming procrastination. Self-acceptance is probably related to one's self-concept.

Flett et d ' s (1 995) study provided evidence of association between procrastination and

negative self-concept demonstrated through a tendency to make negative social

comparisons with respect to work efficacy, intellect, and one's appearance. These

associations between procrastination and negative self-concept can be altered through

improving work efficacy, becoming more accepting of self, and placing less importance on

social comparisons. As they were working through issues related to procrastination, these

92

students were able to view themselves in a more positive light and were more accepting of

t hemselves.

C o n s e ~ e n c a The Price Wheel Exercise introduced in the third session stimulated

four students to think more about the consequences of procrastination. The exercise

helped them to identify the personal prices they pay as a result of procrastination. This

finding was consistent with the intention of this exercise; it was expected that by becorning

more aware of the personal consequences of procrastination, group members would be

able to end their maladaptive patterns and to move toward new and more constructive

ways of dealing with their problems.

Correl~on Themes

Two patterns of relations arnong themes were found. The first dynamics pattern

has perfectionisrn at its centre which is co~ec ted to fear of failure and to fear of

disapproval. This combination might be considered a more internaking response pattern.

Fear of failure is also comected to anxietyldepression which is congruent with the

intemalizing pattern. The second dynamics pattern has no direct connection with the first.

It connects oppositional behaviors with manipulation. Manipulation, in tum, is comected

negatively to self-devaluation (Le., manipulation is associated with low scores in self-

devaluation). Opposition is also co~ec ted to physical syrnptomatology. This second

pattern seems to contain themes suggesting more extemalking responses.

There appears to be primady one major pattern arnongst the treatment themes. It

includes self-reward/positive thinking, empowerment, analysidsubgoals, and self-

acceptance. This treatment patterns displays a relatively strong cognitive component and

93

relates ptimarily to the first dynamics pattern which reflects more intemaliring responses.

These two patterns are interconnected with many links. There are only two links between

this major treatment pattern and the more extemaiking dynamics pattern. The second

treatment pattern between irrational beliefs and consequences is relatively isolated.

. . ender and P r o c r m o n Themes

The present study found that women reported more negative self-concepts than

men. This pattern is consistent with previous research (Flen et al., 1995) which showed

that procrastinators tend to report negative selEconcepts and negative views of

themselves. It was not surprising that dynarnics of procrastination such as perfectionkm

and fear of failure were related to self-devaluation. Empowement and self-reward and

positive thinking were related as possible treatments for self-devaluation. It seerns that

women who reported feelings of self-devaluation found that these two treatrnents were

helpfùl in aileviating their negative Mews of themselves.

Three men and no women reported oppositional behaviors as one of the dynarnics

of procrastination. Oppositional behaviors were also positively related to manipulation and

physical symptorns. The men who reported more oppositional behaviors also reported

more manipulation and experienced more physical symptoms. These men probably use

procrastination as a means of chailenging the rules and expectations set by others. The

underlying emotion in resistance to rules and rebelliousness is probably anger which could

explain a higher incidence of reported physical symptorns in this group of men. This

finding was not consistent with the previous research that reported that both high

94

procrastinators in general and female high procrastinators in particular were more likely to

report the presence of physical symptoms (Rothblum, et al., 1986).

Similar to Solomon and Rothblum (1984) women in this study reported more fear

of failure than men. Three women reported fear of failure (one strongly denied it), while

only one man reported fear of failure and two strongly denied it. Linda also asked herself

"How can 1 stop getting in my own way? How cm 1 stop preventing my own success?"

This finding was consistent with previous research on fear of success where hi&-

achieving women have been shown to use behavioral foms of self-sabotage such as

procrastination, perfectionism, failure to priontize activities, and overcommittment in

order to prevent their own success (Post, 1988).

Women also found analysis and setting subgoals more helpful than men. This

correlation was due to two women (Linda and Lisa) who reported that analysis and setting

subgoals were helpful with their procrastination. It is possible that learning strategies for

analyzing tasks and setting smaller goals which are more manageable and easier to

accomplish gave these women tools to feel more confident and more in control of their

academic work.

More research is needed on the relation between gender differences and

procrastination. Although the number of participants in this study was small, the patterns

that emerged were consistent with previous studies with the exception of oppositional

behavion and physical symptoms. This area has not been well researched in the past and

more investigation is needed to explore the relation between gender and procrastination.

d F u m Research Supeestions

There are several possible threats to the validity of the present study: (a) attrition

rate, (b) scheduling, (c) questionnaires, and (d) level of experience of group facilitators.

Attrition. Only eight out of sixteen students completed the study. This monality

could be related to the nature of the study and the characteristics of its participants (e.g.,

difficulty with keeping appointments, lateness, lack of motivation, etc.). Some of the

participants who did not complete the study probably did not find the group very helpful.

Therefore, dropout could be due either to rebellion or resistance that could take a form of

failure to make use of what the group offers. Burka and Yuen ( 1 982) reported similar

experiences with n i ~ i n g procrastination groups. Other factors include lack of motivation,

tendency to be easily discouraged, or having unrealistic expectations about the group. Due

to the small sample size, the results of this study are not generalizable. However, the

patterns of procrastination that were found in this sample can be used as a basis for future

researc h.

Several reasons were given by the participants who did not complete the group:

boredom, immediate improvement after the first two sessions, discouragement, lack of

motivation, disappointment at failing to complete contracts, feeling negative about

working in groups, and unrealistic expectations about the treatment. In general, the

expectations of these group members were not met. They were easily discouraged and

lacked motivation and determination to complete the group. This attntion rnight have been

avoided through screening interviews selecting only those students who are highly

motivated for change.

96

Schedulinp. Group facilitators reported concems from several group members

indicating that the second group started too late (beginning of November). By that time,

most of the group members were already behind in their work. Several suggestions were

made where preference for a much earlier start was expressed. In the future,

procrastination groups should start either in September or in January so that participants

do not feel discouraged and "way behind" from the onset of the group. Group members

also felt that the group was too short. Several students suggested ten, one-hour sessions

instead of five, two-hour sessions. The group manual was originally planned for ten

sessions. However, the tirne constraints and the availability of the group facilitators

prevented starting the group earlier or scheduling ten sessions instead of five.

Ouestionnaires. Several group members expressed their dissatisfaction with the

questionnaires (e.g., Simon: "1 really think these questions need revision . . . The questions

seem to ask the sarne thing"). Students felt questions were too general. In future research,

questionnaires could address topics that are more specific to each session. Also, the

Procrastination Questionnaire should be tested for reliability and validity. Aithough this

questionnaire was adrninistered to two control groups, the samples were too smail to

perform any cornparisons between the procrastination and control groups. The study also

showed that it may not be sensitive enough to detect changes in procrastination over time.

The examination of dynamics and treatment approaches to procrastination was

done oniy fiom the perspective of the group members. Aithough informai in te~ews were

done with the group facilitators at the end of each session, their comments were not

97

included in the analysis. In the future, questionnaires could also be administered to the

group facilitaton to describe change processes fiorn their perspective.

. . OUD fachtat~rs~ This study used counsellors that were in their second year of a

Master's program, and they had lirnited pnor experience with running groups. Although

the group facilitaton in this study were closeiy supe~sed by a counseiing psychoiogist, it

is possible that group members with more experienced group facilitators would

demonstrate different change patterns than those shown in this study. A faster change

process rnight occur with more experienced group facilitaton that possess more

knowledge and experience. However, the responses to questionnaires and in te~ews show

that the group members that reported most or some change were capable of describing

their experiences in a quite sophisticated way. A question remains whether students that

showed little or no change were affected by lack of experience in the group facilitators or

were influenced by other intemal factors such as lack of motivation, discouragement, or

unredistic expectations of the group.

In contrast to Johnson and Bloom7s (1995) study that recornmends less global and

more problem-focused intervention, this study suggests that procrastinators benefit from

cognitive and affective approaches as weU as nom learning how to become more

organized and efficient through scheduling and prioritizing. The most effective leaming

seems to occur when such treatments as scheduling are combined with cognitions and

emotions related to procrastination.

98

Some tentative conclusions can be drawn fiom this qualitative analysis of dynarnics

and treatment approaches to procrastination. First, the emergence of two patterns of

themes (intemal and extemal) representing dynamics of procrastination indicate that the

obstacles to completing acadernic work on time may be quite diverse. University

counseling centres offenng workshops on procrastination need to recognize the challenges

of finding the appropriate treatments for students who have quite different reasons for

putting off acadernic tasks. Second, students who changed most found treatments that

have a strong cognitive component very helpfùl. For the students who identified themes

such as perfectionism, fear of failure, fèar of disapproval, and/or anxiety and depression,

treatments or intervention strategies that include self-rewardpositive thinking,

empowerment, self-acceptance, and analysis of subgoals were particularly effective. Third,

those students that increased their awareness and insight about how and why they

procrastinate reported that their feelings about themselves also changed and they felt more

positive about themselves. Treatment progrms might focus on the meaning of

procrastination for each student and how to combine it with approaches such as time-

management or prioritiring tasks. Fourth, for the group of procrastinators who repon lack

of motivation or career indecision, intervention strategies that help them to establish or

clarifj~ academic or career goals rnight be more appropriate. Finally, relations between

gender and procrastination need to be explored fûrther and fïndiigs incorporated into

future treatrnent programs.

Appendix A

The Procrastination Questionnaire

Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each of the itcms listed below by

selecting the response from (1) Strongly Disagree to (5) Strongly Agree. Please consider each statement

carefùily before responding. lnclude only the time m G THE: WOgKSBOP.

1 = Strongly Disagree

2 = Disagree

3 = Sometimes DisagredSometimes Agree

4 = Agree

5 = Strongly Agree

1. No matter how hard 1 study for exams, 1 cannot meet mv o w rxpectntions. . . 1 2 3 4 5

7 -. 1 usually t-el optimistic when doing papas or assignrnents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

4. Assignments and papas have to be pdkct or thme is no

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . point in handinp t h in. 1 2 3 4 5

5 . 1 pret'er king assigned a topic for a papa or assignmtmt rather than

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . having to choose one on mu o m . 1 2 3 4 5

6. 1 usually do so many other thmgs that thae is not enough

time left for school work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

7. No matter how much reading 1 do on ceriain topics,

1 cannot meet rny own standards on papas or assignments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

8. When doing research for my papers or assignmmts,

1 oflen realize that the field I've chosen is very intaestmg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

9. When Iampressu~ed to do school work 1 f e l anm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 J 5

1 O0

1 oAcn give up or don't even start studying for e'cams b u s e 1 don't fwI well . 1 2 3 3 5

1 can be cornpletely stuck with a papa or assigrment, but 1 never givc up . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

BoMg papm or assignments made me realize

I shouldn't have chosen this carerr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

Others (parents/professors) have unrealistic cxpectations about

how well 1 should do on esams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 k 1 fnistratcd by so many professon k ing vague about what the? want . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

The more someone pressura or nags me about rny school work. the less I do . . 2 3 4 5

The university ducational systtm doesn't provi& znough guidelines

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and structure for students I 2 3 4 5

1 work better on group projects than individual projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

1 oftm catch mvself dnfling off into &ydreams

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wfüle worlungon papersoriissignmtmts 1 2 3 4 5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 usually f e l relavtd whm studying for e;uams 1 2 3 4 5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 study best when pven very specific instructions 1 2 3 4 5

I h d studying for eliams extrmely irritating and htra t ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

I never give up. evm whm studying is not going well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

Getting anyhng lrss than perfect on an exam is as bad as toiling . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nobody cm make me do work I don? want to do 1 2 3 4 5

Others (parentdprofessors) have unredistic expectations

about how weU I shouId do on p a p or assignmrnts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

Othm a r o d me have noticed my àecline in incentive

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to wrïtepapers or a s s i ~ m t s 1 2 3 4 5

101

27 . 1 f e l most confident whenpursuing myown irieas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

28 . It is very important not to let other people tell you what to do.

even if thereare somerepercussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

29 . 1 waste a lot of t h e on other. relatively unimportant things.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . before Istart studyuig for e m s 1 2 3 3 5

30 . 1 came to univmity becaw ofher people expected me to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

3 1 . Sometimes 1 wtsh someone would just mnke me do mv academic work . . . . . . 1 2 3 3 5

32 . 1 have withdrriwn tiom some courses because 1 could not keep up w i t i r e a h g s . 1 2 3 4 5

33 . Othm (parmtdprofessors) have noticed that 1 m not as motivateci

to shdy for e m s os 1 used to be . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 2 3 4 5

It's v t q important for me to maintain my individuality and not just

"go along with the systern" or "do what is eqcxtcxi." . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

1 am tenificd îhat o h m ui11 find out 1 did not do well on papas

orassignmmts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36 . Othm people oRen get me to go out socially even whm 1 had plnnned

to study for an exam or to write a papa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

When studyuig for e m . 1 fmd the subject matter most interesting . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

1 am tiequently in conflict with my parents or vrith some of my prof-rs . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

1 often give up or don't even start witing a papa or assipunent

becausr 1 f e l tooanuious . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

I wntinuously intempt studying in order to talk to somebody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . walk around, have cotke. watch TV 1 2 3 4 5

Being given deadlines makes me procnistinate more . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

42 . When studymg for e m . 1 of ta doubt whether

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I should have tnken that course 1 2 3 4 5

33 . There are long penods of t h e when 1 do no reading at al1 for my courses . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

44 . 1 can do benm on e w than otha students in the class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 2 3 4 5

46 . 1 would be devastateci if others found out I foiid an exam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

Rcxmhing literature and witing papers or assignments

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is r;uumelv timr consurning and fnistrating 1 2 3 4 5

48 . Compared to other people in the class. 1 can do qually well

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . onpapersorassignmcnts 1 2 3 4 5

1 genedly avoid asking for help uith e m or papas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

When 1 start studying for an exam. 1 oîlm doubt that 1'11 s u c c d . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

Thme is oftm a big gnp bewm my plais to studv for an exam

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and the actual timr 1 3pnd studying 1 2 3 4 5

When 1 start doing research for o papa or assignment.

1 oflrn wonder whether 1'11 be able to write anythmg at dl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

1 intend to spend a lot of time on my reahgs.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . but 1 alwavs find myself rushing at the last minute 1 2 3 4 5

Procrastination Questionnaire

Reverse Scored

Scaies from Day & Mensink's Procrastination Questionnaire

1 O4

Appendix B

Please rank order ail subjects by assigning them numbers from 1 (indicating most

change) to 8 (indicating least change) in their procrastination thoughts, feelings, and

behaviors.

Cognitive:

No change:

Change:

"1 thought about nothing significant between sessions."

"1 tend to be busy enough [school, extracumcular activities] that 1

rarely think about the sessions outside of them."

"1 started to analyze things in steps instead of doing everything in

one day . "

"1 realized that f don? have a concept of how long the things will

take."

"1 realized that irrational beliefs can be disputed and turned into

rational beliefs."

Emotional:

No change: "For school 1 just don? care anymore."

"This workshop was just an awareness workshop. 3/5 of the

workshop is over and 1 am no better off"

Change: "1 didn't need to be perfect al1 the time. 1 used to be too hard on

myself most of the time."

"Getting over my fear of failure helped me a lot.

Behavioral:

No change: "1 know al1 the theory but 1 can't apply it."

"Now it's just like, well, it's not going to happen, so . . . 1 just

don? do it."

Change: "1 feel great each time I accomplish something."

"I've already started doing research for it [the project]. I'm kind of

trying to break things down. And that never happened before."

"1 hope I will be able to get up in the moming and write down

things to be accomplished for that day."

Appendix C

Overcorning Procrastination: A Prograrn for Self Enhancement

General Themes for Each Group Session

-ion 1 : Goals of the Prograrn

Definitions of Procrastination

The Self Defeating Behavioral Model

Techniques for Procrastination

Costs of Procrastination

Why do we Procrastinate?

Session 2; Fears and what can we do about them

Goal Setting and Time Management

Session 3 ; Contracts and Behavioral Management

Consequences of a Self Defeating Behavior

w o n 4; Thinking and Procrastination

The Self-in-Situation Model

How do you Change ûysfinctional Beliefs?

w o n 5: How we Diston our Thinking

Conclusions, Endings . . . Beginnings

Appendix D

Overcoming Procrastination: A Program for Self-Enhancement

Session 1

Introduction & Ice

B reaker

Goals for the

Workshop

- --

Group Noms

- group facilitators introduce thernselves to

W'uP

-ice-breaker: Meet Your Match

members are given cue cards, don't write

names, write their favounte place in the world

& 1 pet peeve, cards are collected &

redistributed, students stand in the middle of

the room and interview each other to identiQ

the card's owner, must ask 2 or 3 questions in

a round-about way, members sit down once

they have al1 been discovered --

-read from the manual -- p. 1

*remind students they are part of a research

study, they are "contributors to science",

required to complete forms following each

session

-respect one another

-participate - encourage risk-taking

-confidentiality & Privacy

-cornmitment to corning each week &

completing exercises

-ask students if any other noms

- .-

Check-In: Goal

S haring

Identifjmg

Procrastination

Behaviour

Defining

Procrastination

Reasons Why We

Procrastinate

Generating

Underlying Fears

Building the Wall of

Fears

The Self Defeating

Behaviour Mode1

-ask members to share 1 specific goal they

want to accomplish here, popcom style

-students each receive 1 cue card, write name

& 2 exarnples of ways in which they

procrastinate (explain that cards will be used

in a fùture session)

-coliect cards

-read definition fiom manual, p.2.

-discuss 3 characteristics

-members brainstorm reasons -- drawing from

own experiences

-encourage 1 response from each member

-have group identify patterns and themes

-indude any from p.8 not already mentioned

-group discussion question: Ofien there are

feus associated with procrastination

behaviour, what are some fears that you can

identiQ with?

- wdl diagram & includes memben' fears

-discuss the mode1 & 4 charactenstics -pp.

6&7

-ask group how applicable it is to them right

now

Attitudes associated

with

Procrastination

C heck-out

Reminders &

Questionnaire

-define "attitude": a way of thinking, reflected

in behaviour; self-taik

- 2 examples: rescue & avoidance (anecdotes)

- relationship between attitude and behaviour

-each member asked to share exarnple of self-

talk (popcorn style)

-ask if other members relate to sarne attitudes .- - . . . . .

-ask: What will you take away from this

workshop? (go round circle)

- between session exercises: Behaviours &

Attitudes (helps increase awareness of self-

talk and accompanying behaviour); Goal

Sheet; Areas in Our Life in Which We

Procrastinate checklist;

- hand out articles

- questionnaires (facilitators leave room while

students complete)

-remind them to bnng manuals each week

Overcoming Procrastination: A Program for Self-Enhancement

Goal Sheet * * pno.mdon

Ice Breaker:

--bingo cards created frorn procrastination behaviours

of group (collected the week before)

-members gather in centre of room with cards, have

to "inte~ew" others to try and find out who matches

behaviour

-can ody ask two questions & then must move on to

next person

-first person to get a row or diagonal calls BMGO

and receives prize -

How are y m feeling about being here?(popcom

style) - -

-have participants take out goal sheets, review key

points re: specific goal setting

-explain ABC7s of goal setting (A= "high priority",

%= "soon", C " low prionty)

-reminder to review goals each week to check

progress, if new goals mise, re-prioritize

Discussion

Rewards and

Through the

Sc- -

-- --

-bring back "wall of fears" diagram from last week

- 3 A's using example (scheduling exarnple)

-make sure everyone understands 3 A's

-ask participants to choose partner tbey haven't

worked with before

-each partner in dyad to go through one goal each

using 3 A's-continue with 2nd if time permits

How wm this process for you (ï. r., identifyig 3

A 's?) Atiy new learnings?

-talk about how procrastinators often think in terms

of punishments

-Brainstorm possible rewards (everyone contributes

one)

-talk about rewards as way of having control -

-go through predetermined example (doing a

literature search for a paper)

-how would 1 break it down over a week's time?

( chan this on "blown up" version of schedule)

-ground niles as listed in manual will be reinforced

-al1 group members will fill out contracts and have

them countersigned before they lave

112

3:40 - 350

r

350 - 4:ûû

Cbwk0u.t. . How are you f eehg abouf the upcoming wrek?

-facilitators will leave room so that questionnaires can

be filled out.

ûvercoming Procrastination: A Program for Self-Enhancement

Icebreaker

Price Wheel - O v e ~ e w

Price Wheei - Exercise

Price Wheel - Dyads

Have students identify a Song which describes how

they are feeling now. (Popcorn style)

rime-penni~ting - As k t hem t O explain.

Ask students to descnbe their experience with their

contract. Persona1 thoughts & feelings?

-expiain that there are negative internal (personal) &

extemal (social) consequences of one' s

procrastination behaviour

-discuss personai example

-distribute blank sheets of paper

-review Price Wheel stimulus questions

-acknowiedge fact that some members may have

clear conception of the consequences of their

procrastination behaviour and connections between

them, while others may not (nomalize) -- - -

-members select different partner

-discuss any observed patterns, simiiarities between

partners' wheels, help identifi more consequences if

necessary

Cue Card

Exercise

Internalized

Messages

2: 50 - 3 : 10

Group Discussion

Self-in-Situation

Model

-have them star the thoughts which relate to thern

(Activating

' Event, Beliefs,

Consequences)

-explain the model (3 ways of being: thinking,

feeling, doing)

-ernphasis on "thinking"(se1f-taIk -- internalized

messages)

-ask midents to k t e down 2 messages (positive or

negative) which they received while growing up re:

school & personal achievement

[e.g., "School must always corne before play.

School is everything7'; "Your father and 1 have every

faith that you will succeed in school"; "You're just

not trying hard enough"]

-anonymous cards

-collect & re-distribute cards

-each mernber reads out their card

-discuss themes, similarities,

Question: How have these messages influenced your

lives today?

-refer students to irrational thoughts - pp. 33-35

-explain model using flip chart

-illustrate 1 quick personal example

-ask for volunteer to provide an example of own

procrastination behaviour and associated beliefs

which they identified earlier -- work through the

process with nident

-identiS, the Consequence(s), then the Activating

Event, connect them, clanfy the Belieqs), and

connect with the Consequence(s)

-have students complete in-session

-CO-signed by facilitator

3:30 - 3:40 Contract

I week (re: contracts -- problems?, any other business)

-complete questionnaire

-ask students if there were any new self-discovenes

today. Discuss.

-in-between session exercise: ABCD worksheet

-inform group that we'll be contacthg them over the

-- -

3:40-350

3: 50 - 4:00

Check-out

Rerninders &

Questionnaire

Overcoming Procrastination: A Program for Self-Enhancement

Share one positive thing t h h m happe~red to

you this pmt week - - - . - - -

Definition and Explanation

(Go over 10 irrational beliefs bnefly on flip chart)

-break group into pairs, give each pair one script

which outlines one type of irrational belief

-allow pain time to decide how they will present

this as a role play

-each pair presents role play of inaiional belief,

rest of group attempts to a) identi9 irrational

beliefs, b) generate rational alternatives

-members invited to share any problems they

encountered while filling out ABC'S for

homework

-explain and define the D and E columns on ABC

worksheet

-each member generates at least one D and E for

t hemselves

-members pair off with different partner than they

were with earlier

-help each other generate D's and E's

-provide challenges for each other (e.g., if person

doesn't see any irrationality in beliefs, partner

helps him or her to explore possible consequences

of those beliefs)

-partners also seek to identify patterns of beliefs

-how we distort our thinking (p. 38 of manual),

"saint or sinner syndrome" explained

-members are asked to look over page 39

(Defi- of Cppn1t1ve Distort . . . .

ions) and are

asked to consider which ones they identifi with,

for next week)

-rernind members that next week is last week

- ask members to review original goai sheet

before corning to group next week

- fil1 out new ABCDE sheet for any new

situations they can think of

-look over definitions of cognitive distortions - - - -

Did avhir tg change fut- you ihis session? Did

you make any new diseoveries?

Have members make contracts for next week

- facilitators d i leave room so that

questionnaires cm be filled out.

Overcoming Procrastioation: A Program for Self-Enhancement

Breat hing

Exercise

Check In

Identification of

Cognitive

Distortions

Discussing the

@ificancg of

Behavioural

Contracts

&

Rational

Ernotive

Model

Grmp Processing:

How did yozi experience the exercise ?

What positive thoughts st ood out for ymc ?

What are your thoicghts abmît ending today?

--

-display Cognitive Distortions list

-have students identi& which cognitive

distortion(s) they use & how it (they) perpetuate(s)

their procrastination behaviour

-30 act your way into a new way of thinking"

-to set realistic, manageable, and achievable goals

-to help plan for the completion of these goals

-to gain control over accomplishing goals & feel

proud

-70 think your way into a new way of feeling and

behaving"

-stresses the influence of thoughts on Our feelings

& actions

-helps you identi@ thinking styles associated with

procrastination behaviour

-allows you to substitute new positive thoughts for

self-defeating ones and practice them.

Identifjmg

Usefùl

Techniques &

Exercises

Re-visit ing Goal

Sheet

Life Road Mode1

-

(each member participates)

- Which models (kg,. Self in Situation), exercises

(e.g.. Price Wheer), or techniques stood out for

you ?

- What did they help y m learn about yourseif,

-How ha s yuur procrastination behaviour k e n

affected?

-Do you plan to continue iîsirg these rnethodF?

-each member reads hidher goal(s)

- Whor do you feel you have accomplished?

-Whai motivatedym?

-Hm didfdo yoic feel about ymr

accornplishments ?

-put up on wall (add "Wall of Womes")

Ask students to think about:

- Where wotîld yoîî place ymrseif on the diagram ?

. . . What does itfeel Iike to be there? ... W d d y m

rather he elsewhere on the diagram? ... Ifso. how

do yolr plan IO get there?

Members wite a letter to themselves identifjmg

the following:

-personal strengths, accomplishments

-future goals -- where they want to be in 2 months

Letters will be mailed in few months.

Wrap Up

Farewel

Questionnaires

&

Workshop

Evaluation

Fonns

-distribute list of Procrastination websites &

certificates

-thank members for being committed to workshop

& the group (through their attendance,

participation, self-disclosure & risk-taking)

-wish them well with their future goals

-distribute research questionnaires (facilitators will

leave room)

Appendix E l a Fum A

If the proposed research does not iuvolve humao s u b j ~ l s or the direct use of rheir Witten mords. vidm-tapes. mordingr. tests. etc.. lhis signature Fom. dong with one copy of the research proposai should be deliverrd directly to the Graduate Education Office for finai approval.

[f the pmposed rcsearch involves human subjjtcts. this signature fonn. dong with one copy of the research proposai and thrrt copies of ~ h e Ethical Review Fonn musc be subirted ro the Chair of the Ethicai Review Committee, Graduate Office, Faculty of Education.

IT IS THE STITDENT'S RESPONSIBILITY TO PROVIDE A COPY OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL (INCLUDING REVTSIONS) TO THE TKESIS SUPERVISOR AND ALL iMEMBERS OF THE ADVISORY COMMI'MEE.

Nanie of Tiiais Supervisor:

Nanie(s) of Menibers of the Tlirsis Advisory Committer:

APPROVIU. SIGNATURES:

Graduate S tudcnt:

niesis Supervisor:

[Al[& Advisory Cornmittee: (at 1-t one) Y

Ethical Review Clearance: f

Chair of Graduate Education:

A STUDENT MAY PROCEED WITH RESEARCH WHEN A COPY OF THIS FORM APPROVAL SIGNATURES HAS BEEN RECEMD.

122

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