1

TECHNIQUES OF CONSTRUCTING DUNDUN: ABDULAHI AYULLA IN PERSPECTIVE

M.A THESISSUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE AWARD OF THE MASTER OF

AFRICAN ETHNOMUSICOLOGY

OF THE

DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC,

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA,NIGERIA

BYJAYEOLA, FOLORUNSO DAVID

PG/MA/11/58560

MAY, 2014.

TITLE PAGE

2

TECHNIQUES OF CONSTRUCTING DUNDUN: ABDULAHI AYULLA IN PERSPECTIVE

DEDICATION

3

This research project is dedicated to the Almighty God, the Omnipotent, the Omniscience and the Omnipresence.

4

ABSTRACT

Over the years music has become an art of inestimable value to the society, handed down from generation to generation and with every generation experiencing a considerable level of civilization, and has not been left behind. The music world has improved tangibly and this has gone a long way to affect the kind of music performed, and the types of instruments used in performances. 21st century music, as any observant would note, has witnessed a tremendous growth with new instruments being discovered and produced. One of the old instruments that seem neglected in the Yoruba popular music scene is the African talking drum popularly called the Dundun in the Yoruba popular music scene. This instrument has been handed down from generation to generation amongst the Yoruba people of Nigeria and has always proven to be an indispensable dream to so many musicians especially in the performance of traditional African music. This is as a result of the many qualities peculiar to the dundun drum. It is saddening to note however, that despite the obvious quality of the dundun drums, many people have failed to pay attention to the magic behind the ability of the dundun drum to stand out amongst its equals even in contemporary times. It is for this reasons that I have decided to concentrate basically on the constructional techniques of Dundun drum as my project. In the cause of writing this project I have endeavored to see that anyone who reads this project will not only discover the technicalities involved in constructing the dundun drums but will also come to appreciate the beauty of its sonority as an African traditional musical instrument. To carry out this research work I have decided to consult various literature /books and with some observation method as I observed the Abdullahi Ayulla in his workshop, as he constructed the dundun instrument. One of the ancient instruments that seem neglected in the traditional Yoruba popular music scene is the talking drum, popularly called the dundun.

5

APPROVAL PAGE

This is to certify that this research work is approved for the award of Masters

Degree (M.A) in African Music at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

-------------------------------- -----------------------------

Dr. Sam K.I. Chukwu Date

(Project Supervisor)

-------------------------------- -----------------------------

Dr. A. ADEOGUN Date

(Head of Department)

----------------------------------- -----------------------------

Prof. Idolor Date

(External Examiner)

6

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am most grateful to God for sparing my life throughout my Masters

programme. It is indeed the mercies of God that kept me to this existent.

I express my gratitude to my humble supervisor in person of Dr. Sam Chukwu for his

valuable suggestions, constructive criticism and co-operation in ensuring that I bring out

my best in this project. I must also say this that even as the H.O.D of Music Dr. Sam

Chukwu still took time to go through my research work as my supervisor. I pray that the

good lord shall crown your effort in Jesus name.

I must also appreciate Dr. A.O. Adeogun for his moral support, Mrs. M.C. Anyan-

Njoku, who has always been a mommy to me; Dr. Ikenna Onwuegbuna ,for his care for

me to be an achiever in my Education as pursit. Mr. Ewulu, J.Izuchukwu, a lecturer,

brother and a friend. Thank you for your spiritual and financial support. To Professor C.

Onyeji, thank you for being a father, likewise I appreciate your wife Mrs.E.Onyeji your

encouragement is quite appreciated. Great appreciation to my other lecturers: Rev. Fr.

Ben Agbo and Rev. Sis. Keke. You were so influential to my life as a student of music.

I want to express my sincere gratitude to my lovely parents, Mr. and Mrs. E.O.

Jayeola for their moral, spiritual and financial support, toward my education. You shall

enjoy the fruit of your labour in Jesus name (Amen!). And to my brothers, Olugbenga,

Kayode, and Adewale, and my one and only lovely sister, Dupe. I appreciate you all. In a

special way, I want to appreciate you, Ajagbe Omotolani Taye (Ifemi) who has really

been there for me. Keep it up. May God bless you!

7

TABLE OF CONTENT

PRELIMINARIES Pages

Title page - - - - - - - - iDedication - - - - - - - - - iiAbstract - - - - - - - - - iiiApproval page- - - - - - - - - ivAcknowledgement - - - - - - - - vTable of Content - - - - - - - - vi

CHAPTER ONE1.1: Introduction . . . . . . . . 11.2: Classification of Musical Instrument ( Sach- Hornbostel) . . 21.3: Jaap Kunst’s Observation on Sach and Hornbostel Classification . 61.4: Echezona’s System of Classification . . . . 71.5: Chukwu Sam Kenneth Ihenyi’s System of Classification . . 91.6: Mosunmola Omibiyi’s Classification . . . . 121.7: Nwachukwu’s Classification . . . . . 151.8: Akpabot’s System of Classification . . . . 171.9: Richard Okafor’s System of Classification . . . 181.10: Nwamba Nketia’s Classificatio . . . . . . 211.11: Nzewi’s System of Classification . . . . 251.12: Historical Background . . . . . . . 271.13: Aims and Objecting . . . . . . . 291.14: Methodology . . . . . . . . 30

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW2.0: The African membrane drum can talk . . . . 312.1: The talking drum . . . . . . . 332.2: African traditional instruments . . . . . . 362.3: Membranes drum tuning / theoretical frame work . . . 372.4: Range of Dundun Ensemble on Musical Staff . . . . 392.5: The Psychology Nature of African Membrane Drum . . . 392.6: Male –Female concepts . . . . . . . 412.7: Playing the membrane drum . . . . . . 422.8: Acoustic considerations of the dundun . . . . 43

CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS USED3.1: Materials and Their Uses . . . . . . . 493.1: Tools and Materials . . . . . . 513.2: Seasoning of materials (Skin) . . . . . . 523.3: Wood Seasoning . . . . . . . . 553.4: Natural or Open Air Seasoning . . . . . . 573.5: Kiln Seasoning . . . . . . . 593.6: Analysis on drying rate . . . . . . 60

8

CHAPTER FOUR4.1: Construction process: The various stages of the construction ofDundun . . . . . . . . . 62

CHAPTER FIVE5.1: Notated scores on the playing of dundun drum/ membrane drums . 715.2: Playing techniques . . . . . . . 725.3: Dundun and Modern Technological Development in Nigeria. . . 735.4: Summary . . . . . . . . 745.5: Recommendations . . . . . . . 755.6: Conclusion . . . . . . . . 76 References . . . . . . . . 77

9

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Music can be said to be abstract or non-figurative art that comes as an expression

of emotional feelings to create diverse reactions in the heart of any listener depending on

how it is performed. Africans are known to believe that music has magical powers

embedded in it and could be used to invoke whatever deity they desire to invoke. Though

it, is necessary to note that the kind of music performed at any point in time depends

largely on the individual or group performing such music, and this is why there exists a

thick wall of difference between the kinds of music performed in African societies and in

the western world, as well as the kind of instruments involved in their performances.

Music, as history has it, started right from the existence of man through the

sounds they perceived and the things that went on in their immediate surroundings. This

gave birth to the production of rhythms through clapping of hands and stamping of feet

which later evolved to the making of drum-like structures and many more like flutes and

string instruments. According to ethno-musicologists the musical instruments that existed

in those primitive times could be classified into four categories namely:

(a) Membranophones _____ Drum (dundun)

(b) Aerophones _____ Blown instruments (kakaki)

(c) Chordophones _____ String instruments (Goje)

(d) Idiophones _____ Self sounding instruments (Sekere)

In line with these classifications, a researcher called Curt Sachs (1959) was a German

musicologist known for his extensive study and expertise on the history of musical

instruments. Sachs worked alongside Erich Moritz von Hornbostel (18877-1933) an

Austria musicologist and expert on the history of non-European music. Their

10

collaborative work is now known as the Sachs-Hornbostel system, a method of

classifying musical instruments according to the type of vibrating material used to

produce sound.

1.1: CLASSIFICATION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENT (SACHS-HORNBOSTEL)

Idiophones- Musical instruments in which a vibrating solid material is used to

produce sound. Examples of solid materials used n such instruments are stone, wood,

metal. Idiophones are differentiated according to how you make it vibrate. Such as:

1. Concussion- A pair of similar instrument that are struck against each other to

create sound. Examples: cymbals, castanets.

2. Friction – Instrument that produce sound when robbed. An example of glasses in

which the musician rubs his moistened fingers on the rim of the glasses to

produce sound.

3. Percussion – Musical instrument that produce sound by striking or using a striker.

Examples: xylophones, triangles, bells, gongs, steel drums.

4. Plucked – Also known as linguaphones, these are musical instruments that need to

be plucked to create sound, such as the Jew’s harp in which the player plucks the

“tongue” of the instrument.

5. Scraped – As the name implies, these instruments that when scraped, produce

sound. Examples of these are cog rattles and washboards.

6. Shaken – Musical instruments that need to be shaken to create sound. A perfect

example is maracas, which are believed to have been invented by native Indians

of puerto Rico.

11

7. Stamping – Instrument that produce sound when stamped on a hard surface, such

as the shoes used by tap dancers.

8. Stamped – When sound is produced by the material itself that’s being stamped on.

Membranophones- Musical instruments that have vibrating streched membranes

or skin that produce sound. Membranophones are classified according to the

shape of the instrument.

1. Kettle Drum – Also known as vessel drums, these are rounded at the bottom

and may be tunable or non-tunable. This vibrating membrane is either laced,

nailed or glued to the body and player uses his hands, a beater or both to strike

it.

2. Tabular Drum - Are further classified into barrel, cylindrical, conical, double

conical, goblet, hourglass and shallow. Tubular drums may either be tunable

and non tunable. Like the kettle drums, it may be played by using both the

hands or a striker and the vibrating membrane is laced, nailed or glued to the

body.

3. Friction Drums- Instead of striking, the stretched membrane vibrates when

there is friction. These are non-tunable and the player uses a cord or stick to

create sound.

4. Mirlitons- Unlike other musical instruments belonging to memebranophones,

mirlitons are not drums. The membranes produce sound with the vibration of

a player’s voice or instrument. Mirliton are non-tunable, a good example of

this type are kazoos.

12

5. Other membranophones are called frame works in which the skin or

membrane is stretched over a frame drums in which the skin or membrane is

stretched over a frame such as tambourines. Also, pot drums and ground

drums fall under the membranophone category.

Aerophones - Music instruments which produce sound by a vibrating mass of air.

This is more commonly known as wind instrument and there are three basic types:

1. Brass winds- Made of metal, particularly brass, these instruments create sound

through the vibration of a player’s lips on the mouthpiece. The air that passes

from the player’s lips goes to the air column of the instrument and thus creates

sound. Examples: trombone trumpet, tuba.

2. Woodwinds- Originally made of wood but now other materials have also been

used. On reed instruments like the saxophone and the clarinet, a thin material

is placed on the mouthpiece so that when the player blow into it the air is

forced to go to a reed and sets it to vibrate. In double –reed instruments such

as bassoons and oboes, the materials placed on the edge of a mouthpiece thus

creating sound.

3. Free-reed- Refers to wind instruments that have a freely vibrating reed and the

pitch depends on the size of the reed. A good example of this type of is the

accordion.

Chordophones - Music instrument that produces sound by means of a stretched

vibrating string. These are five basic types on the strings’ relationship with the

resonator. When a string vibrates, the resonator picks up that vibration and

amplifies it a more appealing sound.

13

1. Musical bow- May or may not have resonators; the string are attached and

stretched over a wooden bow.

2. Harps- They are not parallel to the sound board.

3. Lyres – The string run through a crossbar holding it away from the resonator.

Lyres may either be bowed or plucked.

4. Lutes- These instruments have neck; the strings are stretched across a

resonator and travel up the neck. Lutes may be bowed or plucked.

5. Zithers- Have no necks; strings are stretched from one end of the board to

another end. Zither may be plucked or strucked.

postulated among other things, that the present status reached in the fabrication of

musical instruments is as a result of a gradual revolution. He also went further to

suggest the way the different group of instruments were made in the course of

which he claimed that drums were invented from calabash and coconut shells,

which were protected against dirt, dust, decay or insects by covering them with

tight fitting bladders, or skin

At this juncture, it is expedient to state that the dundun drum is a type of

membranophone which evolved from among the Yorubas. Various Yoruba oral traditions

have their own stories on the origin of the dundun drums which will be treated at length

under the historical background of the dundun drum.

14

1.2: JAAP KUNST’S OBSERVATION ON SACHS AND HORNBOSTEL’S

CLASSIFICATION.

Even though the sachs and Hornbostel’s classification of musical instruments are

accepted worldwide, Kunst (1959) draws attention to the four classifications, thus:

Each of the four main groups naturally been divided. In this subdivision,

however, there is not the same unity of criterion as seen in the main group.

The Idiophones are classed and arranged according to the playing

method; the Membranophone , in the first instance, also according to the

playing method, but further according to shape; the Chordophones are

first split into two groups, i.e.., that of the simple, and that composite

instruments, and they are further classified according to shape; in the case

of the aerophones we first find a division into “free” aerophones and wind

instruments proper, after which the latter group is again subdivided

according to the manner in which they are blown. (p.59)

Incidentally, Kunsts’ comment on the four classifications as table by Sach and

Hornbostel addressed the issue on the classificatory style of Sach and Hornbostel, and

concludes with the observation that there was , however, a conspicuous absence of

homogeneity of criterion in their considerations. Even though, it appears that Sachs and

Hornbostel were aware of what they did and why they did it, the research thereby poses

the question, thus: what criteria then, did they use in arriving at such conclusions and the

final classification system

15

1.3: ECHEZONA’S SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

By the second hakf twentiesth century, some Nigerian musicologists have become

curious about this same issue- the classification of African musical instruments.

Wilberforce Echezona, one of the few Nigerians, an Igbo by tribe, tried to classify Igbo

musical instruments. During the 1977 Nigerian festival of Arts and Culture (FESTAC),

Echezona was a director in charge of the exhibition of musical instruments, which offered

him the opportunity to document the musical instruments which were submitted by

different ethnic groups in Nigeria. After observing the variety of these musical

instruments, Echezona grouped them thus:

1. Instruments of inherently resonant materials,

2. Membranophones,

3. Prongaphones,

4. Aerophones, and

5. Stringed instruments.

The researcher observe that Echezona’s classification sysyem falls in line with the four

categories of Sach and Hornbostel, but with some modifications as well as sub-divisions

as follows:-

1. Instrument of inherent resonate materials like,

a) The clapperless series

b) Bell series (with sub-division):simple xylophone, compound xylophone,

Hollow xylophone, metalophones, pallet bells, clapper bell.

c) Jingle series

d) Sistrum series

16

e) Hollow rattles

f) Musical rasps and friction instruments.

2. Membranophones ( with sub- division); Single membrane drums, Double

membrane drums.

3. Prongaphones – as instruments consisting of a number of flexible tongues of

bambioo, wood or metal, whose bases are attached to a board or a box- like

resonant body.

4. Aerophones – (wind instruments) with sub-divisions;

a) Flute series (with sub-division)

i. Pan-pipe group,

ii. End- flute group,

iii. Transverse wind group,

iv. Notched flute group,

v. Duct- flute,

vi. Talking tube,

vii. Trumpet series,

viii. Red instruments,

ix. Spinning wind instruments.

5. Stringed instruments ( with sub- divisions) ;

Extmporarized monochords.

Musical bows,

Split stringed instruments,

Harps,

17

Plucked stringed instruments,

Bowed stringed instruments

( Echezona, 1981 : pp2-230)

From a critical view on the grouping above, it would appear that the prongaphone

and instruments of inherently resonant materials refers to, or rather belong to Sach

and Hornbostel’s “Idiophone” group, which still buttress my view that

Echezona’s classification, even though they are collection of instruments, is still

the same with that made by Sachs and Hornbostel, in spite of the fact that they are

categorized into five.

1.4: CHUKWU SAM KENNET IHEANYI’S SYSTEM OF MUSICAL

INSTRUMENT CLASSIFICATION

1. Mannerphones: Traditional musical instruments identify by their manner of

playing.

2. Materiaphones: Traditional musical instruments identified by the material from

which they are made.

3. Onomatophones: Traditional musical instruments identified according to their

onomatopoetic derivsations

4. Utiliphones: Traditional musical instruments known by their utilarian associations

5. Abstractophones: Traditional instruments identified by their abstract appellations.

(Chukwu 2007. Igbo musical instruments: A taxonomical study of traditional

musical instruments of Imo State. Phd thesis, unpublished.p.89.). He further

explain that:

18

from his point of view, and critical research activities for over ten

years, he gathered his data in deriving the above five classification

of traditional musical instruments from many elders as well as

youth of different localities in Imo State; that is those who

regularly make use of these various musical instruments in their

day to day social lives. He also said much information was also

gathered from musical instrument makers.

With Chukwu’s system of classification, the dundun musical instrument can say to be

categorized under “Materiaphones“because any musical instrument made off: Igba-

akpukpo - (Skin drum), “Ogwe or Conga” - (drum or skin drum), Odu – (animal horn or

ivory horn), Okpokporo mbe – (tortoise shell), also called okpokporo nnabe, Opi achara

– (bamboo flute), Opi igwe – (whistle, made of metal). (Chukwu 2007.pp94)

(Chukwu, 2007 .pg 156-157). Use his system of classification to tabularize the

vocalization of traditional musical instruments.

Type of Instrument English name Vocalization Researcher’s

Classification

1. Achara Bamboo fe-fee, fe-fee Utiliphone

2. Ekwe Medium slit

wood drum

Koto- koto Onamatophone

3. Ichka or Osha Calabash Rattle Cham- cham Onamatophone

4. Igba Skin drum ke- gba kelem Materiaphone

19

specie

5. Ikoro Large wooden

slit drum

Ti- koro-koro-korom Abstractophone

6. Ija Anklet Jam-jam-jam Onamatophone

7. Kwa-kwa Stringed Rattle Kwa-kwa-kwa Onamatophone

8. Mgbirimba Conical bell

with a hanging

beater

Gbam-gbam Onamatophone

9. Ngelenge Xylophone Gelem-gelem Onamtophone

10. Nkuku Calabash horn Ku-ku-ku Utiliphone

11. Odu Ivory or animal

horn

Pupuu-pupuu Materiaphone

12. Ogeleorogene

13. Oja

Conical bell

Notched

wooden flute

Gom-gom-gom

Pirom-pirom

Onamatophone

Abstractophone

14. Ogwe Skin drum Kelem-tu-kelem Materiaphone

15. Okwa Small wooden

slit drum

Ka-ka-ka-ka Onamtophone

16. Okopkoro nnabe

or mbe

Tortoise shell Ko-ko-ko-ko Materiaphone

17. Opi- achara Flute amboo Fi-fi-fi-fi Mateeriaphone

18. Opi igwe

(wisulu)

Metal whistle Pi-pi-pii Materiaphone

20

19. Ubo-aka Thumb piano Kpi-kpom-kpi-kpom Mannerphone

20. Udu Musical pot Dudum-dum Onamatophone

21. Udu mmiri Water pot Dum-dum Utiliphone

22. Une Musical bow

(with mouth

resonator)

Go-gom-wo-gom Abstractophone

1.5: MOSUNMOLA OMIBIYI’S CLASSIFICATION

(Chukwu, 2007:73), pointed it out that Omibiyi in her own contribution toward the

classification of musical instrument, stress her own point of classification on what she

caption “The Gourd in Nigeria Folk music.” According to (Omibiyi, 1983:31) in his

work, stressed that the gourd, as material, is used variously, in different Nigerian cultures,

to construct musical instruments. Hence, she examined different types of gourd

instruments prevalent in the various societies in Nigeria, and classed in different sub-

headings as thus:

1. Gourd Idiophoines- which fall into four categories

a. Those that are hand held and shaken;

b. Those that are placed on the floor and some other surface and struck;

c. Those that are hand held but beaten against another object; and

d. Those that serve as resonators for tuned idiophones.

2. Memebranophone gourd – which are not as extensive as idiophone gourd

21

3. Gourd aerophone – are occasionally found in combination with wood. Althouh,

gourd aerophones are not as common as those made from other materials, they are

found all over the country.

4. Chordophone gourd – in this category, the gourd is utility as a resonator. These

are found extensively in the northern areas.

As a matter of fact, Nigeria ethnomusicologists have not been able to arrive at

specific conclusion in classifying musical instrument. Day to day we have different

scholars in ethnomusicology coming out with different point of view in classifying

musical instrument, and that was why Omibiyi (1977), tried to explain the fact that in

trying to tackle the various problems associated with identifying and classifying the

musical instruments found in Nigeria, “the most important consideration oath to be

accorded the craftsmanship and artistic quality of instrument.”

As a matter of fact, dundun musical instrument still belong to “membranophone

gourd” as examined by Mosunmola omibiyi’s system of classification which supported

that of Sach and Hornbostel.

At this junction, I want to state it clearer here that according to Sach - dundun belong

to membranophone, while Mosunmola makes her own Membranophnoe gourd, and

finally Chukwu categorize it under materiaphone

The dundun drum comes in an ensemble with which it is performed, which

consists of the following drums:-

(i) The Iya ilu (the mother drum)

(ii) Agunda or kerikeri

(iii) Kanango

22

(iv) Isaaju

(v) Atele

(vi) Gudugudu

These drums differ in sizes, pitch and functions with the dundun serving as the

mother drum due to the fact that it is the biggest and has the ability to produce powerful

and brilliant sounds as well as imitating the human voice. The dundun drums could be

used to perform at different occasions such as naming ceremonies, house warming,

marriage ceremonies, festivals, rituals etc. Hence, dundun drums indeed reflect the

richness of African culture, history and traditions of the Yorubas.

The dundun drum is an hourglass instrument covered on both sides with leather

which are held firmly to the frame of wood or shell by series of leather strips unlike other

drums which are pegged down. The leather strips are used to vary the pitch produced. It

is hung across the shoulder with a wound cloth or leather and played with a butt stick. It

produces different tones which span almost an octave. The dundun drums of all drums

can be said to be the most sonorous of all Yoruba musical instrument and can produce

quarter tones and provides semitones as well. Although Yoruba speaking people do not

speak in semitones, but the dundun drum has the capability of producing semi tonal

effects if played by a virtuoso.

Finally, though the dundun drum is considered to be a presume of the Yoruba, there

exists the variants among the Hausa people. The Hausa call it Kalangu.

23

1.6: T.C. NWACHUKWU’S CLASSIFICATION

Due o her interest on the trends in the study of Igbo musical instruments,

Nwachukwu ( 1981: 3), tries to establish what the author found out as a ‘ folk evaluation’

in her system of classification, using a locality in Imo State as a case study. Nwachukwu

bases her system of classifying Igbo musical instruments from the folk taxonomy of

Mbaise people, and finally establishes five categories, with major distinguishing

characteristics, namely:-

1. Instruments Named After the Material of Manufacture;

Agbo- calabash

Odu – ivory horn

Igba akpukpo- membranophone

Ekpuru nnabe – tortoise shell

2. Musical Instruments known By Utilitarian Names for Objects of Dailyuse;

Okwa – small wooden slit drum

Udu – percussion pot

Agbo or mkpa- calabash horn

Ebi afa – wooden clapper bell

3. Instruments known by Abstract Names with No Reality Discernible Deeper

Meanings;

Oja- natched flute

Opi igwe – whistle

4. Musical Instrument Names Connoting Manner of Playing;

Uhie – large wooden slit drum

24

Ubia – ankle rattle

Oyo – hollow rattle

Ikpa or Uba aka- sansa

5. Names for Musical instruments Denoting Characteristics Sounds;

In this group, Nwachukwu subdivides the instruments into:

a. Instruments bearing onomatopoeic or sounding names;&

b. Names which denote, by implication, the musical role of an instrument.

This system of classification is in agreement with what the writer has considered as a

“culture- owner- based classific ation,” which is in line with the opinions expressed in

this dissertation. However, it should be noted that Nwackukwu’s scope of study was

limited to the people of Mbaise in Imo State, just as the author’s earlier research was

based on the instrumental resources of the people of Ihitte- Uboma, in Imo State. The

author, however, notices some incocictency in te classification, in therms of those local

instruments that denote characteristics sound from Mbaise, and tries to stride a little

further, by researching on the musical instruments of the same people as well as the entire

people of Imo State, as to authenticate a n appropriate classification system of the

traditional musical instruments of the Igbo, especially in Imo State.

25

1.7: AKPABOT’S SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

In as much as the present system of classification helps to differientiate one set of

instruments from another (as it is in the Western culture), it does not seem quite in

describing and classifying African musical instruments. In his statement, Akpabot (1986)

suggest that;

Since the drum and gong are both percussive instruments, it will make for

better understanding if all African instruments are classified as string

instruments, blowing instruments and percussion instruments. All the

string and blowing instruments have definite pitches and the percussive

instrument are constructed with high, low or medium tones. (pp 2-3)

Akpabot based his argument from the fact that two of the three groups have definite

pithches while the percussive ones are constructed with high, low and/ or medium tones.

In buttressing his argument further, Akpabot opines that:

This idea of viewing a percussive instrument as having high, low or

mwdium tone is borrowed from African speech which is inflectionary in

character, and African instrumental music borrows much from vocal

music which in turn is tied to speech melody and speech rhythm.(p.3)

This is a clear fact, because any instrument constructed from an African ethnic group, has

a speech representation of the people’s language, and that is why African instrumentalist

as well as the member of the community understand and interprete the language of Oja

flautist without much ado. In some Igbo communites, when an Ikoro (large wooden slit

drum) player makes a statement on the instrument, elder of that community respond to

the dictates of the chief priest, who plays the ikoro. However, it appears Akpabot’s

26

suggestion is an attempt to classified African musical instruments into three groups, not

necessarily agreeing with the four groups as established by Sachs and Hornbostel.

1.8: RICHARD OKARFOR’S SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

Okafor’s work on the classification of musical instrument of Africa is an

organological discuss on the Nigeria musical instruments, and an elaboration of Sachs

and Hornbostel’s classification. However, Okafor (1994) states that, “These four

classifications are present severally or in combination but some other consideration like

context or manner of execution play in giving meaningful, local classification”. (p.188)

He goes further to enumerate some types of musical instruments yet, grouping them into

Idiophones, Membranophones, Aerophones, and Chordophones. (Okafor, 1994 and

2005).

1. Idiophones: They are instruments whose bodies vibrates in order to prodice

sound. They are the most common varieties of instruments found in Africa. Some

of them are truck, beaten or shaken.

(a) Log xylophones (with a list of different types and their local names according

to dialects.

(b) Slit drum of various sizes and shapes (listing different types and their local

names in different dialects.

(c) Clapperless bell of various kind (various kind with dialectic names).

(d) Rattles of varous kind – chaplet bead, basket and rattles (with culural and

dialetctic differences in Nigeria)

(e) Thumb piano – (with various kinds from Igbo, and their dialectic name)

27

(f) Percussion pots or clay pot drum water- pot drums ( with various kinds in

Nigeria and their local nams)

(g) Stamping sticks and tubes and wooden clappers (with various kinds in Nigeria

and their local names)

2. Membranophones

They are those instruments that depend on membranophones of animals, fixed on

wodden frames, from their source of sound. They will not sound unless the

membranes at either end of the hollow body are excited. Membranophones

include the single and double- headed drums. Some are mainly percussion

instruments and are played with sticks or bare hands. Some are talking drums and

some are melody- borne. Drums appear in a wide variety of shapes and sizes, and

some may be open-ended or stopped. (With example of different kinds from

different cultures in Nigeria and Ghana)

3. Aerophones (Wind Instruments)

These include instruments of the flute family, made from materials with a natural

bore, such as bamboo or the tip of a horn or gourd. They depend on the Column

of air for them to sound. Alternatively, they may be carved out of wood…. (With

examples as enumerated below)

(a) Flute (made of wood) – with examples from different cultures in Nigeria.

(b) Horns (made of animal horns and elephant tusk), with examples from various

cultures in Nigeria.

(c) Reed pipe – (with example from the North part of Nigeria)

28

(d) Trumpet – (with example from Hausa, although, there is another type found in

nsukka area of Igbo)

(e) Gourds – (with examples from some localities in Nigeria)

(f) Clarinet – ( with examples)

4. Chordophone ( String Instrument)

They are those instruments which depend on the agitation of strings for musical

sounds to be produced. They are no longer easily found in traditional society.

These include the zither, musical bow, and luees from Northern Nigeria, he gave

some examples, thus:-

(a) Musical bow (with different types in Nigeria and local names)

(b) Zither (with example from Igbo culture)

(c) Lute (with example from Nigeria and the local names, also.)

Okafor (2005) went further to look into making of some Nigerian Musical

instruments. As an ethnomusicological study, it became obvious that there was need for

readers to understand the source of culture’s musical instruments. Like he rightly

observes, “Nigeria musical instruments are virtually all made of materials source from

the local environment” (p.166).However, it is necessary to observe also, that Okafor’s

system of classification is based on the ‘tchnique of sound generation’ which generally

and clearly identifies his efforts from one culture- owner’s perspective, but seems to have

overlook some salient considerations. He, however, agrees with the four classification

made by Curt Sach and Eric Hornbostel which, as he point out, depend mainly on the

cause of sound generation.

29

1.9: KWEMBA NKETIA’S CLASSIFICATION OF AFRICAN MUSICAL

INSTRUMNT

Kwemba Nketia is one of the most prolific African ethnomusicologists who has written

extensively on African music theory and practice. Out of his Five “early research

objectives” (Nketia, 1998:28), on the study of African music, he did some extensive work

on the historical and descriptive account on the traditional music of Africa, exploring

some documentary source of data. On the issue of African musical instruments and

classification, Nketia seems to have gathered most of his information and data from

available resources which must have been collected and collated by Sachs and

Hornbostel. From Nketia’s account, it was evident that the classifications made were

influenced by these non- cultural owners, even though “the instrumental resources at the

disposal of performers naturally tend to be limited to those in which their respective

communities specialize” (Nketia, 1974:67). This statement, in the writer’s view, explains

that most of the instruments used by instrumentalist or performers in every African

culture are basically those made from their respective societies. This may not generally

follow, since there are certain instruments used in some African cultures which are not

necessarily product of that culture, due to acculturation. Explaining further, Nketia (197:

67) states that, “every society maintaining its own norms or accepts creative innovation in

its musical practice or instrumental types, without reference to other societies with whom

they have minimal cause for musical contact.” This statement confirms further that

musical instruments are studied in context of locality in which the performers belong. In

other words, the study of musical instruments could also be studied or viewed from

30

different perspectives; historical, social, religious and/ or materoal (in terms of the

technology). Below, is the way Nketia classified he inventory he made :-

1. Idiophone, ( with sub-division):

a) Shaken idiophone, e.g.: rattles

i) Primary rattles, and secondary rattles,

b) Struck and concussion idiophones, e.g.:

Resonant slab of stone or wood struck by metal,

Stone clapper or rock gongs,

Iron or wooden bells with clappers,

Single and double clapperless bells,

Wooden slit drum,

Gourd percussion,

Iron cymbals or gourd tied together to function as concussion rattles.

c) Scraped and Friction idiophones, e.g.:

Piece of notched bamboo or palm stem scraped with

another stick;

Scrapping bottle with the lid of a tin, by rubbing a

calabash or gourd against a board, etc.

d) Stamped idiophones, two (2) main types:

1. Stamped sticks – used for hitting the gourd,

2. Stamped tubes- closed end is hit at an inclined position against hard

grounds or preferably against a slab of stone.

e) Tuned idiophones are wo types:

31

1. Hand piano (e.g Mbira or sasal)

2. Xylophone : (i) pit xylophones

(ii) Banana stem type

(iii) Wooden frame

2. Memebranophones: Drums with patchment heads. These include:-

Simple make –shift drums played by women,

Stripes of wood bound together by iron hoops,

Earthenware vessels used as drum shells,

Large gourd or calabash

Shapes: - Conical held under the armpit at play, etc.,

Heavy drums of various types – normally placed on the ground when played

Single headed, open at one end and closed at the other end by means of a

board or non- sonorous skins,

Double- headed drums;

Sets of tuned drums.

3. Aerophones : These fall into three broad groups;

The Flute (open ended or stopped), design for playing vertical or

transverse position;

Reed pipe;

Horn and Trumpet made of gourd, wood or bamboo

4. Chordophones: a) Musical bow, earth bow, moth bow, mouth with resonators,

b) Zithers- Idiochord zeithers,

Raft zithers,

32

Tube zithers,

Flat bar zithers, and

Bow zithers.

c) Lutes: Strings running parallel to its neck,

Spike fiddle with resonator,

One fiddle with resonator,

Tube fiddle,

Bowed fiddle lutes,

Harp lutes, etc.

d) Lyres: Strings running from a yoke to a resonator.

(Nketia, 1974: pp. 70-107)

Judging from the observation and the classifications made by Nketia, one would

have expected that a more folk- oriented approach could have been applied. Instead, the

system of classification made by Cutt Sach and Hornbostel were followed. However, he

sub- divided the four categories, and captioned it, “inventory of African musical

instruments”. Nketia seems to have limited his “observations primarily to the uses to

which the instrument s are put and to the basis of their selection” (Chukwu, 1999: 37). It

is necessary to state that all the classifications made by Nketia fall into basically three

categories, from the observations the writer made on the taxonomy and classification of

Igbo musical instruments. From any findings on the musical instruments of Igbo culture,

those instruments Nketia outlined as “Idiophones, Memebranophones, and

Chordophones” are classified or grouped as Manner-phone, Material-phone and

Onamato-phone instruments, respectively. In the same vein, those instruments which are

33

identified as Aerophones are classified as Onamato-phones because they are identified by

“their characteristic onomatopoeic derivations”. It is worthy of note that “the study of

musical instruments may be approached from different angles. It may be viewed

historically, in terms of origin and development, or culturally, in terms of social uses,

functions, and the beliefs and values associated with them”. (p. 68). He also went further,

stating that “ Musial instruments amy also be studied as material objects in terms of their

tehnology, with respect to their design and craftmanhip, materials and construction, amd

musical function. (p.68)

1.10: NZEWI’S SYSETEM OF CLASSIFICATION

Generally speaking, there are so many musical instruments which are identifiable in

the Nigeria musical culture, especially amongst the Igbo speaking areas. These

instruments, however, can be identified by their generic names, and according to class.

Yet, “within this class”, according to Nzewi (1991), “ there are varieties which are

distinguished according to morphology, structural variation, performance techniques,

ensemble role and in some instances, societal role” ( p.57). In Nzewi’s classification, he

treis to recognize the ‘folk system’ of classifying musical instruments, and primarily

according to ‘the sounding material or the technique of production’. Nzewi goes on to

classify Igbo musical instruments into four categories;

1. Melorhythm,

2. Blown,

3. Shaken and pot instruments and lastly,

4. The plucked (soft-toned) instruments.

34

He refers to melorhythm instrument as “those instruments that are made of wooden,

metal and membrane materials but are capable of a wide range of phonic manipulation

without producing definite pitches” (p.57). The Blown instruments are referred to as

instruments that are phonic-effects producing instruments as they make melodies. The

Shaken and pot instruments are referred to as instruments that plays percussion roles in

ensembles and the Plucked melody instruments as ‘soft toned’, and are played primarily

as solo instrument.

Even though Nzewi’s classification has recognized aspects of a culture owner

representation- using the folk system, the writer is of opinion that the attempt seems to be

one dimentional, basically concentrating his grouping on the same technique of sound

production, which are in line with four of Lo-Bamijoko’s Iku, Ifu, Iti and Ikpo,

respectively

35

1.11: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

There are so many stories and beliefs surrounding the historical background of the

dundun drum. These beliefs vary from people to people hence, making it impossible to

claim that one story is authentic. Most of the stories are still unconfirmed as far as the

historical background of the dundun drums is concerned, but it is necessary to state that

some of the stories are more widely believed than others, thus making such stories more

reliable.

According to Adegoke, O.O. (1991) There exists a widely spread belief that the

dundun drums originated from Egypt due to the fact that the Yoruba are believed to have

migrated from Egypt. Another widely believed story is that the dundun drum was first

constructed in Ile-Ife which is believed to be the first settlement of Oduduwa when he

came from Mecca. The story has it that Oduduwa had a friend called Ayan who

accompanied him from Mecca to Ile-Ife. It was said that the too friends played on a one

sided drum to enjoy themselves and on getting to Ile-Ife, Ayan gave this drum which is

now called gudugudu to Oduduwa. While performing on this drum one day, they found

out the drum gave only two tones which led to the construction of a bigger drum. When

they played on this newly discovered drum, it gave a bass tone which sounded “dun-dun”

and they therefore called it dundun up till date.

It is also contained in some other unconfirmed information that the Dundun

ensemble was created by Obatala, the Yoruba god of creation to be used at different

times for relaxation as opposed to the Igbin Ensemble which is principally used in the

worship of the diety-Obatala. In another dimension, it is believed that many centuries

36

ago the dundun ensemble was basically an instrument of war, used in communicating,

entertaining, praising as well as encouraging the troops at war fronts.

There are further claims that this drum was used to dictate the position of the enemies as

well as talking about the strength of their arms. An age long belief of the Yoruba is the

fact that drumming, singing, dancing and other music inclined activities are powerful

means of communication and that all spirits be it good or evil, are more apt to understand

the language of music than mere speaking. This explains the important role played by the

dundun ensemble and the reason why it is highly demanded amongst the Yorubas for the

provision of music for leisure, social engagements, festivals and religious rites.

According to the Ifa oracle’s chief priest, the first person to construct the dundun

was kusari Ayan. These stories and many more make up the oral tradition concerning the

origination of dun dun drum.

With these and the written works of divers’ authors and ethno-musicologists we can

come to a meaningful conclusion that the history and evolution of the Dundun drums

could be considered from two angles:

1. The oral tradition passed from generation.

2. The scholarly aspect.

Hence rendering its history may not be possible to exhaust completely.

37

1.12: AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aims and objectives of this study on the constructional techniques of

dundun drum include the following:

To know the origin and development of the dundun drum in Nigeria in order to

emphasize its socio-cultural significance.

To encourage the construction and use of the dundun drum in the field of music

technology.

To create general awareness on the steps and technicalities involved in its

construction and performance.

To enhance the appreciation of locally made instruments.

To help spread the knowledge of the richness of the dundun drum to other parts of

the country thereby fostering unity.

To promote African heritage in the world of Music.

To examine the various wood and animal skins used in construction.

To document the Acoustic consideration in the construction of Dundun drum.

38

1.13: METHODOLOGY

BOOKS

For research purpose, I consulted various Literature / books so as to obtain

relevant information concerning the dundun drum of the Yoruba.

OBSERVATION

I have derived additional information via observation of stage performances

(music circles) watching and listening to itinerant musicians in the Ibadan Metropolis and

its environs as well as observing instrument producers while they worked on the dundun

drum, from Dugbe (Ibadan city) Oyo state, and Mr. Abdullahi Ayulla from Oyo State.

39

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0: The African Membrane Drum can “talk’ and sing

According to Sam Chukwu (2011) in his book, (African membrane drum and its

notatio...p 3-5).

The African membrane drums ‘talks’ as well as sings. Each

African society understands the sound or tones produced from the

species of her drums. During performances, for instance, the

master drummer expresses and / or tells stories and gives

information or directives to members of his group as the

performance is going on, and they understand whatever the drum

talks or sings. In dances, for instance, very lively dialoguing takes

place between the drummer and the dancer, which enliven the

spectators.

Nzewi and Nzewi (2007) pointed out that,

“In some African cultures, the drum instantly engages in a

conversation with human (human verbal – instrumental voice

dialogue), or transmits instructions or messages to designated

person within the context of a performance.” (p.2). This statement

simply implies that the membrane drum simulates conversation

between drummer and the drum eliciting some socio-musical

interaction and communication. The African drum, no matter the

type or species, plays both rhythmic and melodic functions, either

40

as a solo instrument or in an instrumental or vocal ensemble. As

early as the middle period of the 20th century, Bescon (1995) stated

that “there is true drum language and the drums actually talk

reproducing (imitating, as my word) the melody and the rhythm of

sentence “(p.4):

The African drum of any species is a melorhythmic instrument,

and is definitely not conceived of or performed as a percussion

Instrument. A melorhythmic instrument the plays Musical themes

that could easily be reproduced by the human voice as melodies

that capture the Fundamental pitch –equivalents of the tone level

Nzewi (2007: 1&2).

The value placed on the non –textual nature of African drums and drumming is highly

regarded in African cultures, especially in Igbo society where virtuoso –drummer is so

highly placed in the community due to his value in a singing and /or dancing group.

African drums are usually revered as spirit voices, as the Igbo would ascribe certain

drums as Igba mmuo. During performances , a membrane drum master drummer enlivens

the spirit of members of his ensemble as well as the spectators when he exhibits his

mastery on the instrument as he ‘ talks’ or ‘sing’ with the drum . The morphemic and

phonemic structure of Igbo traditional drums make drum language to be distinct and very

close to the imitation of the ethnic group it represents. In most African dance groups, for

instance, the drumbeats spur and energize a good dancer to a state of ecstasy, and elevate

the spirit of both the dancers and the spectators. The language of the people, coupled with

the music as accompanied by the drum rhythms actually aid in spurring both dancers and

41

spectator to action. This is evident in the Atiliogwu dance or the Ese or Ukom dance

group of the Igbo society; the bata dance group of Yoruba; the kalangu or ganga dance

music of the Hausa; the Gonda dance of Kenya; the tuned drum ensemble or the entenga

drums of Uganda, etc.(Sam Chukwu 2011.p)

2.1: The talking drum

Yoruba language is a tonal language that speaks in proverbs where a word alone

will not suffice. The talking drum speaks in tones that are adjusted with leather cord that

run the length of the drum body. As it is played, its tones have the ability to mimic the

spoken word; hence it is actually a talking drum. Several other cultures play beautiful

instruments visually resembling the talking drum, yet the range of tones is not achieved.

A master of the Nigerian talking drum conveys a litany through the power of its “spoken

word” The talking drum has been an important presence in all aspect of African life,

especially the Yoruba. The drum is used at birth, in ancestral worships, rites of passages,

healing, storytelling, warrior’s rites, and initiation, at the time of death and as an

important means of communication. According to Nketia (1998), in addition to

membrane instrument, the sound of membranophone instrument may function as speech

surrogates or as signals (call signals, warning signals, etc). An important consideration in

the design and construction of drums is the question of tone quality and pitch. The choice

of different shapes and sizes of drums as well as the choice of drum heads and methods

of holding the head are generally made with this in mind. Sometimes additional devices

are used to get specific qualities of sound. For example, seeds or beads may be deposited

in the shell of a closed drum, as in Ethiopian atamo hand drum or the hourglass drum

42

used by praise singers. Rattling metal, little bell may be used, as in Yoruba Iya ilu

(dundun), a jingle may also be suspended across the drum head.

According to Isaac A. Yekini(1984. P.9), the role of dundun in the ensemble; the

role of the drums are divided into, namely: Principal and Secondary role in their

performance. Although, the dundun (Iya ilu) sometimes share its role as principle drum.

The drum in the secondary role category includes Omele abo, Omele ako, and kudi.

These drums are respondent to the principal drum and they are also supportive musical

circumstances where the Iya-ilu displays its overall musical dexterity and by extension

exhibits its control of the whole ensemble. They play repetitive passages to provide

accompaniment for Iya – Ilu to improvise.

Sexton (Timothy 2006) in his book, African Talking Drums: More than just a

musical instrument, the world’s portable phone.(pp :1-2)

The instrument talking drum is an African, often with an hourglass shape,

and often used in African music recordings. But there is a reason they are

called talking drum. Unlike some other instrument which sent smoke

signal, however, which basically sent generic messages. Talking drum can

be used to approximate the spoken language and under the most ideal of

conditions complex dialogue can take place between drummer who tense

about five miles away and then passed on from drummer to drummer to

the villages that were farther away.

The use of talking drum as a medium of communication was used to its greatest extent by

those people who live in such West African countries as Ghana and Nigeria. The talking

drum works well to communicate highly developed thoughts because the actual spoken

43

languages of these African tribes have a tonal component in them, in which each syllable

of a particular word contains a different pitch. The talking drum can be used quite

offensively to mimic these pitches and since language has a natural rhythm anyway,

drums are particularly apt for communication. Obviously, anyone using a talking drum

would have to possess what is called “perfect pitch” by music teacher and the use of a

drum to communicate would not at all with language that isn’t dependent on tonal

different such as English . If a talking drum were played in a way that mimicked English,

all we would know upon hearing it, would be how many syllables, are in each word.

The Yorubas epitomized the use of talking drum. The talking drum of the

Yoruba tribe is, shaped like hour glass and is known as dun-dun. The drummer holds the

dundun over his arm and strikes it with a curved, hammer-leather cords which can be

squeezed to control the pitch of the drumbeat, the actual beat of the drums as open

expanses of the African plains. Talking drum is used not just to send a message, but also

play a part in several social rituals. They are often used to pay solemn tribute to tribal

spirit or used to honor current living tribal chieftains. Talking drums might even be

compared to Simon cowed. (Timothy 2006. P.6) The ability to speak with drumbeats is

often exercised during traditional and African pastimes ranging from dancing to

wrestling. A person using a talking drum can comment positively or negatively on

dancing or wrestling abilities. So effectively were the use of talking drums to

communicate messages that for a time they were out lowed in the United States for fear

that they would be used to incite rebellion among state.

2.2: African traditional Instrument

44

It is no gain saying to say that African music is highly respected far beyond the

shores of Africa. Gone are the days when out of ignorance , the westerners perceived

African music and drumming in particular as just making noise and rattling out. An

eminent American contemporary art music composer discussing about his African

rhythm influenced innovative percussion piece admitted thus: “Much of what the African

do is a mystery to me .They are quite incredible” (Dunbar 1987: 10). Erickson (2001: 2)

in his book African musical Instrument says: (In His bid to invent percussion instruments

for his own vision of sound),” that no instrument is new, that they were all invented in

Africa a long time ago and reinvented and improved upon with hundred variations.”

Thus the importance of indigenous knowledge of musical instrument technology as a

springboard for understanding fully the contemporary approach to instrument making and

as a forum for bringing in top reality beautiful sound, cannot and should not be

overlooked. Nketia has enumerated the different angles from which the study of musical

instrument may be approached. These include historical and cultural approach. He further

stated that musical instruments may be studied as material objects in terms of their

technology, with respect to their design and craftsmanship, materials and construction

and musical function (Nketia1974:66)

2.3: MEMBRANE DRUM TUNING /THEORETICAL FRAME WORK

45

The specialists, who make musical instrument, in traditional Yoruba society, have a

good general knowledge of acoustic and elementary mathematics. It is basically

understood that the bigger an object, the deeper the pitch it will produce and the longer or

thicker a piece of string, the deeper the pitch it will produce. According to the theoretical

principles through which musical sounds are produced, lowery (1989): A Guide to

Musical Acoustics London, states that;

Musical instruments are of cause the external means by which

musical sound is produced by performers; they must therefore

consist of suitable source of vibration together with some means by

which the player may control the intensity and pitch of the

resulting sounds. As a rule, the quality of these sounds is already

determined by the instrument maker.(p5)

In considering this means of sound production with that of the iyaalu dundun

master drummer, it would be noted that who manipulates the tensioning thongs

(osan) firmly and loosing the membrane in order to get desired pitches. This fact

is further supported by two factors, namely (a) the length of the vibration segment

of the tension of the corresponding string, established by experimental laws : -

( law of Pythagoras (undated)that ,

‘If all other factors remain constant, the frequency of the sound gotten from the

stretched string is inversely proportional to the length of the vibration segment (b)

the law of Mersenne (undated) that,

’ if all other factors remain constant, the frequency of the sound gotten from a

stretched string varies as the square root of the tension’

46

(For example: if frequency is doubled, the tension will be quadruple)

This process of construction, tuning and the playing techniques of the iya ilu is in

agreement with the two iyaalu dundun laws established above. This is an evidence that

dundun instrument makers and performers, though ignorantly of Pythagoras and

Mersenne’s views, posses a deep cultural and traditional knowledge of musical acoustics

and instrumental technology. Assuming that they have been correctly made, the next task

is to be sure they are constantly cared for by exposing them to sunlight for a few hours

every day. This treatment keeps the membranes in top form for a long time. More so, it

must always be kept away from water. Iyaalu is always tied when not in use. Gudugudu

is not meant to be tied, and also other drums of the dundun ensemble except iyaalu, are

properly tied during performances so

that it can produce different but definite pitches correctly. Gudugudu produces two

different pitches: one, when the membrane is struck, and the other, when the wax is

struck. Generally, the wooden bodies of drums always last longer than the other parts

which are repaired or changed when necessary. The member of dundun ensemble

produced the following sound.

2.4: RANGE OF DUNDUN ENSEMBLE ON MUSICAL STAFF

(a). Gudugudu

47

(b). Isaaju

(c). Ikehin

(d). Kerikeri

2.5: THE PSYCHOLOGY NATURES OF AFRICAN MEMBRANE DRUM

In the most African traditional musical groups where drums and drumming play

great roles, there are clear evidences of the physical , spiritual and psychological moods

with prnmiloye’s assertion that “although (African) drum tones do not fully represent all

the exact semitones and symbols of vocal alteration” (p 121), it is sonically evident that

the African drums imitate the phonological sound system of African tonal languages. In

the psychosonic perspective a good performer on the African membrane drum can affect

the psyche of his admirers especially when he exhibits some level of expertise and / or

virtuosity in the technique of play. Nzewi and Nzewi (2007) rightly stated “the sound of

the drum affects the mind in a manner that is psychically therapeutic or , if programme

48

accordingly , induces mood excitation”(p.3). In furtherance to these statement, the

Nzewis delve into the healing powers if African drums player) that,

The tones produced on the drum generate raw or cluster harmonics, the

healing energy of which messages the mind. Hence, experiencing the right

type of drum sound and music, means undergoing metaphysical

management of mental tension or other states of being” (p.3).

As earlier mentioned, there are some cultures in Africa that places a type of drum on the

ground as the player beats and some occasionally use the heel of a foot to dampen the

surface of the drumhead, sits on the drum-trunk playing and generating a cluster of

harmonic tones. This is actually a skill of playing but not necessary a technique. The use

of the heel is to add tonal colour to the drum sound embellishment’ or ‘aesthetics’ in

membrane drum music performance.

Certain drum sound could spur a community into certain actions, in terms of

summoning the people or sending messages to the people for a particular purpose. Some

drums types are regarded as Male and/or as Female drums, which invariably restricts a

particular sex from coming closer or touching the membrane drum. Psychologically, the

women (female beings) would not be tempted to go closer or touch such drum, to avoid

being dealt with or isolated from the community.

Furthermore, the African membrane drum is used in rituals, at shrines and at worships as

a healing musical instrument. The sound from such drum can be seductive. Depending on

the player or the master drummer, the drum can also be used as a therapy to certain

illness, as the sick listens to the drum sound which redirects his/her mind from tension

2.6: MALE – FEMALE CONCEPTS IN YORUBA TALKING DRUM.

49

Drummers in Yoruba land often refer to drums and their sounds as either ‘ako’

(male) or ‘abo’ (female). So important is this male female dichotomy that it is often used

as their tuning guide as well as a guide for instrumentation. The practice of instrumental

grouping into male and female is not peculiar to Yoruba only. It is also common among

the Igbo and other cultural groups in Nigeria. The master drum of any Yoruba drum

ensemble is called Iya-ilu which means ‘mother drum’. In Ala-igbo (Igbo land) , here

there are no double headed hour-glass talking drums, the same male –female concept is

applied to naming of their single headed drums. According to Olaniyan(2011), brief

study of Okonko (Nwiyi=New yam) festival music , learnt that oke-

nkwa(oke=male;nkwa=drum) is a ‘ male drum’, while nne-nkwa (nne=mother;

nkwa=drum is a ‘mother drum ) ’However , Okonko music (played on about six single-

side drums) often begins with a high-pitched drum rather than the nne-nkwa (mother

drum), which is low pitched. The performance routine differs from Yoruba dundun

music, in which the iyaalu (mother-drum) always starts the music.

The iyaalu is generally the lowest pitched drum of the ensemble. Because it is untied

during performance it can produce a very low pitches on which other desired pitches

might be produced with the use of the osan (tensioning thongs) in a nutshell, desired

pitches can be acquired by the use of osan ( tensioning thongs) . Gudugudu can produce

two different pitches; C (an octave above middle C) when played or beaten, and the D

below when played on the wax. Thus both a male and female pitch is represented on the

drum when performing.

The Isaaju’s one pitch of ‘Bb’ is a semitone above ikeyin’s ‘A’ and hence is regarded

as male sound. Thus isaaju is a male drum. This is why it is also called omele ako

50

(male’omele’). The ikeyin which produces a lower pitch than isaaju is said to have a

female sound, and is called omele abo (female omele).

When asked to explain further the significant of this notion, Asamuayan (1997: pps

2) asserted that “iyaalu is the mother of all the drums of the ensemble, and gudugudu is

the father”. He explained further that “even though iyaalu leads the ensemble” it is

guided by gudugudu, just as mother cares for family with the moral and material support

of the father.

2.7: PLAYING THE MEMBRANE DRUM

According to Sam chukwu (2011) in his book “African Membrane drum and

Notation“(pps 8-9)

African membrane drums are of varied types and shapes, and the

playing techniques vary also, even though there are some

similarities in performance. Some drum types are played by

friction, as the drum is held firm under the armpit and the hand is

moved or compressed closer to the player’s body or trunk for

sound variations. Some are placed on the ground in graded sizes

(tone row) and are played with beaters. There is special specie of

the African membrane drum that has different names according to

the ethnic group, and is generally called, ‘the talking drum’.

In the Nigerian culture, the Yoruba call it gangan ; the Hausa called it Kalangu; while the

Igbo have a specie called ese or ukom (drum row) which is not a tension drum but a

species of talking drum. In addition, some African membrane drum types are played by

sitting on chair or sitting on the frame or trunk of the drum while playing. Some are also

51

played by standing. These drum types, which are held under the armpit and played with

one or both hand, are common in some part of East Africa and West Africa. Other type

like “ the atamo of Ethiopia, the kalangu of Hausa, the ntimo of Uganda, the Igba of the

Igbo, etc, are drum type held with hand and played with the fingers or palm or the free

hand, or held under the armpit and played with both hands “(Nketia 1994:87).

2.8: ACOUSTIC CONSIDERATION

In acoustic construction of dundun drum, there are some basic parts of the drum

that require special attention because of the important role they on the sound produced by

the drum. This is what is referred to as the acoustic of the drums.

WHAT IS ACOUSTICS: This can said to be basically the science that deals with the

characteristic of any building. But the study of acoustics also include the production,

physical properties and behaviors of waveforms as well as the properties and

characteristics of the enclosure from which is produced or heard . The study of acoustics

involves the followings:-

a) The physiology of hearing.

b) The production and amplification of wave forms on mechano-acoustical and

electro-acoustical instruments.

c) The physical properties of the waveforms produced by these instruments.

d) The behavioral characteristics of the pressure change produced by these waveforms

during transmission.

e) The responding characteristics of the enclosure from which the waveforms are

produced, transmitted and heard.

52

f) The psychological effect it has on the listeer.

Having identified what acoustics is, it is necessary to state here that, musical

instruments are classified into (i) Electro-acoustical instrument and (ii) Mechano-

acoustical instruments.

The dundun is classified under mechano-acoustical instruments because mechano-

acoustical instruments or mechanical instruments are instruments whose sound

producing waveforms are produced mechanically by means of vibrating strings,

reeds, circular plates, lib, air streams, rods and membranes. They resonate by means

of the materials from which they are produced; and the air columns or resonating

chambers which form the shape of the instrument.

In view of the above mentioned facts, it is very helpful to consider the following

factors that affect the acoustics of the dundun drum.

a. THE THICKNESS OF THE WOOD: The thicker the wood the deeper the sound,

which is to say that when the shell is made to be thick, the sound produced, is low

and deep, but when it is thin the sound is not very low, but high pitched. Hence, in

constructing the dundun drum which is supposed to be louder than the other

drums in dundun ensemble, one should avoid using very thick wood.

b. THE NATURE OF THE WOOD (APA WOOD “Techtona grandis”): When

choosing a shell for the drum, one must check to see if the shell is cracked

internally. This is done by knocking the shell and listening to the sound it

produces. So also, one should put one side of the open surface of the shell over

one ear and be sure that the sound heard is loud. This tells how good the sound

produced on that drum will be.

53

c. GRAINS: This is the internal pattern of the shell. In the acoustic of the shell, the

grains in the internal part of the shell should be straight and one should take note

that the higher the grains, the better the resonance.

d. THE SIZE OF THE CIRCUMFERENCE: The is also a vital factor in the acoustic

consideration of the drums because the size must be proportionate to the shell and

quits long depending on the size of drum desired. The wider the circumference,

the better the sound produced.

e. THE SIZE OF THE SHELL: The bigger the drums, the more pronounced the

sound produced will be. Smaller shells sound thinner, while bigger shells are

louder and deeper.

f. TYPES OF MEMBRANE: The two basic types of membranes used are the goat

skin and the embryo. The adult goat skin produces good sound too but is of lower

quality and pitch than the embryo which is the skin of a not fully developed goat

embryo (genus capra). This embryo is thinner in texture which makes it higher in

pitch but must be played skillfully to prevent early tearing due to its fragile

texture.

In considering the issue of acoustics as it borders on traditional African instrument,

exposition will be made on how traditional musical instrument makers make use of

available material resources and technically manipulate it to achieve the necessary

acoustical sound that is associated with such instrument.

According to (Adeyeye, 1993:5), in constructing a musical instrument, the

aesthetic part is uppermost in the mind of the instrument maker. There, every precaution

54

is taken in making sure that materials are properly selected and manipulated to achieve

the desired acoustic effect.

In one of the researches conducted by Adegoke (1991:4), a man (whose name has

been forgotten by the informant) who was amazed by the sound of cowries when dropped

on the ground tried to experiment with releasing the cow on the bottom of the ceramic

pot, and then on a big gourd, after which he preferred the sound. He then strung cowries

around the back of Akengbe (bottled gourd). One might conclude that discrimination in

the selection of material is one of the means used by African instrument makers in

determining the kind of appreciable acoustic effect desired.

Further attestation to the ingenuity of the African musical instrument maker in the

knowledge of the acoustics of materials is in the making of membranophone instruments

which employs wooden shell where omo and apa woods are commonly chosen or

preferred by Yoruba people because of their resonance and durability. Forestry authority

has rare omo and apa trees as being two of the best resonating wood in the world. It is the

belief in the traditional circle that, trees very close to the path near villages were human

voices, and are frequently heard, are always considered the best choice for making the

drum shell, otherwise the drum will not “speak well”. Thus, statements like “ilu diti”,

meaning “the drum is deaf” is not uncommon among Yoruba drummers where drum fails

to produce the required acoustic sound expected by the drummer. But when the drum

“speaks out”, drummers in this same society refer to the beautiful sound coming out of

the drum , exclaim “Oku eran ti n fo’hun bi eeyan!” meaning “a dead animal that talks

like a human being” (Adeyeye, 1993:6). Thus the dundun drum when completed in its

construction must be able to meet certain technical and practical expectations, reproduce

55

speech tones effectively as well as produce an unimpeded glissando sound effect. And,

according to Akin Euba (1960:205); be able to produce different coloristic effects by

striking them at varying points between the centre and edge (rim)”.

Generally speaking, no matter the type of musical instrument to be fabricated, or

assembled, a professional instrument maker is very conscious of the acoustic properties

of the materials as well as ways in which these materials could be manipulated to produce

the expected acoustic sound (Adeyeye 1999:68). Culver (1947) and Nelton (1970) in

discussing the acoustic of musical instruments separately stated that musical sound is

governed by the materials structure of the musical instruments, in terms of their sizes,

shapes and physical properties.

Thus, the acoustic consideration on which an African instrument is constructed

leans very heavily on certain factors some of which are enumerated below. They are:-

(i) properties of various materials selected and used in the construction of the

instruments

(ii) size of the selected materials selected and used in construction

(iii) shape of the selected materials

(iv) thickness of the walls (body)

(v) The resonant cavity of the instrument.

(vi) Acoustic effect of the various beating or stricking of the musical instrument

dundun

(vii) Ensemble interaction and pitch relationship between members of the family at

performance.

(viii) Acoustics of the space in which instructions are played.

56

(ix) Sound result of the compositional technique employed. For example, hocket

and antiphonal placement of musical instruction in performance.

57

CHAPTER THREE

TOOLS AND MATERIALS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF DUNDUN DRUM

3.1: MATERIALS AND THEIR USES

Materials used in constructing dundun drum can be classified into Organic and inorganic

materials.

Organic materials: These are materials extracted from living organism (plant and

animals. etc)

OSAN (THRONGS): it refers to the tensioning throngs or used to control the pitch and

sound of the drum. It is arranged horizontally around the shell of the drum and

tracked down by the Ogan and Egi. The number of Osan used depends on the size of

the shell. It could either be made of goat skin or antelope skin; with the latter being

more durable and weather resistant. It is also thicker than goat skin. The process of

making the Osan is similar to Ogan.

AWO (LEATHER MEMBRANE): This is the membrane used in covering the surface

of the shell and it is made of either goat skin or embryo (ole) which is lighter and

sounds acoustically better but can only be used by professional drummers due to its

fragile nature.

IGI-ILU (The shell): This is the carved wood which forms the frame of the drum. It is

made by the “Alapa” family and commonly made of woods such as: Apa (Techtona

grandis) or Omo (Spothodea campanulata).However, the Omo (Spothodea

campanulata) wood is however most preferable due to its acoustic effect on sound

and easy workability as well as resistance against pests and insects.

58

Inorganic Materials: These are materials extracted from non living things.

OMI (WATER): it is used to soak the membrane so that it will become softened

enough for use.

OGAN (NIDDLE): is a kind of thread used in sewing any part of the drum. It is made

of skin which is cut into strands, soaked in water and twisted until it is folded to form

a thread. It is the wrapped on wood and left in the sun to dry up. It is used to sew the

membrane, egi, Ileke and Osan together.

ILEKE OR ASELE (SEWING CLOTH):- This is made of rags or used or used clothes

which are tied around the circumference of the shell on which the membrane is

placed, so that when one begins to sew the membrane, it will enable the membrane to

withstand the effect of the needle. When an already used Ileke is cut off a damaged

membrane, it is cut out with the membrane covering it and reused that way. This is

when it is referred to as Asele.

ITALEKE (DRUM ROPE): This is the rope used in positioning the membrane and

ileke so as to prevent the unstable movement of the ileke. Thus, keeping it firm while

sewing the membrane with the aid of Oko-ilu.

EGI (PEG): This is made up of rag covered with membrane and it is sewn in a

circular form to hold down the osan (tension-throngs) to the membrane around the

surface of the shell.

ORI (CHEEBUTTER): Made of animal fat and used in coating the inner part of the

shell to prevent cracking of the wood during harmattan and hinder insects from eating

into the wood. It also aids smooth flow of sound through the shell.

59

OKO ILU (HANGING ROPE): This is a rope - like leather tied to the narrow part of

the shell on which the Italeke is fixed and is subsequently used to hang the drum after

completion.

IDELE (LOCAL GUM): After the membrane has been sown to the shell, there are

some parts of the membrane which are left hanging. These parts are gummed or glued

to the edges of the drum with the aid of a traditional gum like the material known as

Idele.

3.1.i: TOOLS AND THEIR USES

ABE FELE (BLADE): It is used for cutting the leather to any size of the shell, and

unwanted rope that or leather after construction..

ABERE OPORO (NEEDLE): It is a very large sized needle used in sewing any

part of the drum like e.g sewing Osan (tensioning throngs) with egi

EMU (PEGS): They are used to hold down the tensioning throngs (osan) during

construction. They are also used to tune the drum after construction by using it to

hold the tensioning throngs through the period of drying.

ILU (Sharp Iron): This is similar to a nail but is not a nail. It has a very sharp tip

which is used in moving the egi or creating a hole so as to give place to the osan

between the shell and the egi. In case of any hole which needle could not do , the

Ilu (Sharp Iron ) is used instead

OBE (KNIFE): For cutting the ropes and some parts of the shell. Some part of the

shell may not be smooth enough and knife could be used instead of needle for the

60

cutting, likewise in a case whereby the tensioning throng is very strong the knife

will also be used instead.

EEPIN (SANDPAPER): This is used to smoothing the edge of the shell. Before

laying of sking on the shell it is expected to smooth the edge of the shell very well

to avoid quick tearing of the skin after construction, and this is done with Eepin

(Sand paper)

These are various tools and materials needed for the construction of dundun drum.

3.2: SEASONING OF MATERIALS (WOOD AND SKIN)

3.2. i: SEASONING

Wood seasoning lumber or wood seasoning reduces the moisture content of wood

before its use. There are two main reasons for seasoning wood. The process of inducing

evaporation of the moisture contained in wood, a type of hydrothemic treatment of wood.

The purpose of seasoning is to reduce the moisture content in the wood to a level

appropriate for the use of construction. This prevents changes in the demonisms and

shapes of the wood, eliminates wood roots, increase the strength of the wood, reduces the

weight of the wood, strengthens glued joints, and improves the quality of finishing. Wood

is seasoned in various forms: lumber, peeled or planed, crushed wood particles, and semi

finished articles. The simplest method of seasoning lumber is open air seasoning, in

which the lumber is stock in the open air or under canopies for a period of two or three

weeks to several months. The principal in distal method, kiln drying, uses kilns fed with

hot air, a mixture of air and fuel gases, or superheated steam. Kiln with steam are the

most commonly used type because of its effectiveness and economical in processing.

61

Continuously operating kilns are used primarily for large-scale seasoning of lumber prior

to shipping; moisture content is reduced to 18-22 percent. Batch kilns are used to season

wood to a moisture content of 7-10 percent.

The reduction of moisture content causes irregular drying of wood, and internal

stresses arise that may cause cracks to forms. In order to prevent this, the relative

humidity of the drying agent is lowered and the temperature is raised in the course of

the seasoning process. Conditions for kiln drying lumber are standardized in the

USSR. Depending on the desired intensity of the process and the later use of the

wood, the following regimes are used: mild (temperature accelerated (80-100c), and

high temperature (over 100c), the length of the process varies from 15-25 days (mild

regimes for hard woods) to 20-30 hrs (high-temperature regimes for soft woods). If

the wood is to be precision machined, it is steam-treated after seasoning to remove

internal stresses.

Seasoning can be looked into in different ways depending on studying area. It can

said to be:

1. Flavoring: This is to improve or enhance the flavor (food) by adding salt, spices,

herbs, or other flavorings.

62

2. Removing moisture from lumber (treat and dry): This process of treating lumber

to reduce its moisture sufficiently so that it is suitable for the function of which it

will be used.

3. To add zest, piquancy, or interest to: seasoned the lecture with jokes.

4. To moderate temper

5. To become usable, competent or tempered.

3.2.ii: SKIN SEASONING

The only reason which authenticates the use of the word membrane drum is

because it is made of skin and after the skin might have gone through some processing

finally it will be laid on a wood which has gone through some processes as well. The

process which the skin and wood have gone through before the stage of which it could be

used for making drum is called “Seasoning process”. The preferred skin in making

dundun is “embryo’, that is unborn baby of cow, because of its fragile nature, of the kind

required in making the surface of the dundun drum. Using the embryo of a cow, the

stages of seasoning are thus:

1. Removal stage: This is the first stage which dealt with removing the skin of the

baby cow after being slaughtered. During this stage sharpened object such as

blade and knife could be used to carry out this stage.

2. Clearing stage: This is the second stage of the seasoning and this has to do with

removing hair from the skin gotten from the calf. At this stage the skin is require

to be soaked inside hot water after which we can use razor to gently remove the

63

hair so that the skin will not have any cut that could lead to condemnation of the

skin.

3. Drying stage: This is the final stage of this process in which the skin has to put in

place for drying which could take up to two to three days. It is required that the

skin needed to be well dried before used in making the drum to avoid unwanted

sound production and quick turning.

NOTE: The required skin for making the face of the drum is skin gotten from

“EMBRYO” of a cow while the tensioning skin (OSAN) is gotten from “ANTILOPE”,

this is because the antelope skin seem stronger than calf skin and the tensioning skin need

to be more stronger.

3.3: WOOD SEASONING

3.3. i: TYPES OF WOOD

Wood is divided, according to its botanical origin, into two kinds: soft woods,

from coniferous tree and hard wood, from broad leaved trees. Soft wood are lighter

and generally simple in structure, whereas hard woods are harder and more complex.

In Australia, softwood generally describes rainforest tree, and hardwood describes

scierophyllous species. Softwood, such as pine, is much lighter and easier to process

than hardwood (such as fruit-tree wood, which is heavier. The density of softwood

ranges from 350kg lm2 to 700kglm3, whole hardwoods are 450 kglm3. Both consist of

approximately 12% of imposture and more complex structure. Its permeability is

much less than that of soft wood making it more difficult to dry. Although there are

about a hundred times more species of hardwood trees than softwood and more easily

makes softwood the main supply of commercial wood today.

64

3.3.i.(a): Wood Working

When wood is used as a construction material whether as a structural support in a

building or in wooding work objects, it will absorb or desorbs moisture until it is

in Equilibration (usually drying) courses unequal shrinkage in the wood, and can

cause damage to the wood if equilibration occurs to rapidly. The equilibration

must be controlled to prevent damage to the wood.

3.3.i(b): Wood Burning

When wood is burned, it is usually best to dry it first. Damage from shrinkage is not a

problem here, and the drying may proceed more rapidly than in the case of drying for

woodworking purpose. Moisture affects the burring process, with unburnt

hydrocarbons going up the chimney. If a 50% wet log is burnt at high temperature,

with good heat extraction from the exhaust gas leading to a 1000c exhaust

temperature, about 5% of the energy of the log’ is wasted through evaporating and

heating of the water vapor with condensers, the efficiency can be further increased

but, for the normal store, the key to burning wet is to burn it very hot, Perhaps starting

fire with dry wood. For some purpose, wood is not dried at all, and is used green.

Often, wood must be in equilibrium with the air outside, as for construction wood, or

the air indoors, as for wooden furniture.

Wood is air-dried or kiln-dried usually; the wood is sawn before drying, but not

always, as when the whole log is dried.

Case hardening describes Lumber or timber that has been improperly kiln-dried.

If dried too quickly, wood shrink much at the surface, compressing its damp interior.

65

This result is unrelieved stress. Case-hardened wood may warp considerably and

dangerously when the stress is released by sawing.

3.4: NATURAL OR OPEN AIR SEASONING

(ARTIFICIAL METHODS OF SEASONING OF WOOD)

Air seasoning: the traditional method of seasoning timber was to stack it in air

and let the heat of the atmosphere and the natural air movement around the stacked

timber removes the moisture. The process has undergone a number of refinements

over the years that have made it more efficient and reduced the quality of wood that

was damaged by drying too quickly near the ends in air seasoning. The basic

principle is to stack the timber so that plenty of air can circulate around each piece.

The timber is stacked with wide spaces between each place horizontally, and with

strips of wood between each layer ensuring that there is a vertical separation too, and

can then circulate around and through the stack, to slowly remove moisture. In some

cases, weights can be placed on top of the stacks to prevent warping of the timber as

it dries.

Moisture loss from the side of the wood is at about the right rate not to cause

collapse of the cells, put near the ends of the wood, the moisture loss can prove to be

too fast. Often, the ends are wrapped or painted to slow the moisture loss from the

end grain while little additional energy needs to be supplied for this type of

seasoning. The stacks of timber require a lot of land, represent a potential fire hazard,

and the product is not able to be sold for a considerable time. The interest costs on

holding stock for long period can prove significant.

66

Air-drying of timber is really a move controlled facilitation of what happens to

unseasoned sawn, timber, once it is placed into its work” environment. The amount of

drying that can occur is very much governed by the relative humidity of the drying

environment and will often vary within individual boards as well as within the stack

itself. Time taken for air drying is a function of the thickness of the timber.

Air-drying is necessarily a slow process, particularly for hardwoods, typically

taking 6 to 9 months to reach moisture content in the range of 20% to 25%. Air

seasoning is the method used with the timber stacked in the open air. It requires the

following:

(1) Stacked stable and safely with horizontal spacing of at least 25mm.

(2) Vertical spacing achieved by using timber baleens (pilling sticks) the same or

neutral species. Today some timber yards are using plastics. The pilling sticks

should be vertically aligned and spaced close enough to prevent bowing say 600

to 1200 max centers.

(3) Ends of boards seated by using a suitable sealer or cover to prevent too rapid

drying out via the end grain

(4) The stack raised well clear of the ground, vegetate, etc to provide good air

circulation and free from rising damp, frost, etc

(5) Over head cover from effects of direct sunlight and driving weather.

67

3.5: (KILN) SEASONING

(ARTIFICIAL METHOD OF SEASOING TIMBER)

Kiln drying of lumber is perhaps the most effective and economical method

available. Drying rate in a kiln can be carefully controlled and defect loses reduced to a

minimum length of drying time, is also greatly reduced and is predictable so that dry

lumber inventories can often be reduced. Where staining is a problem, kiln is often the

only reasonable method that can be used unless chemical deeps are employed

1. progressive

2. compartment

Both methods rely on the controlled environment to dry out the timber and require the

following factors.

1. Progressive seasoning: In the progressive kiln timber enter at one end and move

progressively through a tunnel

Temperature and humidity differential are maintained through the length of the kiln so

that the number charge is progressively dried as it moves from one end to the other.

2. Compartment Seasoning:

A compartment kiln is a single enclosed container building, etc. the timber i9s staked

as described above and the whole stocked is seasoned using a program of setting until

the whole stake is reduced to MC required compartment kills differ from progressive

kiln in that the remain in place throughout the drying process compartment kiln are

usually smaller than progressive kilns, are usually smaller than the temperature and

humidity condition within them can be closed controlled.

68

3.6: ANALYSIS ON DRYING RATE AT VARIOUS THICHNESSES AND AT

THE TEMPERATURES AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY IN DRYING

The general method of analysis includes both an experimental and analytical approach.

Drying rate data were developed experimentally at several combinations of drying

temperature, relative humidity, and board thickness. A mathematical model was then

developed so that estimated drying time could be calculated for any combination of

drying temperature and relative humidity, board thickness, and initial and final mixture

content.

3.6.i: EXTIMATE DRYING RATE

The estimated rate of seasoning/ drying of wood is done by the wood specialist

before it is been sold to the drum maker for the use of making drum. It is not the drum

maker who goes to the bus, cut the wood and season it for construction of drum but those

that are specialist on it. According to Rassmussen, E.F (1961) Dry kiln operators manual.

Agric hand book states: The objective of the experiment portion of seasoning was to

determine the drying rate of wood as a function of temperature, relative humidity, and

thickness. Fresh, green logs, 9 feet long and 16 inches in diameter. The initial moisture

content was 85 percent and specific gravity 0.56. Enough 1-1/8 – inch- thick boards were

sawn from the log to prepare specimen material for the nine planned combinations of

temperature and relative humidity (120, 150, and 180 F at 20, 50 and 80 percent relative

humidity. All board was as nearly flat sawn as possible. They were machined to 1 thick,

6inches wide and 44 inches long. Each of the nine group consisted 20 of these boards.

Drying was done in a laboratory kiln with an air velocity of 500 to 600 feet per minute.

69

To make drying rate more generally applicable and to use it at any conditions other

than those of the experiment, it is desirable to mathematically describe the relationship

between drying rate, temperature, relative humidity and thickness. The basic assumption

in establishing an empirical relationship is that drying rate is proportional to average

moisture content : dW (71-t-= kW W= average moisture content at time t, and k is a

constant of proportionality.

70

CHAPTER FOUR

4.1: CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

This chapter outline the process in which in which one could embark in other to

construct dun dun musical instrument of western Nigeria.The processes involved in

constructing the dundun drum can be arranged in a stepwise manner so as to aid easy

understanding. The processes go thus:-

- STAGE 1: After acquiring your shell from the market, you rub the inner part of it

with your cheer butter known as Ori in Yoruba language in other to smoothing the

inner part which has been file, and if that is not done it may result in getting

particles of the wood which has not been smoothing and this might lead to early

turn of the face of the drum

- STAGE 2: Remove your already soaked leather from water and squeeze well to

soften it after which it can be drop on a flat wood or plastic for just 15 to 30

minutes in other to allow the skin which has been squeeze to stretch and not fully

dry before placing it on the shell.

71

- STAGE 3: Haven placed the skin on a flat wood to be stretched then the next

stage is to lay the membrane over the surface of the shell. The skin must be placed

well balanced on the shell for effective sewing.

Placing the membrane on the shell

- STAGE 4: Place the Ileke (sewing cloth) over the membrane. This is done in

other to enable the membrane laced of the shell to withstand the effect of the

needle, and the Ileke (sewing cloth) must as well be covered with leather because

it is the only the leather used to cover Ileke that would be physically seen while

the reel Ileke (sewing cloth) is inside.

72

- STAGE 5: Overlap the remaining part of the membrane over the Ileke and place

your egi (peg) on it, because egi (peg) will help to hold down the Osan (tension-

throngs) to the membrane around the surface of the shell

- STAGE 6: Then pick the osan (tensioning throngs) you want start with and place

it beneath the egi and start sewing from the mark called the Ojubo Ilu with aid of

the Ogan (niddle).

73

Down right hand side needle used in sowing the tensioning throngs

- STAGE 7: While sewing one side, you hold down the other side of the Osan with

the aid of pegs until you are through with first side because the shell must have

two faces.

- STAGE 8: Then glue remaining part of the membrane to the edge of the drum

using the Idele. (Local gum) this is done for good aesthetics.

- STAGE 9: This stage is to trim the unwanted part of Osan (tensioning throngs),

Awo (leather membrane), Ileke(sewing cloth) using a blade in other to beautify it

more.

- STAGE 10: After all these, dry the drum under the sun for at least five days or

more, doing this properly will enable the drum to produce good sound and last

longer and if not dried for at least five days if not, the drum will not last longer.

74

- STAGE 11: When it is dry, pick your drum stick (Igi ilu/ kongo), put the drum at

the armpit, beat it at tight and at loose. This is done to hear how high and low the

sound is.

Putting the drum at the armpit

- STAGE 12 ;After doing all the above, you can then tie your handle to the starting

point which is known as the Ipade Ilu because you cannot pull your tensioning

throngs (Osan) from the starting point so as to prevent it from cutting.

Tying the handle to the drum

Having done all these, one has successfully constructed a traditional talking drum

popularly known as Dundun

75

Fig. 1

Above figures - showing tensioning throngs and pegs on the shell.

50 tensioning throng is fixed round the shell to enable it capture the size and hold the skin

fixed in other to balance the sound, and if the throngs are not up to 50 means that there

will be some part of the drum face loose which will automatically has effect on the sound

production of the drum.

76

Fig. 2

Diagram showing showing the measurements of dundun drum.

77

Fig.3

Mr. Abdulahi Ayulla, A.K.A. Ultimate. Constructing dundun musical instrument in his

workshop at Ekotedo, Dugbe, Ibadan, Oyo-State.

Fig. 4

The reseacher at the right-hand side with Mr. Wole fadipe, African musical technologist

in the department of muisc , Polytechnic Ibadan.

78

Fig.5

The researcher with Mrs. Olaniyan during research at polytechnics Ibadan

79

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1: NOTED SCORES ON THE PLAYING OF DUNDUNDRUM

80

5.2: PLAYING TECHNIQUES

There are various types of membrane drums in Nigeria with different playing

techniques, shapes and sizes. The dundun musical instrument is said to be the chief

instrument of the (Yoruba) Western Nigeria because when performing it dominate

and control the movement and rhythms at performance. The dundun is held firm

under the armpit and the hand is moved or compressed closer to the player’s body or

trunk for sound variation. (Sam Chukwu 2011,p 8.)

Dundun musical instrument can easily produce three different sounds if the

player follows the simple techniques stated bellow:

Realizing the lowest sound (Doh) : Haven hang the dundun musical

instrument under the armpit with the help of the carrier, the player doesn’t

need to tight the armpit at all before striking the drum face with the drum

beater called Kongo or Opa –Ilu (drum beater). The sound realizes at this

point sound as “Doh” and that is the lowest sound dundun could pitch.

Realizing the mid-sound (Me). This is the second sound that could be realized

if the player tight the armpit half way. Although, this may not be seen but the

player will realize the sound if he didn’t tight his armpit too much on the

instrument.

Realizing the high sound (Soh). This is the third sound and it could be well

achieved if the drummer tightening his armpit firmly on the instrument and

then he can achieve the third sound as “Soh”.

Note: How often an individual perform on dundun musical instrument determined

how proficient he would be on the instrument especially at performance and any

81

other sound could be as well realize depending on how flexible and experience

the drummer is.

5.3: DUNDUN AND MODERN TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN

NIGERIA

Technology is an advent of new knowledge, it modernize and give quick result.

Today, technology development has improved to the level of producing exact sound of a

particular musical instrument, either Western musical instrument or African musical

instrument. Computer can easily give the sound of any musical instrument needed in the

studio without the instrument or the instrumentally. In depth research has proved the

technological development abortive towards imitating dundun sound for effective use.

The role of Dundun musical instrument in Western Nigeria music cannot be over

emphasize, it plays a mother role during performance, improvised, and direct the rhythm

of the performance. Presently, computer technology has an imitation of almost all the

sound of traditional musical instrument, whereby pull down the income of the maker of

the instrumentalist useless. The computer provide the sound of a particular musical

instrument inside the studio, play it, mixed it, and only the vocal attention is often

required, other arms of the performance are rendered jobless due to the modern

technology development provided by computer.

In the case of dundun, it plays a prominent role, directs the entire performance and

has no rigid rhythm, thereby has not been over shadowed by modern technological

system.

Analog Performance - This is a musical performance whereby the entire

instrumentalist and the instrument feature live in the studio.

82

Digital Performance – This is a process whereby all the required instruments

and instrumental work are been produce in the studio with the aid of

computer.

So far, Dundun hasn’t agree to leave its role to any technological development, it play its

mother role even when other musical instrumental work has been done by computer

(Digital), dundun does its role in Analog and if not suit role may either be drop and

vacant.

5.4: SUMMARY

The construction, as well as playing of the dun dun drum has hitherto been

restricted to the Ayan in Yoruba land and has gone a long way to create a sort of

monopoly. Despite the fact that it is not a taboo for other people to get involve d in

the construction of the dundun drum, it has more or less become a laid down rule or

better still, a tradition to reserve this task for the “Ayan” even in this age of rapid

civilization.

Consequently, I will like to state emphatically at this juncture, that the

construction and playing of the dundun drum is open to as many as desire to get

involved. Once one follows the steps documented in the previous chapter and paying

special attention to the acoustic considerations, the construction of good dundun will

not be a herculean task any longer. Furthermore, technological advancement in the

country has made it considerably easier for anyone to embark on the construction of

dundun drums. One can make sure of more refined materials (though not in all case)

as well as better tools which will enhance a smoother and neater construction process.

83

In view of these, one can rightly say that technologies advancement is favorable

to the construction of the dundun drum and should hence forth be encouraged in the

construction of locally made musical instruments.

5.5: RECOMMENDATION

This research has attempted to throw its search light on the constructional techniques

of dundun and its values in the society, yet the instrument seems neglected in music

scene thereby the following is needed to be done to eradicate negligent of such

valuable musical instrument.

1. It is very obvious that dundun maker are not sufficient in our society and that has

cultivated greatly to the lost of interest towards dundun. Therefore, there is need

for dundun maker to spread across Nigerian stats because this instrument is found

all over the places in Nigeria but when broken people find it difficult to locate

repairer or an expert that could repair it for them and that brought the passion in

which people has for the instrument down drastically.

2. Nigerians seems to have lost so much interest in their cultural heritage and values,

therefore encourage their youth to western musical instrument even at pre-

primary to primary to secondary level of education in Nigeria. Many of our school

has their school anthem which they love to accompany with either drum set or

keyboard and that has encourage a lot of our youth to develop interest in

performing on those western musical instrument and even been able to repair it.

Therefore if dundun ensemble can be made compulsory to accompany at least

secondary schools anthem both in primary and secondary level of education, the

interest of youth toward it will increase and that will make them to learn the

84

techniques of playing and how to construct dundun, and by this the problem of

were and who to repair the instrument which has always been reduce the interest

of people especially the youth will be reduced. In addition this will reduce the

work load on the few makers available currently mainly in Western Nigeria,

because there will be dundun maker all around Nigerian states and there will also

be no need of traveling to western Nigeria before repair.

3. Maintenance is the key to last longer, therefore dundun musical instrument need

to be well maintain in other to make it last longer and to prevent it from sharp

object which. This can easily be achieved by hanging this musical instrument

when not used.

4. The dundun drummer should make sure understand the sound production

techniques using the armpit in other to get the appropriate pitches.

5.6: CONCLUSION

Nature has bestowed on Africans a distinctive, rich culture which has over the

years earned us a place in the world. Europeans have come and still come to African to

witness and learn from this wealth of natural endowment in us. African music has also

been to retain this honor is the best way to promote our culture with zeal and

determination. Therefore, the dundun drum is one rich African heritage that has stood the

test of time and so its preservation and promotion cannot be overemphasized. Hence, I

would like to suggest that musicologists, the government as well as the general public

should create form that will boost the construction of locally made instruments one of

which is the African talking drum the DUNDUN DRUM

85

REFERENCES

Adesanya, A. (2011). Acoustic consideration in the construction of African traditional

instruments: The Nigerian example. Journal of the Association of Nigerian

Musicologist, 5, 80-85.

Akpabot, S.E (1980). Foundations of Nigerian traditional music: Ibadan: Spectrum Book

Limited.

Awolarin, K. O. (2001). Construction of Dundun. Department of music technology,

Polytechnic Ibadan.

Backus, J. (1996). The acoustic foundation of music. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.

Chukwu, S.K.I. (1999). Taxonomy of Igbo musical instruments: A case study of Ihitte-

Uboma Instrumental recourses. An Unpublished M.A. Thesis, University of

Nigeria, Nsukka.

Chukwu, S. K.I. (2007) Igbo musical instruments: A taxonomical study of traditional

musical instruments of Imo State, Nigeria. An Unpublished PhD Dissertation,

Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka..

Chukwu, S. K.I (20011). African membrane drum and its notation (including exercises

on African drum rhythm), Enugu: Prize Publishers.

Dejo, Kehinde and Ilori, Abegunde. (2003). African arts and folklore: Nigeria example,

Abeokuta: Satellite Published..

Hornbostel, E.M.V. & Sachs, C. (1914). Systematik der musikinstrumente, Zeitschrift fur

Ethnologie, 46, 4-5.

Kunst, J. (1959) Different approaches to instrumental classification. Hague: Martinus

Nijhof.

86

Laoye, I. (1959). The Timi of Ede: Yoruba drum. Odu, 7, 5-14.

Lowery, L.H. (1989).A guide to musical acoustic London: Dennis Doublin.

Lunstrum, S. J. (1992). Circular sawmill and their efficient operation. U.S. Atlanta, G. A:

Department For Service, State and Private Forestry.

Nwachukwu, T.C. (1981). Taxonomy of musical instruments of Mbaise Nigeria: An

unpublished M.A. thesis in Ethnomusicology, Queen’s University of Belfast.

Nzewi, M. (1991). Musical practice and creativity in music: An African Traditional

Perspective. Iwalewa-House: University of Bayreuth.

Nzewi, M. & Nzewi O. (2007). Theory and practice of modern African classical drum. A

contemporary study of musical arts; informed by African indigenous

knowledge systems. 1, 2, &3: South Africa: Centre for indigenous instrument

African Music & Dance, (CIIMDA.).

Nettle, B. (1964). Theory and method in ethnomusicology. London: Gollier Macmillan.

Nketia, J.H.K. (1974). The music of Africa. Britain: W.W. Norton and Company

Incorporated.

Okafor, R.C. (1994). Nigeria organology and classification of African musical

Instruments. In Okafor, R.C. and Emeka, L.N (eds) The Nigeria People and

Culture: Enugu State University of Science and Technology (ESUT).

Okafor, (2005): Music in Nigeria society. Enugu: New Generation Books.

Okafor, R.C (2009) Music and national development in Nigeria. Enugu: New Generation

Books.

Okwori, Ann Kemi (2001). The construction of Dundun drum. Department of Music

Technology, Polytechnic Ibadan.

87

Olaniyan, O. (2011). Yoruba music technology: An enhancement of Dundun.

construction and ensemble organization. Journal of the Association of Nigeria

Musicologist. 5. 141-146

Omibiyi, M.A. (1977). Nigeria musical instruments. Nigeria Magazine, No.122 -123, 14-

34.

Pinmiloye, O. (2008-2009). Musico-linguistic components of drum language

communication in Nigeria. Music Review, 9/10. Ile-Ife: A Publication of The

Department of Music, Obafemi Awolowo University.

Rasmussen, E.F. (1961). Dry kiln operatior’s manual. Agric Handbook, 188. U.S.

Department of Agric, Washington, D.C

Samuel, Akpabot (1975). The talking drum of Nigeria. African Music, 5 (4)

Simpson, Williams, John Tschernitz (1979). Importance of thickness in kiln drying red

oak lumber. Autres articles www.ir.library.oregonstate.ed

Tschernitz, J.L. and W.T. Simpson. (1977). Solar kilns feasibility of utilizing solar energy

for drying lumber in developing countries. FPL- AID- PASA TA (AG) 02-72.

For. Prod. Lab. Madison, Wis.

Ugwu, A.B, C. (2000). Essential of education technology: Nigeria: Freo-Ogah publishers.

Vidal, Tunji (1995). Traditional Musical instrument of the South West Nigeria Form and

Distribution. A paper presentation at the meeting of the Committee on

Collection of Nigeria Musical Instruments, University of Lagos.