Today

Teaching and Learning

in the Kindergarten Year

Dominic F. Gullo,

Editor

KKToday

naeycNational Association for the Education

of Young Children

1313 L Street, NW, Suite 500

Washington, DC 20005-4101

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Praise from the field for K Today:Finally, a comprehensive resource filled with state-of-the-art information that links theorywith best practice! This book gives teachers and administrators the support they need toget back to intentionally “doing what is best” for America’s kindergarten children. As aclassroom teacher, I applaud this publication!

—Kim HughesWake County Schools,

1999 North Carolina Teacher of the Year

Kindergarten has been compared to a middle child, poised between early education andthe primary grades. K Today brings the practice of teaching kindergarten to life and pro-vides a helpful, one-of-a-kind guide to teachers—both novice and seasoned—as theyprepare for the kindergarten year. This book is the missing resource in a very small poolof available kindergarten resources.

—Jim LeskoEducation Associate for Kindergarten Education,

Delaware Department of Education

A MUST-READ! This exceptional volume is thoroughly grounded in theory and researchand highly realistic in its assessment of the culture and climate of kindergarten in con-temporary society. Written by some of our most prominent scholars, these chaptersshow our teachers and teachers-in-training how to balance holistic, child-centered cur-riculum and pedagogical practices with the challenge of being responsive to the changingneeds of our children, families, and broader communities. A terrific addition to our earlychildhood education classrooms!

—Mary Benson McMullenAssociate Professor of Early Childhood Education,

Indiana University

NAEYC Item #155

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61Teaching in the Kindergarten Year

Knowing the children

Good teaching begins with knowing the learners—what they are like developmentally, individually,and culturally. When teachers know what kinder-garten children are like developmentally, it meansthey are familiar with the typical social and emo-tional, physical, cognitive, and language character-istics of children at this age. This knowledge en-ables teachers to have reasonable expectations ofwhat children in a class are likely capable of. Toknow children individually means to recognize thateach child comes with unique needs, interests,abilities, language, temperament, prior experi-ences, and background knowledge. Teachers whoknow children culturally are sensitive to multipleperspectives and consider those perspectives asthey make decisions about children’s develop-ment and learning (Bredekamp & Copple 1997). Toknow children, effective teachers:

• Establish positive, personal relationships witheach child• Learn the developmental characteristics ofkindergarten children and consider ways to beresponsive in setting up the environment, struc-turing the day, and guiding and assessingchildren’s learning• Are flexible in adapting the curriculum to meetthe needs of each child and the group as a whole• Learn about the values, traditions, and expecta-tions for behavior of the cultural groups repre-sented in the classroom

For children of kindergarten age, the most impor-tant strategy for teachers is to form relationshipswith them. Because it is through relationships thatteachers of young children can guide their learn-ing and behavior.

Building a classroom community

People in a community share common interestsand activities. Children in kindergarten come tothe classroom from many different backgroundsand with a wide range of experiences. By creatinga community of learners in the classroom, teach-ers establish common ground among all the chil-dren—ways in which the group can function suc-

cessfully together. In building community, ateacher bases her decisions on the knowledge thatyoung children learn best in the context of socialrelationships, and that they need to feel accepted,respected, and confident that their individuality isencouraged. Strategies that promote a sense ofcommunity include:

• Welcoming children into the room by labelingcubbies and hooks with their names• Using class meetings to encourage group discus-sions, social problem solving, and sharing of ideasand information• Bringing each child’s home culture and languageinto the shared culture of the classroom• Developing classroom rules with children• Planning ways for children to work and playtogether collaboratively

Creating a community of learners in the classroomhas a significant impact on how children worktogether, how they feel about school, and therelationships that are built with them as individu-als and as a group.

Establishing a structure for the

classroom

Establishing a structure includes creating the physi-cal learning environment and organizing the day tobe responsive to children’s needs and to make thebest use of time. The structure of the classroomhas a powerful impact on how children learn.

Kindergarten straddles the worlds of pre-school and elementary school. The children arenot the same developmentally as first-graders, butthey are more “grown up” than preschoolers.Teachers struggle with creating classrooms thatare responsive to the developmental needs andpotentials of kindergarten children and that sup-port the learning outcomes that prepare childrenfor the curriculum and accountability systems ofthe upper grades. Kindergarten classrooms lookdifferent from preschool or first grade classroomsin their complexity, the levels of responsibilitythat children assume, their use of symbolic repre-sentations, and their reflection of children’s grow-ing skills and abilities (Barbour & Seefeldt 1993).

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62 Cate Heroman and Carol Copple

Elements of an effective physicalenvironment

Each kindergarten classroom will be different,first as teachers consider the space, furnishings,and materials available. Later the classroom willbe shaped and reshaped as children’s new inter-ests and needs emerge. But all classrooms musthave certain elements, regardless of their indi-vidual resources:

• A space for children to store their work andpersonal belongings—This space can be cubbies,storage bins, or baskets.• A place for group meetings—The space shouldbe large enough so children can sit comfortably,either on the floor or on benches, and see oneanother during conversations.• A variety of spaces for working—This mightmean carefully planned learning centers, a largetable, and an open area on the floor. Spaces can bedefined with dividers, storage units, and book-shelves. Moveable furnishings allow teachers tocreate big spaces for larger projects and cozierspaces for a few children to work, as needed.• Quiet places—Young children need nooks andseating areas where they can get away or workquietly together with a friend or in a small group.• Places to store materials—Organizing materialslogically enables children to find them whenneeded and return them to their proper placeafterward. Creating picture-word labels with thechildren helps them not only care for the class-room environment but also learn print concepts.• Places to display children’s work respectfully—When children’s art and other work are displayedattractively, it conveys the message that what theydo is important. Display also invites them to re-flect on their work and expand their ideas.

Setting up learning centersKindergarten children thrive when they can

work independently and cooperatively with asmall group of peers. They are eager to practiceand apply the skills they are learning, engage inconversations, and make choices about what theycan do. Using centers to organize and manage thelearning environment is a strategy attuned to whokindergarten children are and how they learn.

Learning centers offer children a powerful oppor-tunity to develop independence, risk taking, perse-verance, initiative, creativity, reasoning, and prob-lem solving—the “learning to learn” skills.

Learning centers, when set up and used effec-tively, allow children to develop skills in multipledomains. In this vignette, notice the wide range ofskills children are practicing and applying:

During center time three children decide they want tocreate their own board game. They go to variouslearning centers in the room to find the materials theyneed, and bring them back to a table. Their teacherobserves, strategically posing questions to help themwith their planning but careful not to interrupt theirprogress. They use Lego pieces for markers, createtheir own dice by drawing dots on small empty boxes,and design their game board on poster board. Theywrite the words Go, Stop here, Bonus, and You win, aswell as draw shapes and numbers, in the variousspaces. When they do not know how to write a word ornumber, they refer to a chart or word wall in the roomor ask a peer or the teacher. They create a rule book.For a timer, the teacher suggests they use a smallempty water bottle and sand. Using a drawing programon the computer, they create play money and print itout. The children persist and return to the task for daysuntil it is complete. When the game is ready, they playagain and again and teach others how to play.

This example illustrates how a variety of skillsand concepts in multiple learning domains werepracticed and applied during purposeful play. (Seethe box on the next page for more examples ofhow children practice and use skills and conceptsin play.) The three children were allowed to maketheir own choices. They used the learning centersto locate necessary resources but did not actuallywork in a particular center. The teacher played animportant role in guiding their planning and learn-ing. The activity included skills and concepts in allcurriculum areas and enhanced the children’ssocial, emotional, physical, cognitive, and lan-guage development. Moreover, problem solving,initiative, persistence, resourcefulness, and cre-ativity had a role.

Learning centers can be used in various ways.During a designated choice time, children mightchoose their center and what they will do there.

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63Teaching in the Kindergarten Year

Some teachers include a “must do” or a requiredactivity in the centers before opening them up forchoice. In planning for learning centers, effectiveteachers:

• Consider space constraints in determiningwhether all centers will be used on a given day• Are creative in thinking about new possibilitiesfor locations of centers (for example, a rarely usedteacher’s desk might be converted into a learningcenter, using the drawers for storage, the sides formagnetic boards and flannel boards, and the cozyspace underneath as an ideal place for children towork or read alone)• Rotate or change the materials in the area ifchildren are no longer interested or challengedand as the specific learning focus changes• Make a popular area larger to accommodatemore children, and reduce its size as interestwanes

Most kindergarten teachers have some basiclearning centers that remain throughout the year.The box on the next page presents a basic list ofcenters and the types of materials they mightinclude to support children’s learning. Not all willbe full-fledged centers set off from the rest of theroom; some might be “materials hubs” or resource

areas, where children go to find a game or set ofmaterials then take these to a work space at atable or on the floor. For example, there might bean art resource area, but art experiences takeplace throughout the room.

Other learning centers are not so basic andmight be set up depending on the available space,materials, and children’s interests. Some of thesemight include centers for cooking, sensory experi-ences, sand/water play, games, investigating howthings work (a “take-apart” center), and project-related activities.

Organizing the dayThe daily schedule provides the framework

for what teachers will do each day to help chil-dren develop and learn. Planning and organizingthe day in a thoughtful, intentional way helpteachers achieve their goals for children.

Young children feel secure when they knowwhat happens next. They also gain a sense of timeand sequence as they move from event to event. Apredictable daily schedule helps kindergartnersdevelop independence, responsibility, and a senseof order. Some of the predictable events likely tobe a part of any daily schedule include whole-

Literacy• Writes for a purpose• Uses language to communicate• Understands print concepts• Writes letters and words• Reads simple words

Mathematics• Uses number concepts• Develops mathematical language• Makes predictions• Creates two- and three-dimensional

geometric shapes• Measures time, money

Science• Uses recycled materials• Explores physical properties of materials

Social studies• Develops rules with others and follows

them• Uses geographic thinking and mapping

skills to move marker forward, backward• Learns about money and its use

The arts• Draws and creates

Technology• Uses basic computer skills• Navigates through software program

How a child practices and uses skills and concepts in play

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64 Cate Heroman and Carol Copple

Centers and the materials they might include

Learning center Examples of materials

Books

Writing

Mathematics andgames

Science/discovery

Music and movement

Art

Dramatic play

Blocks

Books of all genres (predictable, informational, poetry, narrative,wordless, decodable), listening center with books on tape or CDs,storytelling and retelling props (flannel boards, puppets, storyclothesline)

Writing paper, envelopes, blank booklets, journals, pencils, pens, mark-ers, word banks, letter stamps, alphabet cards

Collections of objects (buttons, stickers, erasers, bottle caps), numbercards, interlocking cubes, parquetry blocks, attribute games, graphingmats, sorting trays, deck of cards, board games, dice

Plants, class pets, nature objects, collections (shells, rocks, leaves,balls, shiny things), tools for investigating (magnifying glasses, mag-nets, funnels, lenses), science journals, clipboards

Collection of CDs, musical instruments, keyboard with headphones,picture songbooks, song cards (color-coded to correspond with col-ored instruments), props for movement (scarves, flags, streamers)

Materials to paint and draw on (newsprint, butcher paper, finger paintpaper, foil), painting and drawing implements (markers, crayons,paints, pens, pencils, charcoal, chalk), materials for molding andsculpting (clay, playdough, tools), cutting and pasting materials (scis-sors, paste, glue, collage materials) and materials for constructing(foam pieces, wood scraps, wire, pipe cleaners, recyclable materials),art books, photographs, posters

Props and dress-up clothes, homelike materials reflecting children’sculture (kitchen furniture, dolls, phone, message board, empty foodcontainers), open-ended materials (large pieces of fabric, plastic tub-ing, cardboard boxes), literacy materials (magazines, books, pads ofpaper, cookbooks, junk mail), mathematics and science materials(calculators, kitchen and bathroom scales, calendars, cash registers,measuring cups and spoons, store coupons)

Unit blocks, hollow blocks, props (people figures, vehicles, hats, ani-mal figures), open-ended materials (cardboard tubes, cardboard pan-els, PVC pipes, vinyl rain gutters), literacy materials (writing tools andpaper, signs, books about bridges and buildings)

Computers, printers, optional technology (Web cam, digital camera,scanners, computer microscopes)

Technology

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65Teaching in the Kindergarten Year

group times, small-group times, learning centertime, and outdoor play. Routine events such asarrival, departure, rest, transitions between activi-ties, and meals or snacks must also be included inthe schedule. When developing a schedule, ateacher often must work around factors outside ofher control. Besides beginning and ending times,these factors might include lunch; scheduled timefor resource teachers; and special events such asfield trips, visiting experts, school-wide events,and unexpected happenings.

Although a daily schedule helps childrenmake sense of their day, it is not intended to berigidly followed. If children are highly engaged inan activity, extending it for a while is a reasonabledecision. Effective teachers also take cues fromthe children to gauge whether an activity is notworking, and they make adjustments accordingly.In some districts and schools, teachers are re-quired to adhere to a schedule specifying thetimes for each part of the curriculum. Sometimesactivities and even what the teachers are to sayare tightly scripted.

When is not the only question teachers mustaddress in organizing the day. They must also doimportant planning for what will happen in theirclassrooms. Effective kindergarten teachers reflecton what they know about the children and makethoughtful decisions about the activities andexperiences they will offer to help these childrenprogress. Teachers make plans for meeting theneeds of individual children, small groups of chil-dren, and the class as a whole. They also considerhow they are going to address the numerouslearning outcomes in the short time they havewith children. An efficient and meaningful way ofdoing this is through integrating curriculum inprojects/studies and units/themes, as discussedlater in this chapter.

Guiding children’s learning

Guiding children’s learning takes place all day,every day, across all six dimensions of a teacher’swork. While having a well-stocked, thoughtfullyorganized, and attractive classroom environmentenhances the kindergarten program, it is only the

beginning. The effective teacher motivates chil-dren, builds on their prior knowledge andstrengths, and supports their learning using avariety of strategies to increase their skills, knowl-edge, and understandings.

In order to guide children’s learning effec-tively, kindergarten teachers must be knowledge-able in three specific areas. First, they must under-stand the content of the various curriculumdomains and the learning paths kindergartnerstypically follow in developing the relevant knowl-edge, skills, and understanding. Second, kindergar-ten teachers must know their specific children—what they are like as a group, as well as theirindividual needs, interests, learning styles, andcultures. And third, teachers must understandwhich methods work best given the characteris-tics of kindergarten children and the content to belearned. Knowledge in these three areas providesteachers with a mental roadmap to guide theirplanning, teacher-child interactions, and assessing.

Teacher-child interactionsTeacher-child conversations play an impor-

tant role in shaping what children learn. It isthrough these conversations that the teacherscaffolds learning. This concept of effective teach-ing comes from the work of Lev Vygotsky (1978).Just as a carpenter uses a physical scaffold towork on a part of a building that is otherwise outof reach, the teacher provides varying levels ofsupport to help children stretch to learn newconcepts, skills, and understandings that arechallenging but achievable (Copple andBredekamp 2006). As children work to master anew skill or acquire a new understanding, theteacher gradually pulls back on the level of sup-port (scaffolding) she offers. The box on the nextpage describes the varying levels of support oneteacher offers after the classroom hamster goesmissing.

This example incorporates several aspects ofeffective scaffolding of children’s learning: Theteacher motivates the children by seizing an op-portunity to write for a purpose; she sets thecontext for learning and offers children multipleways to learn, practice, and apply skills. She taps

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66 Cate Heroman and Carol Copple

into children’s prior knowledge; all the children inthe class are familiar with Sparky and help takecare of him. These children also have participatedin dictating stories, morning messages, groupmeetings, and journal writing as part of their dailyactivities. She demonstrates her knowledge ofthese kindergarten children; she knows wherevarious children are in their writing developmentand the kind of support each is likely to need. Sheunderstands the content to be taught; she knowsthe developmental stages of writing and the con-ventions of print. Keeping her learning goals inmind, the teacher is intentional in guidingchildren’s learning about print and in choosingwhich instructional strategies—conversations,discussions, modeling, or specific feedback—touse at what point. She observes children as theywrite and helps them reflect on their writing. Sheoffers a safe, supportive environment to take risks.

As noted in earlier chapters, today’s kinder-gartners come from a range of backgrounds, havediffering needs, and because of age-eligibilitydifferences, range in age from 4½ to 6 years old ormore. Kindergarten teachers are most successfulin supporting children’s development and learningwhen they use a range of approaches to addressthe unique needs of each child in the classroom.No one approach works for all children and alloccasions.

Using a variety of instructional strategiesIn building a table or repairing a roof, no

carpenter tries to do each part of the work with asingle tool. Like competent carpenters, goodteachers have many tools, or instructional strate-gies, in their tool belts. The best strategy to use atany given moment depends on the learning goal,the specific situation, and the individual child.

Scaffolding in action

At their morning meeting, Ms. Ankersen tells the children that their hamster, Sparky, has escaped overnight.She asks, “What can we do to find Sparky?”

High level of teacher support Scaffolding Low level of teacher support

I do . . . you watch I do . . . you help You do . . . I help You do . . . I watch

In morning meeting,the children and Ms.Ankersen discuss theproblem and makeplans for how to solveit.

As she writes thechildren’s ideas on achart, she mentionsusing periods to letpeople know when tostop reading. She alsotalks about usingcapital letters to starta new sentence. Shesays that names arevery special, soSparky’s name willbegin with a capitalletter, too.

The next day, thechildren dictate a“Missing Hamster”story to be read by theprincipal over theintercom during morn-ing messages. Ms.Ankersen reminds thechildren that theperiods and capitalletters will help theprincipal know whenone sentence ends anda new one begins.

As she records theirthoughts, she calls onvarious children touse the marker tomake the period or thecapital letter.

For the day’s entry intotheir journals, thechildren write aboutthe missing hamster.

The children are atvarying stages in theirwriting development.Ms. Ankersen makesoccasional commentson their use of periodsand capital letters andoffers suggestions asshe talks to them abouttheir entries. To helpthem in spelling words,she draws their atten-tion to the word walls,their own personalword banks, and otherresources.

The children createsigns at the writingcenter to post aroundthe school about themissing hamster, onesolution to the prob-lem suggested at themorning meeting.Knowing that theirmessages will be readby others, they seek towrite in a way that willbe understood.

They refer to thesign on Sparky’s cageto make sure theirspelling is correct andread their messages toMs. Ankersen foraffirmation.

W V

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67Teaching in the Kindergarten Year

The teacher chooses the strategy that will be mostuseful in the particular situation. Often she triesone strategy, sees that it does not work, and triessomething else. What is important is to have avariety of strategies ready and to remain flexibleand observant. Here are several of the many strat-egies teachers need to have at their disposal to dotheir jobs well (Copple & Bredekamp 2006):

Encourage. Offer comments or nonverbalactions that promote children’s persistence andeffort (“That wasn’t easy, but you kept tryingdifferent things”) rather than giving evaluativepraise (“Good job”).

Give specific feedback. Offer specific ratherthan general comment on the child’s performance(“That’s a d, Lily, not a b—it looks a lot like a b butit’s turned the other way, see?”).

Model. Display for children a skill or desirableway of behaving (whispering when you want thechildren to lower their own voices; modelingcooperation and problem solving by saying, “Youboth want to use the computer, so let’s thinkabout how you could use it together”).

Create or add challenge. Generate a problemor add difficulty to a task so that it is just beyondwhat children already have mastered (once a childcounts up to five items accurately, begin engaginghim in counting sets of six to eight).

Give a cue, hint, or other assistance. Helpchildren to work “on the edge” of their currentcompetence (such as initially labeling cubbieswith both picture and print labels, with the pic-tures to be removed later).

Provide information. Directly give childrenfacts (“Birds make nests like this one to live in”),verbal labels (“This is a cylinder”), and otherinformation.

Give directions. Provide specific instructionsfor children’s action or behavior (“Move themouse to this icon and click on it”; “Pour veryslowly so we don’t lose any of the liquid”).

Teachers can and do use these strategies inany context. For instance, when children are en-gaging in an open-ended activity such as investi-gating at the water table, the teacher mightchoose to model a technique, provide information,or create challenges. Likewise, in a planned small

or large group, the teacher might engage the chil-dren in open-ended thinking and use any of theinstructional strategies in her repertoire.

Using a variety of learning contextsEach part of the day offers opportunities to

guide children’s learning. Key learning contextsare whole group, small group, learning centers,and daily routines.

Whole group. Also called large group, groupmeeting, or circle time, whole group is ideal forclass discussions, making plans, and sharing work.At whole-group gatherings during the day, oppor-tunities are provided for children to learn andpractice a variety of social and academic skills,such as speaking to a group about their experi-ences, listening to their classmates and respond-ing appropriately with questions or comments,working cooperatively, and using and processingnew information.

Small group. In a small-group setting, teach-ers can give children more focused attention thanin a whole group. Children alsohave the opportunity toengage in conversationswith peers and solveproblems collaboratively.Teachers often use thisformat for planned, fo-cused experiences inwhich they might introducea new skill or concept orreinforce skills and concepts the children haverecently encountered. Small-group experiencestend to take place during learning center time.Some children work with one adult in a smallgroup while the others work more or less indepen-dently with the other adult available to them.Small groups vary in size, usually ranging fromfour to six children and might be formed based ona common interest or on a need as determined byassessment information.

Learning centers. For each center, theteacher carefully selects materials to supporteducational goals. The teacher’s role is to observewhat children are doing and respond when hesees opportunities to extend their exploration,

What is important

is to have a variety

of strategies ready

and to remain

flexible and

observant.

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68 Cate Heroman and Carol Copple

play, and problem solving. The teacher also servesas a resource person to help children locate whatthey need to accomplish tasks. Sometimes heproactively engages children, and might evenbecome a co-player with them to promote richerplay and learning.

Daily routines. Other opportunities for learn-ing occur throughout the day during daily routines

such as arrival, departure, meals and snacks, andtransitions. Children learn skills and concepts ateach of these times, as they sing a song focusingon phonemic awareness during a transition, makecomparisons of the number of boys and girlspresent during circle time, or figure out how manycrackers will be needed in order for each person

It is especially difficult in a linear culture tocommunicate the power of play as a nonlinear,dynamic, powerful network of relationships tolearning. It is much easier for some adults tocheck off a list of boxes on standardized tests.

Parents and policy makers need labels forplayful-looking activities that they can under-stand as significant, in their terms. It may bepolitic to advertise continuously what childrenare learning when they play and to interpretchildren’s play, without calling it play. Alternativelanguage such as “integrated learning experi-ences,” “learning activities,” “active studyprojects,” “science experiments,” “center time,”“activity periods,” and “work periods” may help.Parents and policy makers may also need moreinformation about the power of play and “activelearning” in early childhood. Below are somesuggested responses when communicating withparents about their children’s learning.

Q. What is my child learning in school?Your child is having important experiences

with the sciences, the social sciences, mathemat-ics, literacy, and the arts. Many of the activitieslook like play and feel like play because he is anactive learner.

Q. If children play, then how will you cover thecurriculum?

Play is one powerful way in which childrenlearn. Research tells us that play helps young-sters to improve their thinking skills, social skills,language skills, and problem-solving skills. Weplan events in school that integrate the full range

Play’s benefits

Communicating to families and administrators

of school learning, and include play as well asother ways that children learn. For example, ourcurriculum emphasizes playful activities in thesciences and the social sciences. Each part of theprogram builds in literacy and number skills thatmake sense to the children because they need todraw, read, write, and measure in order to solvereal problems that have meaning to them. Weusually do much more than the minimal statecurriculum expectations.

Q. How are you preparing my child for therigors of the teacher next year?

Your child has educational choices that canboth challenge her and offer her a chance to feelsuccessful in school. When she feels successful,she tries harder. It is easier for her to learn moreconcepts when she feels confident. We worktoward making this the richest year possible,knowing that this is the best way to prepare herfor the future.

Q. How do you keep control of the class if thechildren have choices?

The choices are educationally important. Dif-ferent children may be doing different things atdifferent times and have equivalent experiences inwhich they can feel successful. When they make achoice, they feel more responsible for their activ-ity and work harder in playful ways.

Source: Adapted from D.P. Fromberg, Play and Meaning inEarly Childhood Education (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2002),131–2. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education. By permissionof the publisher. Doris Pronin Fromberg is director of earlychildhood teacher education at Hofstra University.

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