OD GROUP 5 Written Report COmpiled

8/13/2019 OD GROUP 5 Written Report COmpiled

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I. Laboratory Training Groups By: Angel Balibrea

A. History

In 1947, the National Training Laboratories Institute began in Bethel, ME. They

pioneered the use of T-groups (Laboratory Training) in which the learners use here and now

experience in the group, feedback among participants and theory on human behavior to explore

group process and gain insights into themselves and others. The goal is to offer people options

for their behavior in groups. The T-group was a great training innovation which provided the

base for what we now know about team building. This was a new method that would help leaders

and managers create a more humanistic, people serving system and allow leaders and managers

to see how their behavior actually affected others. There was a strong value of concern for

people and a desire to create systems that took people's needs and feelings seriously.

T-groups were widely used in church training programs from the 60s into the 80s and

since 2000 have been resurrected in several church networks. There also seems to be a renewed

effort coming from NTL about T-group training.

B. Description

A T-group or training group (sometimes also referred to assensitivity-training group,

human relations training group or encounter group) is a form of group training where participants

themselves (typically, between eight and 15 people) learn about themselves (and about small

group processes in general) through their interaction with each other. They use feedback,

problem solving, androle play to gain insights into themselves, others, and groups.

A T-group meeting does not have an explicit agenda, structure, or express goal. Under

the guidance of a facilitator, the participants are encouraged to share emotional reactions (such

as, for example, anger, fear, warmth, or envy) that arise in response to their fellow participants'

actions and statements. The emphasis is on sharing emotions, as opposed to judgments or

conclusions. In this way, T-group participants can learn how their words and actions trigger
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emotional responses in the people they communicate with. Many varieties of T-groups have

existed, from the initial T-groups that focused on small group dynamics, to those that aim more

explicitly to develop self-understanding and interpersonal communication. Industry also widely

used T-groups, particularly in the 1960s and 1970s, and in many ways these were predecessors

of currentteam building andcorporate culture initiatives.

A T-Group is not a group discussion or a problem solving group.

The group's work is primarily process rather than content oriented. The focus tends to be

on the feelings and the communication of feelings, rather than on the communication of

information, opinions, or concepts. This is accomplished by focusing on the 'here and now'

behavior in the group. Attention is paid to particular behaviors of participants not on the "whole

person", feedback is non-evaluative and reports on the impact of the behavior on others. The

participant has the opportunity to become a more authentic self in relation to others through self-

disclosure and receiving feedback from others. The Johari Window is a model that looks at that

process.

C. Objectives of T-Group Learning:

The T-Group is intended to provide you the opportunity to:

Increase your understanding of group development and dynamics.

Gaining a better understanding of the underlying social processes at work within a group.

Increase your skill in facilitating group effectiveness.

Increase interpersonal skills

Experiment with changes in your behavior

Increase your awareness of your own feelings in the moment; and offer you the opportunity to

accept responsibility for your feelings.

Increase your understanding of the impact of your behavior on others.

Increase your sensitivity to others' feelings.

Increase your ability to give and receive feedback.

Increase your ability to learn from your own and a group's experience.

Increase your ability to manage and utilize conflict.
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D. Methods:

One way of describing what may happen for a participant is:

1. Unfreezing habitual responses to situations -- this is facilitated by the participant's own desire

to explore new ways of behaving and the trainer staying non-directive, silent, and providing little

structure or task agenda.

2. Self-generated and chosen change by the participant.

3. Reinforce new behavior by positive feedback, participants own assessment of whether what is

happening is closer to what she/he intends, supportive environment, trust development.

E. Sources of Change in Groups:

Self-observation- participants give more attention to their own intentions, feelings, etc.

Feedback -participants receive information on the impact they have on others

Insight- participants expand self-knowledge

Self-disclosure- participants exposes more of themselves to others

Universality-participantsexperience that others share their difficulties, concerns or hopes

Group Cohesion- participants experience trust, acceptance & understanding)

Hope- participant see others learn, achieve their goals, improve, and cope more effectively

Vicarious Learning- participants pick up skills and attitudes from others

Catharsis- participants experience a sense of release or breakthrough

F. The role of the trainers:

To help the group and individuals analyze and learn from what is happening in the group. The

trainer may draw attention to events and behavior in the group and invite the group to look at its

experience. At times the trainer may offer tentative interpretations.

To offer theory, a model or research that seems related to what the group is looking at.


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To encourage the group to follow norms that tend to serve the learning process, e.g., focusing

on "here & now" rather than the "then & there".

To offer training and coaching in skills that tend to help the learning process, e.g., feedback

skills, EIAG, etc.

To not offer structure or an agenda. To remain silent, allowing the group to experience its

anxiety about acceptance, influence, etc.

To be willing to disclose oneself, to be open with the group. On occasion being willing to offer

feedback and challenge a participant.

To avoid becoming too directive, clinical, or personally involved.

II. T-Group Trainers/Teachers By: Karla Mae Molina

Robert Tannenbaum attorney, author of crime novels, and the creator of a

series of novels

1952-1953: He conducted the what would now be calledTEAM BUILDING at the U.S. Naval Ordinance Test

Station at China Lake, California.

The term vertically structured groups was used withgroups dealing with personal topics and with

organizational topics.

Appears to be the first non-degree training program inO.D.


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Chris Argyris born July 16, 1923 in Newark, New Jersey, USA an American business theorist, Professor Emeritus

at Harvard Business School, and a Thought Leader

at Monitor Group

A faculty member at Yale University (later atHarvard), was one of the first to conduct team

building sessions with CEO and the top executive

team

Make extensive contributions to theory and researchon laboratory training, OD and organizational

learning

Douglas McGregor Social psychologist who became the President of

Antioch College

He was a professor of management at MIT and hisname is linked most often with Theory Y.

First behavioral scientists to address the transferproblem and to talk systematically about and to help

implement the application of T-Group skills in

complex organizations.


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Herbert Shepard made a significant contribution to Organization

Development

He held faculty posts at several universitiesincluding M.I.T., where he received his doctorate in

Industrial Economics

1960: He founded and directed the first doctoralprogram in OD at Case Western Reserve

developed a residency in administrative psychiatryat Yale University School of Medicine

President of the Gestalt Institute ofCleveland and The Professional Development

Institute.

Robert Blake Blake was born in 1918 1941: studied psychology at Berea College,

University of Virginia, where he took his M.A.

1947: then at the University of Texas at Austin,where he took his Ph.D.

1964: He stayed at the University of Texas as aprofessor

1992: receiving an LL.D an American management theoretician He did pioneer work the field of organizational

dynamics.

Along with Shepard at Baton Rouge, the twoinitiated a series of two-week laboratories attended by all members of middle

management.

Combined the case method with the laboratory method, but their designs soonemphasized T-groups, organizational exercises and lectures.


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Jane Mounton studied pure mathematics and physics at the

University of Texas

1951: received an M.A. in psychology fromFlorida State University

1957: received a Ph.D. from the University ofTexas

Jane Mounton and Robert Blake 1950-1960: Robert Blake and Jane Mouton

worked together at the psychology department of

the University of Texas.

They are known primarily for the development ofthe Managerial Grid as a framework for

understanding managerial behaviour.

They subsequently set up a company, ScientificMethods Inc., to disseminate their ideas on

organizational development and management

effectiveness.

Richard Beckhard a pioneer in the field of organizational development 1967: He co-launched the Addison-Wesley

Organization Development Series and began

the Organization Development Network

1969: published his classic work, OrganizationDevelopment: Strategies and Models

He helped to define organizational development as:"an effort (1) planned, (2) organization-wide, (3)

managed from the top, to (4) increase organization


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effectiveness and health through (5) planned interventions in the organization's

'processes', using behavioural-science knowledge".

Warren Bennis born March 8, 1925 an American scholar, organizational consultant and

author, widely regarded as a pioneer of the

contemporary field of Leadership studies.

He is one of the major figures associated with theevolution of the OD field

Eva Schindler-Rainman one of the few volunteerism pioneers to gain popularity

both within and outside of our field.

An organizational consultant, social worker with a PhD,and behavioral scientist, she was known for her

advocacy of effective human resource development -

paid and volunteer - and for non-traditional organization

design and development.

First person to be an NTL staff member doing OD workand having been trained almost exclusively in the social

work field.


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III. Function Roles of Group Members By: Joan Orillo

A. Introduction

Group effectiveness depends upon many things. The size of the group, the personal

characteristics of the members, the physical setting, the nature of the group's task, the style of the

leadership, the group motivation towards fulfilling the task are all important to an effective

group. There are many more.

Whenever we make a suggestion or offer a confounding in a meeting, we are playing a

role or roles. In general, we are doing one of three things: (1) We my be offering a suggestion

that helps accomplish the objective of the group, (2) we may be trying to maintain or improve the

social relationships within the group or (3) we may be trying to satisfy our own psychological

needs.

In the fist are we are playing a group-task role which may take many forms, such as

suggesting ideas, giving information, or seeking opinions from other group members. In the

second instance we are playing a group-building or maintenance role. This can also take several

forms, such as trying to harmonize a strained relationship or encouraging participation e other

group members. Finally, in the third are we are playing an individual sold, which is also

recognized in several forms. One of the most recognizable individual roles is the "blocker." Thisindividual attempts to block constructive suggestions of other group members, and thus slows the

group's progress.

Group members and leaders who understand there group-member roles and their effects

can use this understanding to increase group effectiveness. The understanding must be great

enough so that the leader of group members can recognize (1) the role(s) which need to be

played when the meeting bogs down, or (2) how individual roles may be slowing group

progress.

B. Classification of Members Role

The following analysis of functional member roles was developed in ayo with tin First


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National Laboratory in Group Development, 1947. It follows closely the analysis of

participation functions used in coding the content of group records for research purposes. A

similar analysis operated in faculty efforts to train group members in their functional roles

during the course of the laboratory.

The member-roles identified in this analysis are classified into three broad groupings.

1.Group Task Roles. Participant roles here are related to the task which the group is deciding toundertake or has undertaken. Their purpose is to facilitate and coordinate group effort in the

selection and definition of a common problem and in the solution of that problem.

2.Group Building and Maintenance Roles. The roles in this category are oriented toward thefunctioning of the group as a group. They are designed to alter or maintain the group way of

working, to strengthen, regulate, and perpetuate the group as a group.

3. Individual Roles. This category does not classify member-roles as such the "participations"denoted here are directed toward the satisfaction of the "participant's" individual needs. Their

purpose is some individual goal which is not relevant either to the group task or to the

functioning of tin group as a group. Such participants are, of course, highly relevant to the

problem of group training, insofar as such training is directed toward improving group maturity

or group task efficiency.

C. Group Task Roles

The following analysis assumes that the task of the discussion group is to select, define, and

solve common problems. The roles are identified in relation to functions of facilitation and

coordination of group problem-solving activities. Each member may of course enact more than

one role in any given unit of participation and a wide range of there solos may be played at

times by the group "leader" as well as by various members.

1. The Initiator-Contributor suggests or proposes to the group new ideas or a changed way of


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regarding the group problem or goal. The novelty proposed may take the form of suggestions

of a new group goal or a new definition of the problem. It may take the form of a suggested

solution or some way of handling a difficulty that the group has encountered. Or it may take

the form of a proposed new procedure of the group, a new way of organizing the group for

the task ahead.

2. The Information Seekerasks for clarification of suggestions made in terms of their actualadequacy, for authoritative information and facts pertinent to the problem being disbursed.

3. TheInformation Giveroffers facts or generalizations which are "authoritative" or relates hisown experience pertinently to the group problem.

4. TheOpinion Seekerasks not primarily for the facts of the case but for a clarification of thevalues involved in a suggestion made or in alternative suggestions.

5. The Opinion Giver states his belief or opinion pertinently to a suggestion made or toalternative suggestions. The emphasis is oo his proposal of what should become the group's

view of pertinent values, not primarily upon relevant facts or information.

6. The Elaboratorspells out suggestions in terms of examples or developed meanings, offers arationale for suggestions previously made, and tries to deduce how an idea or suggestion

would work out he adopted by the group.

7. The Coordinatorshows or clarifies the relationships among various ideas and suggestionstogether, or tries to coordinate the activities of various members or subgroups.

8. The Orienter defines the position of the group with respect to its goals by summarizing whathas occurred, points to departures from agreed-upon directions or goals, or raises question is

taking.

9. The Evaluator-Criticsubjects the accomplishment of the group to some standard or set of


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standards of group-functioning in the context of the group tasks. Thus he may evaluate or

question the "practicality," the "logic," the "facts," or the "procedure" of a suggestion or of

some unit of group discussion.

10.The Energizer prods the group to action or decision, attempts to stimulate or arouse thegroup to greater or higher quality activity.

11.The Procedural Technician expedites group movement by doing things for the groupperforming routine tasks (e.g., distributing materials) or manipulating objects for the group

(e.g., rearranging the seating or running the recording machine, etc.)

12.The Recorder writes down suggestions, makes a record of group discussions, or writes downthe product of discussion. The recorder role is the group memory.

D. Group Building Maintenance Roles

Here the analysis of member-functions is oriented to those participations which have for their

purpose the building of group-centered attitudes and orientation among the members of a group

or the maintenance and perpetuation of such group-centered behavior. A given contribution may

involve several roles and a member or the leader may perform various roles in successive

contributions.

1. The Encourager praises, agrees with, and accepts the contribution of others. He indicateswarmth and solidarity in his attitude toward other group members, offers commendation and

praise, and in various ways indicates understanding and acceptance of other points of view,

ideas, and suggestions.

2. The Harmonizer mediates the differences between other members, attempts to reconciledisagreements, relieves tension in conflict situations through jesting or pouring oil on the

trouble waters, etc.


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3. The Compromiseroperates from within a conflict in which his idea or position is involved.He may offer compromise by yielding status, admitting his error, by disciplining himself to

maintain group harmony, or by coming half-way in moving along with the group.

4. The Gate-Keeper and Expediter attempts to keep communication channel open byencouraging or facilitating the participation of others (We havent got the ideas of Mr. X

yet, etc.) or by proposing regulation of the flow of communication (Why don't we limit the

length of our contributions so that every one will have a chance to contribute?, etc.)

5. The Standard Setter or Ego Idealexpresses standards for the group to attempt to achieve inits functioning or applies standards in evaluating the quality of group processes.

6. The Group-Observer and Commentator keeps record of various aspects of group processand feeds such data with proposed interruptions into the group's evaluation of its own

procedures.

7. The Follower goes along with the movement of the group, more or less passively acceptingthe ideas of others, serving as an audience in group discussion and decision.

E. Individual Roles

Attempts by members: of a group to satisfy individual needs which are irrelevant to the

group task and which are non-oriented or negatively oriented to the group building and

maintenance set problem group and member training. A high incidence of individual-centered

as opposed to group-centered participation in a group always calls for self-diagnosis of the

group. The diagnosis may reveal one or several of a number of conditionslow level of skill-

training among members, including the group leader; the prevalence of authoritarian and

laissez faire points of view toward group functioning in the group; a low level of group

maturity, discipline, and morale; and inappropriately chosen and inadequately defined group

task, etc. whatever the diagnosis, it is in this setting that the training needs of the group are to be

discovered and group training efforts to meet these needs are to be defined. The outright


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suppression of individual roles will deprive the group data needed for really adequate self-

diagnosis and therepy.

1. The Agressor may work in many waysdeflating the status of others, expressingdisapproval of the values, acts, or feelings of others, attacking the group or the problem it is

working on, joking aggressively, showing envy toward another's contribution by trying to

take credit for in, etc.

2. The Blocker tends to be negativistic and stubbornly resistant, disagreeing and opposingwithout or beyond reason and attempting to maintain or bring back an issue after the group

has rejected or bypassed it.

3. The Recognition-Seeker works in various ways to call attention to himself, whether throughboasting, reporting on personal achievements, acting in unusual ways, struggling to prevent

his being placed in an inferior position, etc.

4. The Self-Confesoruses the audience opportunity which the group setting provides to expresspersonal, nongroup-oriented, feeling, :insight, ideology, etc.

5. The Playboy makes a display of his lack of involvement in the group's processes. This maytake the from of cynicism, nonchalant, horseplay, and more or less studied forms of out of

field behavior.

6. The Dominator tries to assert authority or superiority in manipulating the group or certainmembers of the group. This domination may take the form of flattery, of asserting a superior

status or right to attention, giving directions authoritatively, interrupting the contribution of

others, etc.

7. The Help-Seeker attempts to call forth sympathy response from other group members orfrom the whole group, whether through expressions of insecurity, personal confusion or

depreciation of himself beyond reason.


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8. the Special Interest Pleader speaks for the small business man, the grass roots,community, the housewife, labor, and so forth, usually cloaking his own prejudices or

biases in the stereotype which best fits his individual need.

IV.Intergroup Problems in Organization By: Bryan Jay OrpiadaV.Intergroup Team Building Interventions By: Patrick Gueta

Intergroup Team Building Interventions intends to increase communications and

interactions between work related groups to reduce the amount of dysfunctional competition and

to replace a parochial independent point of view with an awareness of the necessity for

interdependence of action calling on the best efforts of both the groups. Inter-group interventions

are integrated into Organizational Development programs to facilitate cooperation and efficiency

between different groups within an organization. For instance, departmental interaction often

deteriorates in larger organizations as different divisions battle for limited resources or become

detached from the needs of other departments. Conflict resolution meetings are one common

inter-group intervention. First, different group leaders are brought together to get their

commitment to the intervention. Next, the teams meet separately to make a list of their feelings

about the other group(s). Then the groups meet and share their lists. Finally, the teams meet to

discuss the problems and to try to develop solutions that will help both parties. This type of

intervention helps to gradually diffuse tension between groups caused by lack of communication

and misunderstanding.

Blake, Shepard and mouton came up with a method which is used between groups thatare strained and overly hostile. The process is to obtain commitment from the leaders of each

group on their willingness to find procedures that will improve inter group relations. Groups are

put in different rooms. The task of each group is to generate two lists. They should put down

thoughts, attitudes, perceptions and feelings about the other group, predict what the other group

will say about them. The groups come together and share their lists. No comments or


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discussions, only clarity. The groups reconvene to discuss their reactions to what they have

learned about themselves from what the other group has said identify issues that still need to be

resolved between the two groups. The two groups come together and share their lists, they set

priorities, and they generate action steps and assign responsibilities. A follow up meeting is

convened to ensure that the action steps have been taken. The method can be used with more

than two groups where the hostility between the groups may not be extreme or severe. In this

method, each group, separately compiles two types of lists namely a positive feedback list, a bug

list and an empathy list. The two groups come together and share the lists; there is no discussion,

except for seeking clarification. The total group generates a list of major problems and

unresolved issues between the two groups. These issues are ranked in terms of importance. Sub

groups are formed with members from each group, who then discuss and work through each

item. The sub-groups report to the larger group. On the basis of the report back and all the other

information gathered, the group proceeds to: generate action steps for resolving the conflict,

assign responsibilities for each step and record a date by which the steps ought to have been

carried out. With this method the two groups work together effectively.

A. Steps in Intergroup Team Building Interventions

The leader of the two groups is asked if they want an ameliorative mechanism for thesolution.

If yes, the groups meet in separate rooms and build two lists. The two groups come together to share each other the information on the list. Now the groups discuss the areas of disagreement and friction separately and make a list of

priority issues which is usually much smaller than the previous one.

The two groups come back together and share their list, after comparing it they together listthe issues which should be resolved. They set priorities and together they take action for

resolving the problem.

The groups or the leaders assess how the group is doing their action plan. They follow up theintergroup team-building activity to monitor it.

B.Inter-group conflict


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Inter group conflicts are characterized by perception of the other as the enemy,

stereotyping, constipated, distorted and inaccurate communication and stoppage of feedback and

data input. Each group begins to praise itself and its products more positively and believes that it

can do no wrong and the other can do no right. There might even be acts of sabotage against the

other group. Using the idea of a common enemy outside the group that both groups dislike to

bring them closer, increasing interaction and communication under favorable conditions and

finding a superordinate goal that both groups desire. Rotating members of the group, Training,

etc are helpful strategies that have been used to deal with inter-group conflict.

VI. Intergroup Relations Interventions By: Cherry Joy Flores

Intergroup Relations Interventions

The ability to diagnose and understand intergroup relations is important for OD

practitioners because,

1. Groups often must work with and through other groups to accomplish their goals2. Groups within the organization often create problems and place demand on each other; and3. The quality of the relationships between groups can affect the degree of organizational

effectiveness.

A. Microcosm Group

A microcosm group consists of small number of individuals who reflect the issue being

addressed. For example, a microcosm group composed of members representing a spectrum of

ethnic backgrounds, cultures, and races can be created to address diversity issues in the

organization. This group, assisted by OD practitioners, can create programs and processes

targeted at specific problems. In addition to addressing diversity problems, omicrocosm groups

have been used to carry out organization diagnoses, solve communications problems, integrate

two cultures, smooth the transition to a new structure, and address dysfunctional political

process.

A.1 Application Stages


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The process of using a microcosm group to address organizationwide issues involves the

following five steps:

1. Identify an issue-This step involves finding a systemwide problem to be addressed. Thismay result from an organizational diagnosis or may be an idea generated by an organization

member or task force.

2. Convene the group- Once an issue is identified, the microcosm group can be formed. Themost important convening principle is that group membership needs to reflect the appropriate

mix of stakeholders related to the issue.

Convening the group also draws attention to the issue and gives the group status.

Members also need to be perceived as credible representatives of the problem. This will

increase the likelihood that organization members will listen to and follow the

suggestions they make.

3. Provide group training- Once the microcosm group is established, training is provided ingroup problem solving and decision making. Team-building interventions also may be

appropriate.

4. Address the issue-This step involves solving the problem and implementing solutions. ODpractitioners may help the group diagnose, design, implement, and evaluate changes. A key

issue is gaining commitment in the wider organization to implementing the groups solutions.

5. Dissolve the group- The microcosm group can be disbanded following successfulimplementation of changes. This typically involves writing a final report or holding a final

meeting.

A.2 Results of Microcosm Groups

The microcosm group intervention derives from an intergroup relations theory developed

by Alderfer and has been applied by him to communications and race-relations problems. A

microcosm group that addressed communications issues improved the way meetings were

conducted; developed a job posting, career development, and promotion program; and conducted

new-employee orientations.


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A dearth of research exists on microcosm groups, partly because it is difficult to measure

parallel processes and associate them with measures of organizational processes. More research

on this intervention is needed.

B. Resolving Intergroup Conflict

The intergroup conflict intervention is designed specifically to help two groups or

departments within an organization resolve dysfunctional conflicts. Intergroup conflict is neither

good nor bad in itself, and in some cases, conflict among departments is necessary and

productive for organization. This applies where there is little interdependence among

departments and conflict or competition among them can spur higher levels of productivity.

B.1 Application Stages

A basic strategy for improving interdepartmental or intergroup relationships is to change

the perceptions (perhaps, more accurately, misperceptions) that the two groups have of each

other. One formal approach for accomplishing this, originally described by Blake and his

associates, consists of a ten-step procedure.

1. A consultant external to the two groups obtains their agreement to work directly onimproving intergroup relationships.

2. A time is set for the two groups to meet-preferably away from their normal work situations.3. The consultant, together with the managers of the two groups, describes the purpose and

objectives of the meeting- to develop better mutual relationships, explore the perceptions the

group have of each other, and formulate plans for improving the relationship. The two groups

are presented the following or similar questions: What qualities or attributes best describe

our group? What qualities or attributes best describe the other group? and How do we

think the other group will describe us? Then, the two groups are encouraged to establish

norms of openness for feedback and discussion.

4. The two groups are assigned to separate rooms and asked to write their answers to the threequestions.


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5. After completing their lists, the two groups reconvene. A representative from each grouppresents the written statements. Only the two representatives are allowed to speak.

6. When it is clear that the two groups thoroughly understand the content of the lists, theyseparate again. By this point, a great number of misperceptions and discrepancies have been

brought to light.

7. The task of the two groups is to analyze and review the reasons for the discrepancies. Theemphasis is on solving the problems and reducing the misperceptions. The actual or implicit

question is not whether the perception of the other group is right or wrong but rater How did

these perceptions occur? What actions on the part of our group may have contributed to this

set of perceptions?

8. When the two groups have worked through the discrepancies, as well as the areas of commonagreement, they meet to share both the identified discrepancies and their problem-solving

approaches to those discrepancies. Because the primary focus is on the behavior underlying

the perceptions, free, open discussion is encouraged between the two groups, and their joint

aim is to develop an overall list of remaining and possible sources of friction and isolation.

9. The two groups are asked to develop specific plans of action for solving specific problemsand for improving their relationships.

10.When the two groups have gone as far as possible in formulating action plans, at least onefollow-up meeting is scheduled so that the groups can report on actions that have been

implemented, identify any further problems that have emerged, and, where necessary,

formulate additional action plans.

B.2 Results of Intergroup Conflict Interventions

A number of studies have been done on the effects of intergroup conflict resolution. In

his original study, Blake reported vastly improved relationships between the union and

management. In later study, Bennis used Blakes basic design to improve relationships between

two groups of U.S State Department officials-high-level administrative officers and officers in

foreign service. Initially, there was much mutual distrust, negative stereotyping, blocked

communications, and hostility between the two groups. Each side perceived the other as more

threatening than any realistic overseas enemy. Although no hard data were obtained, the

intervention seemed to improved relationships so that the two groups at least understood the

other sides point of view.


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VII. Third Party-Peacemaking Interventions By: Armand Salangguit

A. Third-Party Interventions

Third-party intervention focuses on conflicts arising between two or more people within

the same organization. Conflict is inherent in groups and organizations and can arise from a

variety of sources, include differences in personality, task orientation, and perceptions among

group members, as well as competition for scarce resources. Conflict can enhance motivation

and innovation and lead to greater understanding of ideas and views. On the other hand, it can

prevent people from working together constructively, destroying necessary task interactions

among group members.

Third-party intervention varies considerably depending on the kind of issues underlying

the conflict. Conflict can arise over substantive issues, such as work methods, pay rates, and

conditions of employment; or it can emerge from interpersonal issues, such as personalities and

misperceptions.

When applied to substantive issues, conflict resolution interventions often involveresolving labor-management disputes through arbitration and mediation. The methods used in

such substantive interventions require considerable training and expertise in law and labor

relations and generally are not considered part of OD practice. When conflict involves

interpersonal issues, however, OD has developed approaches that help control and resolve it.

These third-party interventions help the parties interact with each other directly, facilitating their

diagnosis of the conflict and how to resolve it. That ability to facilitate conflict resolution is a

basic skill in OD and applies to all of the process interventions.

B. An Episodic Model of Conflict:

Interpersonal conflict often occurs in iterative, cyclical stages known as "episodes." An

episodic model is shown in Figure 39. At times, issues underlying a conflict are latent and do not


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present any manifest problems for the parties. Then something triggers the conflict and brings it

into the open. For example, a violent disagreement or frank confrontation can unleash conflictual

behavior. Because of the negative consequences of that behavior, the unresolved disagreement

usually becomes latent again. And again, something triggers the conflict, making it overt, and so

the cycle continues with the next conflict episode.

Conflict has both costs and benefits to the antagonists and to those in contact with them.

Unresolved conflict can proliferate and expand. An interpersonal conflict may be concealed

under a cause or issue that serves to make the conflict appear more legitimate. Frequently, the

overt conflict is only a symptom of a deeper problem. The episode model identifies four

strategies for conflict resolution. The first three attempts to control the conflict and only the last

approach try to change the basic issues underlying it.

The first strategy is to prevent the ignition of conflict by arriving at a clear understanding

of the triggering factors and there after avoiding or blunting them when the symptoms occur. For

example, if conflict between the research and production managers is always triggered by new

product introductions, then senior management can warn them that conflict will not be tolerated

during the introduction of the latest new product. However this approach may not always be

functional and merely may drive the conflict underground until it explodes. As a control strategy,

however, this method may help to achieve a temporary cooling-off period.

The second control strategy is to set limits on the form of the conflict. Conflict can be

constrained by informal gatherings before a formal meeting or by exploration of other options. It

also can be limited by setting rules and procedures specifying the conditions under which the

parties can interact. For example, a rule can be instituted that union officials can attempt to

resolve grievances with management only at weekly grievance meetings.

The third control strategy is to help the parties cope differently with the consequences of

the conflict. The third-party consultant may work with the people involved to devise coping

techniques, such as reducing their dependence on the relationship, ventilating their feelings to

friends, and developing additional sources of emotional support. These methods can reduce the

costs of the conflict without resolving the underlying issues.


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The fourth method is an attempt to eliminate or to resolve the basic issues causing the

conflict. As Walton points out, "There is little too he said about this objective because it is the

most obvious and straightforward, although it is often the most difficult to achieve."

C. Facilitating the Conflict Resolution Process:

Walton has identified a number of factors and tactical choices that can facilitate the use

of the episode model in resolving the underlying causes of conflict. The following ingredients

can help third-party consultants achieve productive dialogue between the disputants so that they

examine their differences and change their perceptions and behaviors: mutual motivation to

resolve the conflict; equality of power between the parties; coordinated attempts to confront the

conflict; relevant phasing of the stages of identifying differences and of searching for integrative

solutions; open and clear forms of communication; and productive levels of tension and stress.

Among the tactical choices identified by Walton do those having to do with diagnosis,

the context of the third-party intervention, and the role of the consultant. One of the tactics in

third-party intervention is the gathering of data, usually through preliminary interviewing.

Group-process observations can also be used. Data gathering provides some understanding of the

nature and the type of conflict, the personality and conflict styles of the individuals involved, the

issues and attendant pressures, and the participants' readiness to work together to resolve the

conflict. The context in which the intervention occurs is also important. Consideration of the

neutrality of the meeting area, the formality of the setting, the appropriateness of the time for the

meeting (that is, a meeting should not be started until a time has been agreed on to conclude or

adjourn), and the careful selection of those who should attend the meeting are all elements of this

context. In addition, the third-party consultant must decide on an appropriate role to assume in

resolving conflict. The specific tactic chosen will depend on the diagnosis of the situation. For

example, facilitating dialogue of interpersonal issues might include initiating the agenda for the

meeting, acting as a referee during the meeting, reflecting and restating the issues and the

differing perceptions of the individuals involved, giving feedback and receiving comments on


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the feedback, helping the individuals diagnose the issues in the conflict, providing suggestions or

recommendations, and helping the parties do a better job of diagnosing the underlying problem.

The third-party consultant must develop considerable skill at diagnosis, intervention, and

follow-up. The third-party intervener must be highly sensitive to his or her own feelings and to

those of others. He or she also must recognize that some tension and conflict are inevitable and

that although there can be an optimum amount and degree of conflict, too much conflict can be

dysfunctional for both the people involved and the larger organization. The third-party consultant

must be sensitive to the situation and able to use a number of different intervention strategies and

tactics when intervention appears to be useful. Finally, she or he must have professional

expertise in third-party intervention and must be seen by the parties as neutral or unbiased

regarding the issues and outcomes of the conflict resolution.

VIII. Organizational Mirror Intervention By: Laila Dela Cruz

A. Organization Mirror Interventions

The organization mirror is a set of activities in which a particular organizational group

gets feedback from representatives from several other organizational groups about how it is

perceived and regarded. This intervention is designed to improve the relationships between

groups and increase the intergroup work effectiveness. It is different from the intergroup team

building intervention in that three or more groups are involved, representatives of other work-related groups typically participate rather than the full membership, and the focus is to assist the

unit that requested the meeting.

B. Partnering

Partnering is a variation of team building and strategic planning having the objective of

forming an effective problem-finding/problem-solving management team composed of

personnel of both parties, thus creating a single culture with one set of goals and objectives for

the project.

IX. INTERPERSONAL INTERVENTIONS

A. Behavior Modeling


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Behavior Modeling is a training technique designed to improve interpersonal competence. It is

not an OD intervention but we believe I should be added to practitioners repertoire because it is

such an effective tool, and because problems with interpersonal relations are common in

organizations. For improving interpersonal skills, behavior modeling is an important training

option.

A simple problem-solving model underlies most behavior modeling training. The problem

solving approach consists of three phases-problem identification, problem solving and

implementation, consisted of five behavioral skills.

1. Behavior description. The ability to describe behavior of self or others in specific concreteterms and to avoid generalizations or inferences drawn from observed behaviors.

2. Justification. The ability to clearly explain the impact of an observed behavior on theindividual, the observer or the organization.

3. Active listening. The ability to accurately reflect both content and feelings of anotherscommunication.

4. Participative problem solving. The ability to involve another, meaningfully andappropriately, in the process of solving a work-related problem.

5. Positive reinforcement. The ability to compliment another in sincere and authentic manner.

B. Life and Career PlanningLife and career planning workshops are less process oriented than T-group experiences,

and they emphasize individual examination of personal career and life plans and then discussion

of individuals analyses and plans in small groups.

C. Coaching and Mentoring

These activities frequently grow out of team-building and intergroup interventions. The

OD consultant can be in a position to provide guidance for formal mentoring programs while

coaching by an employees immediate superior focuses on job performance.

D. Mentoring and Coaching Skills

D.1 Mentoring:

Create an open and supportive climate for discussion.


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Demonstrate good listening/follow-up skills. Provide constructive feedback and advice.

D. 2 Coaching: Simple Process

Preparation Discussion Active Coaching Follow-up

X. Large Group Interventions By: Vanessa Esperanza Papna

XI. Role Theory By: Benigay Charlie Ann S.

A. Role theory

Role theory is a perspective in sociology and in social psychology that considers most of

everyday activity to be the acting out of socially defined categories (e.g., mother, manager, and

teacher). Each social role is a set of rights, duties, expectations, norms and behaviors that a

person has to face and fulfill. The model is based on the observation that people behave in a

predictable way, and that an individuals behavior is context specific, based on social position

and other factors. The theatre is a metaphor often used to describe role theory.

Although the word role (or roll) has existed in European languages for centuries, as a

sociological concept, the term has only been around since the 1920s and 1930s. It became more

prominent in sociological discourse through the theoretical works of George Herbert Mead,

Jacob L. Moreno, and Linton. Two of Meads concepts the mind and the self are the

precursors to role theory.

Depending on the general perspective of the theoretical tradition, there are many types

of role theory. The theory posits the following:

B. Propositions about Social Behavior


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1. The division of labor in society takes the form of the interaction among heterogeneous

specialized positions that we call roles;

2. Social roles included "appropriate" and "permitted" forms of behavior, guided by social

norms, which are commonly known and hence determine expectations;

3. Roles are occupied by individuals, who are called "actors";

4. When individuals approve of a social role (i.e., they consider the role "legitimate" and

"constructive"), they will incur costs to conform to role norms, and will also incur costs to punish

those who violate role norms;

5. Changed conditions can render a social role outdated or illegitimate, in which case social

pressures are likely to lead to role change;

6. The anticipation of rewards and punishments, as well as the satisfaction of behaving in a pro-

social way, account for why agents conform to role requirements.

In terms of differences among role theory, on one side there is a more functional

perspective, which can be contrasted with the more micro level approach of the symbolic

interactionist tradition. This type of role theory dictates how closely related individuals actions

are to the society, as well as how empirically testable a particular role theory perspective may be.

A key insight of this theory is that role conflict occurs when a person is expected to

simultaneously act out multiple roles that carry contradictory expectations. Substantial debate

exists in the field over the meaning of the "role" in role theory. A role can be defined as a social

position, behavior associated with a social position, or a typical behavior. Some theorists have

put forward the idea that roles are essentially expectations about how an individual ought to

behave in a given situation, while others consider it means how individuals actually behave in a

given social position. Others have suggested that a role is a characteristic behavior or expected

behavior, a part to be played, or a script for social conduct.

In sociology there are different categories of social roles:1. Cultural roles: roles given by culture (e.g. priest)

2. Social differentiation: e.g. teacher, taxi driver

3. situation-specific roles: e.g. eye witness


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4. bio-sociological roles: e.g. as human in a natural system

5. Gender roles: as a man, woman, mother, father, etc.

In their life people have to face different social roles, sometimes they have to face

different roles at the same time in different social situations. There is an evolution of social roles:

some disappear and some new develop. Role behavior is influenced by following aspects:

1. The norms, determining a social situation.

2. Internal and external expectations are connected to a social role.

3. Social sanctions and rewards are used to influence role behavior.

These three aspects are used to evaluate the own behavior and the behavior of other

people. Heinrich Popitz defines social roles as norms of behavior a special social group has to

follow. Norms of behavior are a set of behavior that is usually used by the group members, in

case of deviance, negative sanctions follow.

C. Category of Social Roles

Cultural roles

Cultural roles are seen as matter of course and are mostly stable. In cultural changes new

roles can develop and old roles can disappear these cultural changes are affected by political

and social conflicts. For example the feminist movement initiated a change in male and female

roles in Western societies.

Social differentiationSocial differentiation got a lot of attention due to the development of different job roles.

Robert K. Merton distinguished between intrapersonal and interpersonal role conflicts. For

example, a foreman has to develop his own social role facing the expectations of his team

members and his supervisor this is an interpersonal role conflict. He also has to arrange his

different social roles as father, husband, club memberthis is an intrapersonal role conflict.


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Ralph Dahrendorf distinguished between must-expectations, with sanctions; shall-expectations,

with sanctions and rewards and can-expectations, with rewards. The foreman has to avoid

corruption; he should satisfy his reference groups (e.g. team members and supervisors); and he

can be sympathetic. He argues another proponent of role theory is that people accept their own

roles in the society and it is not the society that imposes them.

Situation-specific rolesSituation-specific roles develop ad hoc in a given social situation. Nevertheless the

expectations and norms are predetermined by the social role.

Bio-sociological RolesBio-sociology is the study of the evolution of social forms and the development of social

behavior in terms analogous to or correlated with biological studies. Bio-sociological role is the

scientific study of the interrelationships of social species and their relationships with the

environment, the study of biological and social factors' relations.

Gender RolesA gender roleis a set of social and behavioralnorms that are generally considered

appropriate for either a man or a woman in a social or interpersonal relationship. There are

differences of opinion as to which observed differences in behavior and personality between

genders are entirely due to innate personality of the person and which are due to cultural or

social factors, and are therefore the product of socialization, or to what extent gender differences

are due to biological and physiological differences.

Gender roles differ according to cultural-historical context, and while most cultures

express two genders, some express more.Androgyny,for example, has been proposed as a third

gender. Others societies have been claimed to have more than five genders, and some non-

Western societies have three genders man,woman andthird gender.Gender expression refers

to the external manifestation of one's gender identity, through "masculine," "feminine or gender-

variant or gender neutral behavior, clothing, hairstyles, or body characteristics.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(sociology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_relationshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgynyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Womanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_genderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_genderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Womanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgynyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_relationshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(sociology)


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D. Additional Concepts

Role Theory has been a fruitful approach to understanding humans and society. As a

result, various derivatives and additional concepts have developed.

Role ConfusionRole confusion is a situation where an individual has trouble determining which role

he/she should assume. For example, if a graduate student were to attend a department party at a

professor's home, the student may find it difficult to determine if he/she should act as a student

toward the professor, exhibiting deference or respect, or as a friend or associate, showing

collegiality and familiarity.

Role ConflictRole Conflict results when an individual encounters tensions as the result of incompatible

roles. For instance, a mother who is employed full-time may experience role conflict because of

the norms that are associated with the two roles she has. She may be expected to spend a great

deal of time taking care of her children while simultaneously trying to advance her career.

Role Strain

Role Strain refers to the felt difficulty in fulfilling role obligations. In contrast to role

conflict, where tension is felt between two competing roles, the tension in role strain comes from

just one role. Returning to the example of a mother, if she were to find that she is unable to fulfill

her obligations as defined by, say, an overly demanding spouse (or religion, or child), she would

experience role strain. The role expectations may be beyond what she is able to achieve or may

push her to the limits of her abilities.

Role Distance

Role Distance is the effectively expressed pointed separateness between the individual

and his putative role. The individual is not denying the role but the virtual self that is implied in


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the role for all accepting performers. The concept of role distance provides a sociological means

of dealing with one type of divergence between obligation and actual performance. For example,

the maturing adolescent who is forced to ride a merry-go-round may display role distance by

acting as though the ride does not challenge her physical abilities or frighten her. This may be

displayed by riding backwards or leaning dangerously from her horse.

Immediate audiences figure very directly in the display of role distance; actors need an

audience or a co-conspirator for role distancing to work. There are two ways of establishing role

distance:

1. Isolating one's self from the contamination of the situation, which can be displayedthrough indifference (e.g., a waiter saying, "I'm just doing this to put myself through

college.")

2. Joking about the situation (e.g., the young merry-go-round rider saying, "I can do thiswith my eyes closed.")

It is often possible to determine incidents in which role distance might be displayed

solely on the grounds of the performers' gross age-sex characteristics. A seventeen year-old boy

riding a merry-go-round (especially with peers) will likely display significant role distance.

Role Embracement

Role Embracement refers to the complete adoption of a role. When a role is truly

embraced, the self disappears completely into the role. Three things seem to be involved in the

earnestness with which people assume roles or the degree to which they embrace a role:

1. an admitted or expressed attachment to the role2. a demonstration of qualifications and capacities for performing it3. an active engagement or spontaneous involvement in the role activity at hand, that is, a

visible investment of attention and muscular effort

OD GROUP 5 Written Report COmpiled

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