LECTURE NOTE ON SOC 317

SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION

PREPARED BY OLOLO KENNEDY OKECHUKWU (PhD),

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY, CRIMINOLOGY AND

SECURITY STUDIES,

(SOCIOLOGY PROGRAMME),

FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT AND SOCIAL SCIENCES,

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY NDUFU ALIKE-IKWO,

EBONYI STATE, NIGERIA.

COURSE OUTLINE

- Introduction

- Aim /objective of this course

- Conceptual definition of sociology of religion

- conceptual approach to religion

- Origins and evolution of religion

- Types of religion

- Similarities between African Traditional religions and Christianity

- Dissimilarities between African Traditional religion and Christianity

- Theories of religion

- Functions of religion

- Religious behaviours

- Religious organization

- Comparing forms of religions organizations

- Religions behaviours

- Revision

- Test / Assignment

- Examinations

- Reading lists (1). Bibby, R.W (2002), The renaissance of religion in Canada,

- (2). King, Ursula (1995), Renaissance gender, (3) Stark R. And William S.B (1996)

Religion, Deviance and social control new York: Routhedge

- (4). Inya, A.E, etal. (2008), Fundamentals of sociology volume 2, Abakaliki:Larry and

Caleb publishers.

Meaning and Conceptualization of Religion by different Scholars

Religion has been conceptualized in different ways by different scholars. Some of these

definitions are either sociological or psychological.

- Ernile Durkheim viewed religion as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative

to sacred things, separated, tabooed or forbidden, which unite in one moral

community all those who adhere to it.

De wael M (1968) conceptualized religion from a sociological stand point, as a culturally

shared beliefs in sacred and supernatural powers. Religion according to him is a system of

beliefs, practices and observatics present in all cultures, which organized the relationship

between man and his environment, physical and cosmological.

Psychologically, William James (1961) sees religion as the feelings, acts and experience of

individual men in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to

whatever they may consider as divine. In this definition, the individual as a single unit is the

focal point. The individual is seen as an entity whose actions are made manifest and his / her

feelings established in determining his or her beliefs and values.

Herbert Spencer (1882) defined religion “as a recognition that all things are manifestations of

power which transcends knowledge. This means that the power of wisdom and knowledge is

derived from religion. This power is mysterious and is above human ability and strength.

In the same manner, Bradley (2001) sees religion as ‘an attempt to express ” the complete

reality of goodness through every aspect of human being.” Theologically, religion is

regarded as the propitiation and conciliation of powers which are superior to man, and which

are believed is conceived as a mystery beyond men. It has to do with the relationship of

worship and allegiance one has with a supernatural being (Agwu, 2003). However, karl

Marx sees religion as “the opium of the masses ”Opium refers to powerful illegal drug that is

manufactured from poppy seeds. This drug is used as a painkiller. It absorbs human

stresses, activities and problems of believers. In this regard, religion blunts men’s rational

thought and their ability to understand the social institutional causes of their misery and

exploration. It rather forces men to accept their distressed conditions as God-ordained.

In summary, Nwanunobi (2001) identified three key elements in any acceptable definition of

religion as :

(a) The pattern of worship

(b) The format of beliefs, ideas and definition and

(c) The organizational pattern or the socio-cultural element of religion. He went further to

state that religion has to do with man’s ideas in relation to the forces beyond him. In

this process man employs rituals, ceremonies and observances.

SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO RELIGION

Definition: religion as a social institution involving unified systems of beliefs and practices

relative to sacred things. Religion involves a set of beliefs and practices that are uniquely the

property of religion as opposed to other social institutions and ways of thinking. Durkhein

(1947) argued that religious faiths distinguish between certain events that transcend the

ordinary and the everyday world. He referred to these realms as the sacred and the profane.

Sacred: sacred encompasses elements beyond everyday life that inspire awe, respect and

even fear. People become a part of sacred realm only by completing some ritual, such as

prayer or sacrifice. Believers have faith in the sacred, this faith allows them to accept what

they cannot understand.

Profane: profane includes the ordinary and common place. It can get confusing, however,

because the same object can be either sacred or profane depending on how it is viewed. A

normal dimming room tables is profane, but it becomes sacred to Christians and bear the

elements of communion. For Confucians and Taoists, incense sticks are not mere decorative

items, they are highly valued offerings to the gods in religious ceremonies marking new and

full moons

Contemporary sociologists view religions in two different ways. They study the norms and

values of religious faith through examination of their substantive religious beliefs for

example, it is possible to compare the degree to which Christian faiths literally interpret the

Bible, or Muslim groups follow the Koran (or quran) the sacred book of Islain. At the same

time, sociologists examine religions in terms of the social functions and dys-functions they

fulfil, such as providing social support or re-in forcing the norms of the status-quo. Buy

exploring both the beliefs and the functions of religions we can better understand its impact

on the individual on groups and society as a whole.

The origins and Evolution of religion

Religion is as old as the history of men on earth. Apparently men were confused and could

not give answers to questions generated about things happening around them. Some of these

questions were: where do men come from? Who is responsible for creation? Why do people

die? And where do they go after death? Do they come back through reincarnation? If they do

not what do they change into? These and several other questions have trembled men to seek

answers to them. The quest for answers has given rise to the establishment of religion as a

relevant social institution, concerned with the beliefs , practices and feelings organized in the

society in order to worship supernatural beings. From evolutional point of view, the origin of

religion can be linked to two major concepts animism and naturism.

Animism means the belief in spirits. This is the first type f religion, Tylor (1971) opined that

animism develops from man’s attempt to answer two questions, the first is – what is it that

makes the difference between a living and a dead person? The second questions is – are

those human shapes which appear in dream and visions ? These are mysteries questions.

They are beyond common sense human interpretation . in order to address these questions

early philosophers identified the existence of souls which leaves the body temporarily during

dreams and visions, and permanently at death. The idea of spirit was associated with man

and any other natural being.

Naturism refers to the belief in the forces of nature. It is believed that natural phenomena, like

man, tree, river, land, rock, sun, moon etc have supernatural powers. Naturism arose from

man’s experience of nature. The influence of nature on man’s emotional expressions. This is

the reason why man personified nature. Natural things are named and worshipped as gods

since emotions are attached to them. This is prominent in the continents of Africa, Asia, and

even in entire human race.

TYPES OF RELIGION

There is no doubt that peoples beliefs differ. These differences are mostly as a result of the

varied nature of religious groupings, the world over. There are thus different types of religion

in the world. These major types can be identifies as follows

1. African Traditional religions, (2).

2. Buddhism, 3. Christianity 4. Confucianism 5. Hinduism 6. Islam 7. Judaism

African Traditional religion (ATR) . African Traditional religion (ATR) were recognized in

African before and after colonialism. They began with the existence of Africans, and are part

of their culture . In this type of religion, the practitioners believe in the existence of the

supreme being called God. Africans call this “Being” different names – in Nigeria the Igbo

call Him “Chukwu or Chineke which means the creator, The Efik call Him Abasi, greater,

the Hausa call Him Allah, the Edo call Him, “Osenubua” while the Yoruba call him Oluwa,

and so forth. In other countries and societies, of Africa, God is called by different names,

based on the people’s perception and belief. While recognizing the existence of the super

natural being called God, Africans also strongly believes that this God is a spirit and cannot

be physically seen. The invisible nature of this great “ Being” makes it difficult for people to

appease him to perform rituals and sacrifices to appease Him. In other to get these things

done, the believers establishes smaller gods through whom big God can be reaches by means

of such visible physical structure like big stones and natural events such as rivers, thunder,

land trees and so forth. The names of these gods are associated with these objects and those

names differ from culture to culture

Fundamental elements common among these gods

1. The worshippers believe on the existence of a supreme being called God.

2. The supreme Being is worshiped through smaller beings, gods or object of nature.

3. The small gods have priests.

4. Structures are erected to house the small gods.

5. Rituals and sacrifices are performed by believers to appease these gods.

6. There are also very strong beliefs attached to the small gods

BUDDHISM

Buddhism is the religion of the peoples of east and central Asia. It is based on the teaching of

Gautama Siddhartha. Gautama (Buddha) was a great Indian teacher in the sixth century. He

was able to attain the ultimate goal, which is the state of perfect peace (nivarna).

Buddhism thus dates back to 563 Bc and founded by him who is also recognized as

Tathagatha. It has different sects and spread across India, Sri Lanka and Many Asian

countries. Concerning their beliefs and practices, Agwu (2004) argues that the Buddhists

believe in the following:

1. Karma, which is the law of retributive justice

2. Anatha. Which is selflessness S

3. Samsara, which is reincarnation

4. Torment after death and also

5. Nirvana, this is attaining oneness with God through meditation.

The holy books of this religion are written on four different versions – namely: Tipitaka, the

Vinya, pitaka, Sutta pitaka and the Abhidhum pitaka

Christianity: Many people do not agree that Christianity is a type of religion. These set of

people argue that it is life itself. Historically, the founder of Christianity is Jesus Christ who

is regarded as the son of God. To non believers, particularly Muslims, Jesus Christ was at

least a prophet. He was said to have existed over 2000 years ago. His mother, Mary was said

to have conceived him through the power of the Holy Spirit Adherents of this belief system

are called Christians, or followers of Christ. They worship the supreme God, believed to be

the Holy Trinity, made up of God the father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. The

Holy Bible is their holy book. Everything about religion is recorded in the Holy Bible, which

is dependable tool for action for all its believers their doctrines are contained in the Holy

Bible. Christians believe in the Holy Trinity, God and in the existence of Angels. Among

Christians, there exist two major denominations, protestants and non – protestants. The non-

protestants are those who belong to the catholic church. The non-Catholics are the

protestants. Among the protestant groups we have two other selts – the Pentecostal and non

– Pentecostal the Pentecostal are those churches that believe in the operative mechanism and

the powers of the Holy Spirit. Others do not believe in the influences of the Holy Spirit upon

the Church. They include such protestant denominations as Methodists, Anglicans, Baptists,

Presbyterians. Different churches have priests, whether they are protestant or non-protestant,

Pentecostal or non-Pentecostal. The Catholics call their priests “Reverend Fathers” for the

masculine gender, and Reverend sisters for the feminine gender. The protestants give them

different names like “Reverend, Ministers’ “Apostles “Evangelists “etc. Christians go on

pilgrimage to the holy place where Jesus Christ was born in Israel which is, therefore

regarded as the headquarters of Christianity. The Pope resides in Rome, which is the

headquarters of the Catholic Church.

It is important to note that Christians obey the ten Commandments of God, which is recorded

in the Holy Bible. They worship daily especially on Sundays and fast during lent and other

special days. They learn to do good works and to love God and one another. They also

strongly believe in life after death, especially the resurrection of the body and life everlasting

CONFUCIANISM

Confucianism is the religion which originated in China in early 55IBC. The founder was

recognized as Confucius, a master teacher born in the Holy of Tsou. The founder lived till

the year 479 BC and was said to have died at the age of seventy three (Agwu, 2003).

Confucianism Spread across China and became the state religion through the Emperors

authority and power. The adherents of this religion believe in “ LI” “ Jen” and “ Mencius”

their belief in “Li” means that both the led and the leaders must learn to fit perfect in their

social roles and responsibilities. Even emperor is not left out. Through this belief, the people

learn how to worship the spirits of the universe. They also learn how to recognize the

position of the emperor or king and his cabinet. The people learn gender differences and how

to accord due respect to each other.

The belief in “”Jen” Speaks about their inner mind. The inner minds of persons differ, and

these demand proper comprehension. This is necessary in order to the human nature.

On the other hand, their belief in “ Mencius” refers to their appreciation of human nature

and its good values. Here, the people believe that humans are naturally good. The goodness

according to them is innate and should not be defiled by any bad conduct or Misbehaviour.

To them, anyone who understands his good nature will live to always conform to the cultural

provision of the people. On the contrary, Misconducts are seen as a result of lack of

understanding of one’s nature.

HINDUISM: the word Hindu is derived from the river Hindus. As a religion, Hinduism

came as a result of some worshippers of Buddlism who seceded. Hinduism Thus originated

from Buddhism. Although the religion can not trace its origin to a particular founder it has

spraed in the countries of pakinstan and India. Some scholars strongly believe that the Aryan

people of Indus Valley began the spread of this religion.

Agwu (2004) opined that over 406 million people the world over are Hinduists. He also

posits that there are varations of beliefs and practices of Hinduism. Thus they believe in the

existence of 330 million gods and goddesses. Out of this, the Braham god is the ultimate

reality. The Hindiusts also believe in the universe. Braham, Vishnu, Messiah, Maysath,

Kurma, Varaha, Nara-Sigh, vamana, Rama, Ramahamdra, Krishna and Buddha, the founder

of Buddhism. In concrete terms, the Hinduists believe that the world, which moves on a circle

was created out of God. In Hindu society, it is a religious custom first thing in the morning,

to bathe in a nearby river or at home if no stream is at hand. People believe that it makes

them holy. Then still, without haven eaten, they are requires to go to the local temple and

make offerings of flowers and food to the local god. Some will wash the idol and decorate in

this society, every home. Has its own god. It is recorded that the most popular god people

always like to keep and worship is called “ Ganesa” regarded as the elephant god. Some will

wash the ideal and decorate it with red and yellow powder. In this society every home has its

own good. It is recorded that the most popular god people always like to keep and worship is

called “ Ganesa” regarded as the elephant god. This is because it is believed to exist for the

protection of believers and their enrichment.

JUDAISM:

Judaism as a type of religion is associated with the Jews or those we recognize today as

Israelites. It is a type of religion, which is based on the teachings of the Old Testament of the

Christians Holy Bible. It is generally agreed, that both Christianity and Islam emerged from

Judaism. This is because both are founded on the teaching of the Old Testament.

Adherents of Judaism believe in one God called Yahweh (Yuwh in Hebrew Language). They

strongly believe in the law of mosses. They also believe in death and resurrection. This

slightly varies among the Pharisees and the seduces. In general, they believe that death is for

all persons and death is inevitable. All humans must die and be committed to the earth. They

also believe that every human person has a soul which does not die. The soul goes out of the

flesh immediately one is dead and returns to the flesh during resurrection to these faithful,

resurrection is compulsory for every dead person

The books of the old testament are the dependable materials for the believers. These books

are recorded in different combination that serves as the scriptures of the religion. These are as

follows:

a. The Torah which is the book of the law. The ten commandment is the major laws that

are established in this scripture

b. Nevin is another scripture which contains the works of all the prophets that are in

the old testaments

c. Kethurin another scripture is made up of a collection of poetic works. Many of them

are proverbs and psalms

d. Talmud is the last scripture which serves as a reference material for believers and

scholars. It is a reference book for the religion

Significantly, those who believe in this religion are expecting the messiah. The Messiah is

the saviour God premised the Israelites through prophet Isaiah (Isa 7:14) Behold a virgin

shall conceive and bear a son and shall call his name Immanuel

To all the believers in Judaism, this prophecy is yet to be fulfilled. They are still expecting a

time the promised Immanuel shall be conceives and born.

When such must have taken place, they strongly believe that such a child will be their leader

whose government must be strong, stable and powerful. His government will command

respect all ever the world and his throne will be established physically forever in Israel

Significantly; this strong belief makes the Jews expectant. They are expecting the arrival of

their messiah who will save them from both internal and external intimidations, pressures

and troubles. They point here is that they do not believe that Jesus Christ is that Messiah.

This is the striking disagreement between its believers and the Christians. It is at this point of

disagreement that Christianity took off, for the Christians strongly believe that of a truth,

Jesus Christ the messiah had already come.

ISLAM:

Prophet Mohammed founded the religion of Islam, Prophet Mohammend was born in Mecca

on Monday 20th August 570CE. At the age of six, both his father and mother died. He was

there for an orphan. This made him conscious about human feelings of denials, separations

and sufferings. Records reveals that his uncle Abu Talib raised him. He worked as his

uncle’s shepherd for years . In 594 CE, a merchant employed him. A year later, he married

his employer Kahdija when he was twenty five years of age. His wife was a widow who was

on her forties. Their marriage was blessed with children.

In Mecca, there were problems of lawlessness, social disorganisations and crimes. This

became a problem to prophet Mohammed in providing possible alternatives. He began to

offer payers to his God with the believe that solutions come from God. He began to keep

vigils. In doing so he observed the injunctionof Judaism and Christianity in Israel. He also

discovered that the state of Israel was a bit organized, harmonious and peaceful. To him, such

was as a result of religions influence upon the people. He felt that the same could happen to

his people, hence his vigils. During one of his vigils on a mountain, he said that God (Allah

spoke to him through Angel Gabriel who proclaimed him a prophet of God unto the nations.

From that period of encounter, he began to preach to his people Allah’s message of peace,

love and obedience to law. He began to condemn the Meccians and informed them that the

worship of idols will lead them to hell. His teachings became transformatory. He was

delivery messages from Koran, which he said he received from Angel Gabriel. The Koran,

therefore is the Holy book in Islam. In this book, aspects of the old testament are found

therein.

The people of Mecca began to be engulfed by the teachings of prophet Mohammed. Many of

them followed this principles and doctrines. He began to train his faithful- who began to

spread the message more and more in the life of Mecca and beyond. Most of the converts

that were merchants travelled with its teachings to other places. They moved to different

parts of the world with Islamic teachings. Asia and North Africa were the major areas of

concentration. These were the areas they had major trade interests.

In 1000 AD, Islam was introduced into west Africa through Islamic merchants from north

Africa. In Nigeria, Usman Dan F

odio championed the planting of Islam through Islamic Holy war called Jihad. All Moslem

faithful were trained to imbibe the philosophy of fighting a holy war. This is because it is

believed that whenever believers are fighting a holy war. They are doing the will of Allah,

who definitely reward them.

The moslems place of worship is called the Mosque. The priest in charge of the Mosque who

conducts worship is called Iman. Moslems worship every Friday and observe fasting and

associated festivities like the Ramadan fast, idel Malude, id-el Fitri

Islamic religion has five pillars of faith. They are as follows:

1. The witness (these is no deity except Allah)

2. Prayer (observing five times of prayer daily)

3. Fasting

4. Alms (Zakat) and

5. Pilgrimage to mecca

Any one who visits mecca on pilgrimage receives a title. The men receive titles as Alhaji

while the women receive titles such as Alhaja or Hajia. This is peculiar to Moslemes in

Nigeria

SIMILARRITIES BETWEEN AFRICAN TADITIONAL RELIGION AND

CHRISTIANITY

African traditional religion and Christianity are similar in many ways. They both believe

in the existence of one supreme God. Both of them have priest who perform sacrifices

and rituals. They have places of worship and they celebrate births, dedicate children, and

observe marriage ceremonies. They observe festivals like new yam festival, christmas etc.

Priests of both religions are not ordinarily chosen.

They are believed to be ordained / appointed by the supreme being or gods. Their priest

are believed to have power and authority, which are spiritually exercised in dealing with

issues that confront them. Both religions preach progress and love for one another. They

also believe in the existence of spirits.

DISSIMILARITIES BETWEEN AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION AND

CHRISTIANITY

S/N African Traditional Religion Christianity

1. The founder is not known The founder is Jesus Christ

2. The date it was founded is not known It was founded in 6BC

3 Adherents are primarily found in African Adherents are scattered all over Europe, USA,

African and beyond

4 Adherents population is about sixteen million Adherents are about three hundred million

5. It does not have a holy text or book The Bible is its holy book, and is written in many

languages and dialects

6. Believers do not campaign for converts Believers evangelize to gain converts through

crusades preaching the gospel etc

7. Believers do not always have direct

connection with the supreme God. They do

such through small gods.

Believers can have direct communication with

the supreme God

8. It has Unwritten doctrines It has written doctrines

9. Its norms are not coded It has coded norms

10. Priests of the gods are paid informally Priest are formally remit merafed

11. The supreme God does not have a son but

minor intermediary gods and deities

The big God has a son called Jesus Christ

12. The worshippers do not have general

headquarters

The worshippers have Israel and Rome as their

headquarter respectively

13. The worshipers do not go on pilgrimages The worshipper go on pilgrimages to Israel and

Rome

14. Ancestors are worshipped Ancestors are not worshipping

15. Members believes in reincarnation Members do not believe in reincarnation but on

resurrection

16. Adherent do not have a paradise Adherent have a paradise where those who

obeyed God’s commandment will go to after

death

PERSPECTIVES ON AND THEORIES OF RELIGIONS

A theory is a set of propositions that have been accepted as verified or true or which are

purported to explain reality.

Administratively, Eden (1987) posits that a theory attempts to describe the behaviour of an

administrator using a set of principles upon which action may be predicted. These principles

give form to observations built around a single them, or a small number of themes.

Sociologically, Nweke ()2003 argues that a theory is not a mere impracticable speculation. It

is a systematic and logical process of development which begins with an observation and

description of an observed fact. It explains events and aspects of social life, which are

subject to scientific verification and proof.

Onyeneke (1996) opined that sociologically theory refers to a statement made at a general

level to explain a class of given events, and which can possibly give some clue to

understanding comprehensive and prediction of similar events in the future.

On this basis different theories exist to explain the concept of religion. These theories are

broadly grouped into two:

1. psychological theories and

2. sociological theories

Psychological Theories of religion:

Different scholars view religion from a psychological perspectives, it is widely believed in

the field of psychology that religion has a close relationship with the concepts of ghosts and

souls. To the proponents, religions emerged as a result of people’s interest in worshipping

inanimate objects. This is fetishism; fetishism develops into polytheism which is the worship

of many gods. From polytheism, monotheism later emerged.

Scholars like Edward B. Taylor (1971) were concerned with the Phenomenon of animism. He

posits that the conception of human soul once attained to by men served as a type or model

on which he framed not only his ideas of other souls of lower grade, but also his ideas of

spiritual beings on general.

People’s belief in ghost is spiritual. Ghosts are souls of ancestors that are worshiped by

people in this respect; Herbert Spencer argued that ancestral worship provides the basis for all

religions.

This is associated with African traditional religion it stems from the fact that ancestral

worship is evidenced in most traditional African religious. According to Crawley (1909) the

more timid and primitive a society is, the more religious that society will be. Accordingly,

many primitive African societies, and more especially the third World Nations in general are

regarded as more religious than the scientifically advanced nations of the world.

In the same manner, Onyenoru, (2005) argues that religion is more prominent in traditional or

pre-industrial societies, while in modern or industrial societies, science is more prevalent. He

argues that traditional societies express church meditated social thoughts, while modern

societies express science-based social thoughts including sociology.

However, in all societies, women and the elderly are identified to be more religious than

other groups or classes of people. This is evidence in African, Europe and various parts of the

world.

Sociological theories of religion:

The sociological theories are discussed from two perspectives- The functionalist and the

Marxian perspectives.

The functionalist perspective on religion – Functionalism sees society as an integrated

system. The society has many parts which must function together for the survival of the

social structure and social institution is positioned as a unit that must function in line with

other structure like family, education, economy, politics, health, military and the mass media.

None of these is expected to be dysfunctional. If it does happen, then the survival of the

entire system is threatened. On this premise, it is important to note that the society is

assumed require in certain degree of social solidarity, value consensus, harmony and

integration between its parts. As a component of these parts, religion has great roles to play.

It plays roles which are functional in determining solidarity, social cohesiveness, integration

and unification of structures.

Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917)

Durkheim was largely occupied with the problem of social integration. He was concerned

with discovering what holds societies together and with establishing fundamental principles

of social solidarity. He believed that the structure of any society rests on patterns of behavior

which develops from commonly held beliefs which become institutionalized in the social

system.

His contributions on religion are the most influential from the functionalist perspective. He

published “the elementary forms of Religious life” in 1912 he argues that all societies divide

the world into two categories” the sacred and the profame” the word sacred is greatly

connected with religion. It refers to things that are respected or believed to be holy. Sacred

things are things which are of extreme importance to a certain group or religion. On the other

hand, the non-sacred is the opposite of sacred. It has to do with things or objects which are

mundane or earthly, and which are not accorded any holy recognition. Durkheim believed

that religion is based upon the sacred. Religion according to Durkheim is the Unified system

of beliefs and practices relatives to sacred things. These things are set apart from everyday

common use, and are forbidden. Here objects which are sacred are symbolic. They represent

some things which are unique to a people of a given faith.

Durkheim believes that activities of humans in the world are, therefore structured into two

areas, sacred and profane. Sacred things are considered superior in dignity and power relative

to profane things. He sees the relationship between man and society. Through religion,

society here is more powerful and supreme than the individual. Man views society as being

sacred since he depends on it for survival. In Durkheim’s message, religion is therefore

beyond man.

Durkheim argues that social life is impossible without the shared values and moral beliefs,

which form the “collective conscience”. In the absence of these shared values there would be

no social order, social control, social solidarity or cooperation. They argue that without them

there would even be no society. Religion reinforces society’s collective conscience. It

strengthens the values and moral beliefs, which form the basis of social life.

Max Weber: Max Weber viewed religion as a universal phenomenon. To him a belief in the

supernatural is the universal. Religion therefore, is viewed as in essentially dynamic force.

When studies different religious and distinguished between the social functions of magicians

and priests as people who mediate between adherents and the supernatural. The magician

plays a role which is functional in helping people to cope with relatively adhoc affairs and

tensions. For instance, a magician can invoke evil spirit out from a sick person. The health

situation of that person can be made better through his magical powers. On the other hand,

the priest’s role is systematic; he prays to God for divine intervention in circumstances that

are terrific and appalling.

According to Weber, supernatural beliefs are associated with both magical and religious

aspects. He believes that it is the religious prophet rather than the magician, that is the

primary agent of breakthrough. Weber argues that unlike the magician, the prophet claims

definite revelations, and the core of his mission is doctrine or commandment, not magic. Max

Weber is regarded as the first sociologist to have an in-depth study of religion world wide.

In his famous work, “the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism (1958). Weber believes

that protestantism, particularly puritanism, is the major source of the capitalistic outlook

found in the modern Western-Europe. He discovered that the early entrepreneurs were mostly

the followers of John Calvin, called the Calvinist. Like Luther, Calvin was one of the great

Christian leaders who propelled Protestants to be hard-working in order to acquired material

things. To the Calvinists, a desire to initiate economic development is prompted by a desire to

serve God and gain salvation. Accordingly, material success is a sign of divine favour.

Weber sees the relationship between the rise of certain forms of Protestantism and the

development of Western industrial capitalism. He argues that the essence of capitalism is the

pursuit of profit and forever renewed profit. Capitalism enterprises are organized on rational

bureaucratic lines. Weber argues that restless continuous, systematic work in a worldly

calling must have been the most powerful conceivable lever for the explanation of the spirit

of capitalism. It therefore, implies that making money and or profit accumulation are both

religious and business ethic. Weber thus emphasized the significance of wealth creation. He

stressed the need to restrict spending the wealth that is created. On the whole, he laid great

emphasis on continuous savings for future investment.

marxian perspective on religions:

Karl marx (1818-1883) was a German Jewish sociologist and economics. He is the brain

child of the conflict heritage. Marx identified the existence of two classes in the society. The

haves and the have not. Those who have are the owners and managers of industrial work

organization and meanwhile productions, those that have not are the labourers or employees.

These classes were created by capitalism ….according to Marx the two classes (the

bourgeoisies and the proletariat) are in strict opposition with each other. This is because they

have not are exploited and separated from their labour products. To Karl Marx religion is an

illusion which eases the pain produced by capitalist exploitation and oppression. He agrees

that religion is a series of myths which justify and legitimate the subordination of the subject

class and the domination and privileges of the ruling class. It is a distortion of reality which

provides many of the deception which forms the basis of the ruling class ideology. Marx

opined that religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the sentiment of a heartless world

and the soul of soulless condition .it is thus the opium of the people or masses. It acts as an

opiate that dulls the pain produced by oppression. Marx believed that religion does not solve

any social problem it is but a misguided attempt to make life more bearable.

Functions of religion:

From the functionalist standpoint religion performs several functions in the society. We

might understand this from the contribution of Rebert k. Morton an American born

sociologist who believes that every social institution has two types of function –manifest and

latent function.

Accordingly, the manifest function is the major purpose for the establishment of an

institution. It has to do with formal designated institutional goal, aims and objective. On this

premise the manifest function of religion is glaring . religion defines the spiritual world, it

gives meaning to the divine it gives explanations to issues that are abstract, difficult and

mysterious in nature for instance social realities like death, marriage, divorce, all that lies

beyond the grave and so forth cannot be understood properly without religious

interpretations.

Latent functions are the unintended functions. They occur in all aspects of social life and

helpful in working towards the realization of manifest function. The latent, unanticipated

functions of religion are both covert and overt. They are both open and hidden. For instance

in the Christian faith, the main reason (manifest) why church services are organized could be

to draw people closer to their God through worship.

Apart from this major role, we know that church service have latent functions of acting as a

meeting point of people from varied cultures who share common feelings . it could be a good

forum where potential couples meets. It could also be forums for appreciating varieties of

language, cultural wears or outfits and so forth.

Other functions of religion are:

1. Agent of social integration: since all types of religion is open to all people of different

categories and in different cultures. It is thus a source of the Unification of person’s

world over. People from different cultural of backgrounds are integrated into a

common faith and belief .

2. Religion promotes social support: Religion provides moral and social support to

people in the society. People who face difficult situation, like loss of loved ones

through death, loss of properties, fire and similar crises are consoled.

3. Religion as an agent of social control: Religion is an effective agent of social control.

It acts as a check on the activities of non conformist to societal norms

MAJOR RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATION

There are different religious organizations in the world today. Among these we shall

briefly consider two of them, sects and denominations. Sects and denominations have great

influence in the role of religion in society.

DENOMINATIONS

A denomination is a religious group that is part of a large organized religious body

which is not officially linked with the state or government. It means that it cannot easily be a

universal organ since it has specific interest groups. This is because a denomination has an

explicit set of beliefs, a defined system of power and authority and a generally respected

position in the society. In Christianity denomination are found. The reform movement of

martin Luther led to the establishment of different protects denomination from the Catholic

Church which was the first and only universal church. Denomination like the Presbyterian,

Assemblies of God, Methodist, Anglican and so forth emerged currently hundred of then

have grow out of these denominations. Schaefer (2003) state that Christian denomination are

found in the United state such as the Roman catholic, Episcopalians and Lutherans were

established in Europe. He also argues that other new Christian denomination have emerged

including the Mormons, Christian scientists and the catholic charismatic.

SECTS

Schaefer (2003) argues that a sect is a relatively small religious group that has broken

away from some other religious organization to renew what it considered the original vision

of the faith. In Christian denominations, many/sects exist. Sects began to exist in Christianity

through the reformist programmed of martin Luther. Who led a group of Christian out of the

Catholic Church which was the only universal church body of Christians? Luther and his

team sought to cleanse the established catholic faith of what they regarded as extraneous

beliefs and rituals. For Weber (1958:114) a sect is a ‘believer’s church’ because affiliation is

based on conscious acceptance of a specific religious dogma. Weber tries to infer that a sect

has doctrines which are specific to its member. Member’s actions are strictly controlled by

the provisions of such doctrines.

In peter Berger’s word (Haralambos et-al)(2001:468) sects are ‘’insular group which are largely closed to those who have not gone through the initiation procedures for membership’’ they institute a strict pattern of behaviour for member to follow and make strong claims on their loyalty. Sect is not associated with Christianity alone. Other religion experience the existence of sects; for instance Islam has two major sects ; quadrayina and tanjaniya brotherhood. These brother have varied beliefs and values which guide member’s activities.

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