Occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employee loyalty in ...

Occupational stress, job satisfaction,and employee loyalty in hospitalityindustry: a comparative case studyof

twohotelsinRussia

MasterThesissubmittedinfulfillmentoftheDegree

MasterofScience

inInternationalTourism

SubmittedtoDr.FlorianAubke

EvgeniaAntonova

1111525

Vienna,8thofJune,2016

I

AFFIDAVIT

IherebyaffirmthatthisMaster’sThesisrepresentsmyownwrittenworkandthatIhaveused

nosourcesandaidsotherthanthoseindicated.Allpassagesquotedfrompublicationsorpara-

phrasedfromthesesourcesareproperlycitedandattributed.

Thethesiswasnotsubmittedinthesameorinasubstantiallysimilarversion,notevenpartial-

ly,toanotherexaminationboardandwasnotpublishedelsewhere.

Date Signature

Antonova E.

8.06.2016

III

ABSTRACT

Themodernrhythmoflifeisincreasinglydemandingformanypeople.Consideringthatmost

peoplearespendingasignificantamountoftimeatwork,theirworkingconditionsandtheir

generalphysicalandmentalstateattheworkplaceareplayinganincreasinglyimportantrole.

Thus,work-related stresshasbecomea significantand relevantproblem for theemployees,

causing physiological, psychological, or even mental health problems. Occupational stress

amongemployeescanalsonegativelyaffecttheirefficiency,productivity,andincreaseturno-

verrates,whichinturnwillimplycostsforthecompany.Nevertheless,occupationalstressisa

complexandmultifacetedconceptanditneedstobeinvestigatednotonlyassuch,butalsoin

relationtootherimportantfactorsinfluencingjobconditions,suchasjobsatisfactionandem-

ployeeloyalty.

Hospitalityindustryasaworkplacehashigherrisksofoccupationalstressduetothenatureof

the service sector and theemotional labour.At the same time, people areoneof themost

valuableassetsinthehotels,whichmakesitevenmorecrucialtoaddresstheissue.

Whilethereisavarietyofaresearchaboutoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployee

loyalty in thehospitality industryas such, thepotentialdifferences in these factorsbetween

chain and independent hotels are insufficiently studied. Therefore, the current research is

aimingtoaddressthisunderstudiedissue.Acomparativecasestudyanalysisoftwohotelsin

Russiahasbeenconducted.Oneofthemainfindingswasthatthereisasignificantdifference

in occupational stress and employee loyalty between the two hotels.More precisely, inde-

pendenthotelemployeeshavehigherstress levelsand lower loyalty.These findings indicate

thatfurtherresearchinthisfieldisneeded.

V

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First,Iwouldliketothankmysupervisor,Dr.FlorianAubke,forhisinfinitepatience,valuable

suggestionsandhelpfulhints.

Iwouldliketoalsothankmyfriendsfortheirsupportandkindwords.

MyspecialthanksgotomyfriendNatalieforhergreathelpandencouragement,andtoTaya

formotivatingandcheeringmeup.

Mostimportantly,Iwouldliketoexpressmysinceregratitudetomybrothersandmyparents,

Mikhail and Elena, whowere always there forme, believing,motivating, supporting, giving

advises,orsimplylistening.

VI

TABLEOFCONTENTS

Affidavit.........................................................................................................................................I

Abstract.......................................................................................................................................III

Acknowledgements......................................................................................................................V

ListofFigures................................................................................................................................X

ListofAbbreviations....................................................................................................................XI

1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................1

1.1 Contextandpreviousresearch...........................................................................................1

1.2 Researchaimsandobjectives.............................................................................................2

1.2.1 OccupationalstressandJobsatisfaction.........................................................................................4

1.2.2 OccupationalstressandEmployeeloyalty......................................................................................4

1.2.3 Jobsatisfactionandemployeeloyalty............................................................................................4

1.2.4 Moderatingroleofgender..............................................................................................................4

1.2.5 Moderatingroleofmaritalstatus...................................................................................................5

1.2.6 Moderatingroleofage....................................................................................................................5

1.2.7 Moderatingroleofeducation.........................................................................................................6

1.2.8 Moderatingroleofparenthood......................................................................................................6

1.2.9 DifferencesinOccupationalstress,Jobsatisfaction,andEmployeeloyaltybetweenindependent

andchainhotels.............................................................................................................................7

1.3 Structureofthesis...............................................................................................................7

2 Literaturereview....................................................................................................................9

2.1 Stress...................................................................................................................................9

2.1.1 Classificationsofstress..................................................................................................................10

2.1.2 Stressors........................................................................................................................................13

2.2 OccupationalStress...........................................................................................................15

2.2.1 EffectsofOccupationalStress.......................................................................................................23

2.2.2 ManagingOccupationalStress......................................................................................................24

2.2.3 OccupationalStressintheHospitalityIndustry............................................................................25

2.3 Jobsatisfaction..................................................................................................................26

2.4 Employeeloyalty...............................................................................................................29

2.5 Chainvsindependenthotels.............................................................................................34

3 Methodology........................................................................................................................36

3.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................36

3.2 Selectionofmethodology.................................................................................................36

VII

3.3 Researchinstrument..........................................................................................................37

3.3.1 Occupationalstress.......................................................................................................................37

3.3.2 Jobsatisfaction..............................................................................................................................38

3.3.3 Employeeloyalty...........................................................................................................................38

3.4 Selectionofstudysite........................................................................................................38

3.5 Dataanalysis......................................................................................................................39

4 Results...................................................................................................................................40

4.1 Descriptionofthesample..................................................................................................40

4.2 Testingthehypotheses......................................................................................................43

4.2.1 Correlationsbetweenoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyalty.....................43

4.2.2 Moderatingroleofgender............................................................................................................44

4.2.3 Moderatingroleofmaritalstatus.................................................................................................45

4.2.4 Moderatingroleofage.................................................................................................................45

4.2.5 Moderatingroleofeducation.......................................................................................................47

4.2.6 Moderatingroleofparenthood....................................................................................................49

4.2.7 Differencesinoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltybetweenindependent

andchainhotels...........................................................................................................................49

4.3 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................52

5 DiscussionandConclusion....................................................................................................54

5.1 Interpretationofresults....................................................................................................54

5.1.1 RQ1:Whatare the relationshipsbetweenoccupational stress, jobsatisfaction,andemployee

loyaltyinchainhotelandindependenthotel?............................................................................54

5.1.2 RQ 2: Which demographic characteristics play moderating roles in occupational stress, job

satisfaction,andemployeeloyaltyinchainhotelandindependenthotel?................................55

5.1.3 RQ3: Are there any differences in occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employee loyalty

betweenchainandindependenthotels?....................................................................................56

5.2 Limitationsandfutureresearch.........................................................................................57

6 Bibliography..........................................................................................................................59

Appendices..................................................................................................................................72

Appendix1:Questionnaire..........................................................................................................72

Appendix2:DescriptiveStatistics...............................................................................................82

Appendix3:Correlationsandstatisticaltests.............................................................................84

VIII

LISTOFTABLES

Table1Sourcesofstressatwork(Cooper&Marshall,1976)....................................................17

Table2Stress-relatedhazardsatwork(Lekaetal.,2004).........................................................20

Table3CharacteristicsofthecasestudyHotels........................................................................39

Table 4 Correlations between occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employee loyalty in

HotelA........................................................................................................................................43

Table 5 Correlations between occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employee loyalty in

HotelB........................................................................................................................................44

Table6Differencesinoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltybetweenmen

andwomeninHotelA................................................................................................................45

Table 7Differences inoccupational stress, job satisfaction, andemployee loyaltydue to the

ageinHotelA(Kruskal-WallisTest)............................................................................................46


ageinHotelB(Kruskal-Wallistest).............................................................................................47


educationinHotelB(Kruskal-Wallistest)..................................................................................48

Table10OccupationalstressdifferencesbetweenhighschoolandbachelorgraduatesinHotel

B..................................................................................................................................................48

Table11EmployeeloyaltydifferencesbetweencollegeandbachelorgraduatesinHotelB....49

Table12JobsatisfactiondifferencesbetweencollegeandbachelorgraduatesinHotelB.......49

Table13Descriptivestatisticsofoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltyin

casestudyhotels........................................................................................................................50

Table 14 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test results for occupational stress, job satisfaction, and

employeeloyaltyacrosstwocasestudyhotels..........................................................................51

Table 15 Mann-Whitney Test results on differences in job satisfaciton between case study

hotels..........................................................................................................................................51

IX

Table16T-Testresultsondifferencesinoccupationalstressbetweencasestudyhotels.........52

Table17T-Testresultsondifferencesinemployeeloyaltybetweencasestudyhotels............52

Table18Resultsofhypotesestesting.........................................................................................53

X

LISTOFFIGURES

Figure1TheHumanFunctionCurve(PortoleseDias,2012)......................................................13

Figure2Aheuristicmodeloforganizationalhealth(Hart&Cooper,2001)..............................19

Figure3ThelinksintheService-ProfitChain(Heskettetal.,1994)...........................................30

Figure4GenderofRespondentsintheCaseHotels..................................................................40

Figure5AgeofRespondentsintheCaseHotels........................................................................41

Figure6Employees'educationintheCaseHotels.....................................................................41

Figure7Employees'maritalstatusintheCaseHotels...............................................................42

Figure8ParenthoodstatusesofEmployeesintheCaseHotels................................................42

XI

LISTOFABBREVIATIONS

GAS–GeneralAdaptationSyndrom

GJSQ–GenericJobStressQuestionnaire

NIOSH–NationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyandHealth

SPSS–StatisticalPackagefortheSocialSciences

WHO–WorldHealthOrganization

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1 INTRODUCTION

Thecurrentstudyisaimingtoinvestigatesuchimportantworkplacerelatedaspectsandissues

asoccupational stress, jobsatisfaction,andemployee loyaltywith regards todifferencesbe-

tweenchainandindependenthotels.Thischaptergivesanintroductiontothecontextofthe

study,previousresearch,formulatestheaimsandobjectivesoftheresearch,anddefinesthe

researchquestionsaswellashypothesesthatshouldbeaddressed.

1.1 Contextandpreviousresearch

Wellbeingandhealth represent an importantpartofour lives.Medical and scientificbreak-

throughsmadeitpossibletocuremanyseriousdiseases,howevernowadayspeoplearefacing

newchallengesofmentalandphysicalwelfare.Modernrhythmoflife,characterizedbysuch

phenomenaasglobalization,urbanization,intensetechnologicaldevelopments,isparticularly

demandingformanypeople.Consideringthatmostpeoplearespendingasignificantamount

oftimeatwork,theirworkingconditionsandtheirgeneralphysicalandmentalstateatwork-

placeareplayinganincreasinglyimportantrole.

Stressatworkhasbecomeasignificantandrelevantprobleminthemodernworld.Itcanaf-

fect employees’ health andwellbeing, causingnotonlyphysiological, but alsopsychological,

emotionalandevenmentalproblems.Moreover,occupationalstresscannegativelyinfluence

theirwork efficiency, performance, and service quality, and boost turnover rates; hence in-

crementing costs for both the employee and the company (Villanueva & Djurkovich, 2009;

O’Neill&Davis, 2009).However, occupational stress is a complicated andmultifaceted con-

cept;thusitneedstobeinvestigatednotonlyassuch,butalsoinrelationtotheotherfactors

influencingthejobsituationofanindividual.Evidenceshowsthatthereisstrongnegativerela-

tionship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (Richardson & Burke, 1991;

Cavanaughetal.,2000;Rizwanetal.,2014),whichinturncaninfluenceemployee’sloyaltyina

positiveway(LaLopa,1997).

Peopleworkinginhospitalityindustryarealsoatahigherriskofoccupationalstressduetothe

natureoftheservicesector,whereemployeeshavedirectinteractionwiththecustomersand

playanimportantrole intheproductionandconsumptionofaservice.Oftenbeinganinter-

mediarybetweentheconflictingdemandsofthecompany,management,andcustomers,em-

ployees are facing dissonance (Ruyter et al., 2001). Moreover, hotel business is operating

twenty-fourhours,sevendaysaweek,andthatdictatessomespecialjobaspects,suchasshift

workor irregularworkinghours.At thesametime,employeesareoneof themostvaluable

assets in the hospitality industry; thus understanding the nature of occupational stress and

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associatedfactorswillalloweithertopreventthepotentialnegativeconsequencesortoman-

agethemproperly.

Occupational stress, job satisfaction and employee loyalty, as well as their nature, conse-

quences,andstrategiesformanagingthemhavebeenofinterestformanyresearchersduring

the lastdecades.However,these important factors influencingemployees invariousways in

thehotelindustryarestillremainingunderstudied.Moreover,theresearchonthesetopicsin

termsofdifferencesamongvarioustypesofhotels isevidently lackingandneedsfurtherde-

velopment.

1.2 Researchaimsandobjectives

Theaimofthispaperistoinvestigatethedifferencesbetweenchainandindependenthotels

intermsofoccupationalstress, jobsatisfactionandloyaltyoftheiremployees.Bothtypesof

thehotelsarecontinuouslyexaminedandcomparedintermsoftheircompetitivenessorrev-

enues. However, there is a marked lack of the literature and research aimed at studying

whether different ownership types in the hospitality industry can significantly influence the

above-mentionedjob-relatedfactors.Understandingofthoseiscrucialforefficientandeffec-

tivemanagementofthemostvaluableassetintheindustry–thepeople.Moreover,concep-

tualizationof thedifferencesbetween chain and independenthotels in termsof the special

aspectsofworkplacesand,mostimportantly,theirpotentialeffectonemployees’healthand

satisfactioncanbeextremelyusefulandvaluablefortheprospectiveemployees.

Scientificevidenceshowsthatoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltyhave

certaindegreeofinterrelation(Chandraiahetal.,2003,Kimetal.,2009;Abdullahetal.,2009).

Different jobstressors,aswellas theoccupational stressasawhole,wereproved tosignifi-

cantly influence job satisfaction in a negative way (House & Rizzo, 1972; Cavanaugh et al.,

2000; Kim et al., 2009; Luthans, 2011). However, one has to admit that certain challenge

stressorshaveapositiveimpactonthejobsatisfaction(Cavanaughetal.,2000;Karatepeetal.,

2014). Job satisfaction, in turn, has a strong positive relationshipwith employee loyalty (Ja-

wahar,2006;Wan,2012).Moreover,Wan(2012)arguesthatemployeeloyaltyactuallyarises

from the job satisfaction.Unfortunately, there is notmuch literature on the correlation be-

tweenemployeeloyaltyandoccupationalstress,butithasbeenprovedthatstressedemploy-

eesaremore likelyto leavethecompany(Porter&Steers,1973).Asturnover intentionsare

stronglyandnegativelycorrelatedwiththeemployeeloyalty(Bhatnagar,2012;Mohsinetal.,

2015),itcanbeexpectedthatemployeeloyaltywillalsohavenegativerelationshipwithwork-

related stress. The current research is therefore also aiming to examine these above-

mentionedrelationswithrespecttothetwocasestudyhotels.

Additionally,themoderatingrolesofdemographicfactorsonthesevariableshaveveryoften

beenof interest fortheresearchers.However,theexistingstudieshave identifiedquitecon-

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tradicting results. Thus, it has been found that if there is a significant differencedue to the

gender of respondents, then women tend to experience more stress (Almedia & Kessler,

1998),bemoresatisfiedwiththeir jobs (Al-Ababneh&Lockwood,2010),andexpresshigher

loyalty (ManpowerGroup, 2002). In terms of age, it can be assumed based on previous re-

search that the younger employees are experiencingmore stress (Chandraiah et al., 2003),

reportlessjobsatisfaction(Chandraiahetal.,2003;Al-Ababneh&Lockwood,2010),andtend

tobelessloyalthantheolderones(Taylor,2006).Educationseemstoresultinmorestressfor

the employees (Doughty, 2013), but at the same time in higher job satisfaction levels (Al-

Ababneh&Lockwood,2010).However,influenceofthelevelofeducationonemployeeloyal-

tywasnotfoundtobesignificant(Sheikhy&Khademi,2015).

Marital status has beenproved tohave certain effects on job situation as such. Thus, some

researchershavefoundthatmarriedemployeesareexperiencingmorestressthanunmarried

ones(Kessler,1979).However,resultsonhowmarriageinfluencesthejobsatisfactionofthe

employeesarecontradictive.Somestudiessuggestthatmarriedemployeesaremoresatisfied

with their jobs (Saner and Eyüpoğlu, 2013), while the others are not finding any significant

differences(Azimetal.,2013).Beingaparentcanalsohavecertaineffectsondifferentaspects

ofthework,yettheresearchershavenotcometoaconsensusinthistopic.Severalresearch-

ershaveconcludedthatemployeeswithchildrenaresufferingfromworkstressmorethanthe

oneswithoutkids(Lamanna&Riedmann,2012;Hobart,2015).Nevertheless,someinvestiga-

tions have found no differences between parents and non-parents in terms of occupational

stress (O’Neill & Davis, 2009). Job satisfaction was proved to be lower with the increasing

numberofchildren(Bilgic,1998).However,otherstudieshavenotfoundanysignificantinflu-

ence (Forgionne & Peeters, 1982, cited by Bilgic, 1998). Employee loyalty with respect to

parenthoodisnotstudiedwell,yetthereisevidencethatemployeeswithchildrentendtostay

attheirjoblonger(Sibbaldetal.,2003).

Basedontheabove-mentionedaimsandobjectives,aswellasontheexisting literature, the

followingresearchquestionsareaddressedinthisstudy:

1. Whataretherelationshipsbetweenoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemploy-

eeloyaltyinchainhotelandindependenthotel?

2. Which demographic characteristics are playing moderating roles in occupational

stress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltyinchainhotelandindependenthotel?

3. Arethereanydifferencesinoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyalty

betweenchainandindependenthotels?

Basedontheresearchquestionsandtheassociatedliterature,thefollowinghypotheseswere

developedinordertoguidetheanalysisofthedatacollected.

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1.2.1 OccupationalstressandJobsatisfaction

Thepreviousstudieshaveshownthatstressatworkhasastrongandnegativecorrelationwith

job satisfaction (Richardson&Burke,1991;Cavanaughetal.,2000;Rizwanetal.,2014).Re-

searchobservingthesamerelationshipinthehospitalitysectorhasfoundonlyonejobstress-

or,namelyinterpersonaltensions,tohaveasignificantnegativecorrelationwithjobsatisfac-

tion.Roleambiguitywasprovedtohaveasignificantlynegativerelationtothegeneralwork

stressaswell(Yang,2010).Thefollowingnullhypothesisisformulatedtoinvestigatethepat-

ternsinthetwocasestudyhotels:

H1:Occupationalstressisnotcorrelatedwithjobsatisfaction.

1.2.2 OccupationalstressandEmployeeloyalty

Therehasbeenevidence inpreviousresearchthat jobstresshasanegativecorrelationwith

organizational commitment (Garg & Dhar, 2014). Besides, it has been proven that more

stressedemployeetendtohaveincreasedintentionto leavethecompany(Cavanaughetal.,

2000;Bhattietal.,2010).Thenullhypothesisisofferedfortestingthisrelationship:

H2:Occupationalstressisnotcorrelatedwithemployeeloyalty.

1.2.3 Jobsatisfactionandemployeeloyalty

AccordingtoLaLopa(1997),employeeswhoaresatisfiedwiththeirjobtendtobecommitted

totheemployerandstay intheir jobfora longerperiodoftime.Abdullahetal. (2009)have

supportedtheevidenceofapositivecorrelationbetweenjobsatisfactionandemployeeloyal-

ty.Followingnullhypothesisisformulated:

H3:Jobsatisfactionisnotcorrelatedwithemployeeloyalty.

1.2.4 Moderatingroleofgender

Severalresearchpapershavepresentedevidencethatwomentendtoexperiencemorestress

thanmen, both general daily stress (Almedia& Kessler, 1998), andwork-related stress (Mi-

chaeletal.,2009).ResearchbyBurkeetal.(2008)reportedthatfemalemanagersareexperi-

encingmorestressthanmaleonesduetothefamily-workconflict.However,researchdoneby

O’NeillandDavis(2009;2011)inthehotelindustryhasnotshownanysignificantdifferences

inoccupationalstressamongmenandwomen.Inordertohaveconsistencyoverthehypothe-

ses,thefollowingnullhypothesisisproposed:

H4a:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinoccupationalstressduetothegender.

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Similartooccupationalstressandgender,theevidenceongenderinfluencingjobsatisfaction

is controversial.Many researchershavenot found thedifferences tobe significantbetween

menandwomen(Burkeetal.,2008;Civilidag&Sargin,2013;Civilidag,2014).However,there

wassomeevidencethatwomenreportedoverallhigherjobsatisfactionthanmen(Al-Ababneh

&Lockwood,2010).Thustheproposedhypothesisis:

H4b:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinjobsatisfactionduetothegender.

Empiricalresearchhasindicatedthatwomentendtoshowmoreloyaltytowardsthejobthan

men(ManpowerGroup,2002).However,thenullhypothesisisofferedfortesting:

H4c:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinemployeeloyaltyduetothegender.

1.2.5 Moderatingroleofmaritalstatus

Previous researchhasevidencedthatmarriedemployees tendtobemoreexposedtostress

thantheirunmarriedcolleagues(Kessler,1979).Thefollowinghypothesisisgoingtobetested:

H5a:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinoccupationalstressduetothemaritalstatus.

Scientificevidence showedcontroversial results in termsof influence thatmarital statushas

onthejobsatisfactionofemployees.Thus,somestudieshavefoundthatmarriedemployees

tend to bemore satisfied than unmarried ones (Saner and Eyüpoğlu, 2013), whereas other

research indicatednosignificantdifferenceduetothemaritalstatus (Azimetal.,2013). Thefollowinghypothesesisformulated:

H5b:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinjobsatisfactionduetothemaritalstatus.

Even thought the literature on effect ofmarital status on employees’ loyalty is lacking, the

followingnullhypothesisisofferedfortesting:

H5c:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinemployeeloyaltyduetothemaritalstatus.

1.2.6 Moderatingroleofage

Theprevious researchhas shown thatyoungadults (25-35yearsold)andearlymiddleaged

(36-45 years old)were experiencingmore stress due to such job stressors as role overload,

roleambiguity,andstrenuousworkingconditionscomparedtolatemiddleaged(46-60years

old)employees(Chandraiahetal.,2003).Thus,thehypothesisismade:

H6a:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinoccupationalstressduetotheage

Age proved to be a significantmoderating variable in terms of job satisfaction in some re-

search.Thus,themiddle-agedemployees(36-45yearsold)reportedmorejobsatisfactionthan

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theyoungeradults(Chandraiahetal.,2003).Theemployeesyoungerthan25yearsoldtendto

betheleastsatisfiedwiththejob(Al-Ababneh&Lockwood,2010).Thefollowingnullhypothe-

sisisproposed:

H6b:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinjobsatisfactionduetotheage

Therehasbeenevidencethatolderemployeestendtostaywiththeircurrentemployerfora

longertime(Taylor,2006),thusitcanbeassumedthattheyhaveahigherlevelofloyaltyto-

wards their organization. The following null hypothesis is suggested for testing the relation-

ship:

H6c:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinemployeeloyaltyduetotheage

1.2.7 Moderatingroleofeducation

Ithasbeenfoundthatmoreeducatedemployeesaremoreexposedtostressthantheones,

whoare lesseducated(Doughty,2013).However,thisrelationship isnot linear(Bartholome,

2007).Thus,thefollowinghypothesisisoffered:

H7a:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinoccupationalstressduetoeducation.

Researchhasshownthatmoreeducatedemployeestendtobemoresatisfiedwiththeirjobs

than less educated ones (Al-Ababneh& Lockwood, 2010). Nevertheless, other findings sug-

gested that educationhasnegative relationshipwith job satisfaction (Rogers, 1991, citedby

Bilgic,1998),ornosignificantinfluenceatall(Bilgic,1998).Thus,thenullhypothesisisoffered

toinvestigatetheinfluence:

H7b:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinjobsatisfactionduetoeducation.

ResearchconductedbySheikhyandKhademi(2015)hasnotfoundanysignificantdifferences

inemployeeloyaltyduetotheireducation.Thus,thefollowinghypothesisisofferedfortest-

ing:

H7c:Therearenosignificantdifferencesinemployeeloyaltyduetoeducation.

1.2.8 Moderatingroleofparenthood

ResearchbyO’NeillandDavis(2009)hasnotfoundanysignificantdifferencesonstresslevels

betweenemployeeswhohadordidnothavechildren.However,therehavebeenseveralstud-

iesthathaveidentifiedthatparentswereexperiencingmorestressthannon-parents(Laman-

na&Riedmann,2012;Hobart,2015).Thus,thefollowinghypothesisisoffered:

H8a: There areno significantdifferences inoccupational stressbetweenparents andnon-

parents.

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Indifferentstudiestherelationshipbetweenparenthoodandjobsatisfactionhasbeenfound

bothnotsignificant(Forgionne&Peeters,1982,citedbyBilgic,1998),andsignificantandneg-

ative(Bilgic,1998).Thenullhypothesisisproposedasfollows:

H8b: There are no significant differences in job satisfaction between parents and non-

parents.

Thereisalackofevidenceaboutthemoderatingroleofparenthoodonemployeeloyalty.Sib-

baldetal.(2003),forinstance,haveindicatedthatemployeeswithchildrentendtostaylonger

withtheorganization.However,thisintentiondoesnotnecessarilymeantheseemployeesare

more loyal to thecompany.The followinghypothesis is formulated inorder to test therela-

tionship:

H8c: There are no significant differences in employee loyalty between parents and non-

parents.

1.2.9 DifferencesinOccupationalstress,Jobsatisfaction,andEmployeeloyaltybe-

tweenindependentandchainhotels

The topic of differences between investigated variables in chain and independent hotels is

highlyunderstudiedandthereforenoassumptionscanbemadepriortotheresearch.Howev-

er,herearethenullhypothesesproposed:

H9:ThereisnosignificantdifferencebetweenindependentandchainhotelinOccupational

stress

H10:ThereisnosignificantdifferencebetweenindependentandchainhotelinJobSatisfac-

tion

H11: There is no significant difference between independent and chain hotel in Employee

Loyalty

1.3 Structureofthesis

Thisresearchstartswiththeliteraturereviewoftheexistingstudiesandtheoriesaboutdiffer-

entaspectsofoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployees’loyalty.Thecertaincharac-

teristicsofthesetheorieswithrespecttothehospitalityindustryareexaminedaswell.Then,

anoverviewof thedifferencesbetween chain and independenthotels is given. Further, the

comparativecasestudymethodologyusedinthecurrentstudy,theresearchinstrumentsand

thedataanalysisaredescribed.Theoccupationalstresslevels, jobsatisfaction,andloyaltyof

the employees are evaluated based on the case study of 2 hotels in Russia. Primary data is

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collectedusingquestionnairesandcorrelationsareanalysedwiththehelpofStatisticalPack-

agefortheSocialSciences(SPSS).Thentheresultsoftheresearchandthediscussionarepre-

sented.Finally,theconclusionispresentedincludingimplicationsandpotentialforthefuture

research.

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2 LITERATUREREVIEW

Thischapterincludestheliteraturereviewoftherelevanttopics.First,thetheoryofstressis

discussed,andthenthespecialaspectsofoccupationalstressingeneralandinhospitalityin-

dustry are covered. Further, literature on job satisfaction and employee loyalty is reviewed.

Finally,theoverviewofthedifferencesbetweenchainandindependenthotelsispresented.

2.1 Stress

Stress is quite a difficult term todefinedue to its subjectivity and complexity. The fact that

stresshasbeenatopicof interestforresearchersfromfourfairlydifferentdisciplines(medi-

cine,sociology,management,andpsychology)andthattheyproposedtheirownconceptsand

methodology, makes the topic evenmore complex andmultifaceted (Cummings & Cooper,

1998, cited by Fevre et al., 2003). Term “stress” itselfwas first introduced byHans Selye, a

Hungarianendocrinologist,who is also knownas the “fatherof stress” (Fink, 2009). Being a

medical student,hehasnoted thatpatientswithdifferent illnesseshadsomecommonnon-

specificsymptomsatthebeginningoftheir illness.Thisobservationhasledtohisfurtherre-

searchof thebodyreactiontothestressfulstimulianddevelopmentof theGeneralAdapta-

tionSyndrome(GAS)concept(Fink,2009).Selyehasintroducedtheterm“stress”andhasgiv-

enthefirstandmostgenericdefinition:“Stressisthenonspecificresponseofthebodytoany

demand”(Selye,1976b).InhisGAStheory,Selyehasidentifiedthreestages:alarm,resistance,

andexhaustion.Atfirststage,alarm,thebodyisrespondingtothestressorswiththefirstsigns

of changesand thedefenceprocessesareactivated (Ivancevich&Matteson,1980). Later, if

thestressorisnotdisappearingandadaptationisdeveloped,theresistancephaseisachieved.

Longerstresscanresultinthethirdstage,exhaustion,andevenleadtothedeath(Fink,2009).

Thisprocessiscyclical;therefore,ifnewdemandsareputonthebodyagain,thealarmstage

will reoccur. The consequences for the individuals can be sicknesses, fatigues, or decreased

performanceatwork(Ivancevic&Matteson,1980).

While initial research about stress has been done into themedical field, later on stress has

beendefinedfromthedifferentpointsofview.Thus,behaviouralsciencesseestressas“per-

ception of threat, with resulting anxiety discomfort, emotional tension, and difficulty in ad-

justment”(Selye,1976a).Anbazhaganetal.(2013)mentionamoredetaileddefinitionbyTo-

biasSchafer: “Stress isanadaptive response,moderatedby individualdifferences thatarea

consequenceofanyaction,situationoreventthatplacesspecialdemandsonaperson,which

perceivesanimbalancebetweenthelevelofdemandplaceduponthemandtheircapabilityto

meetthosedemands”.Inthiscase,stresscanresultinthepsychological,physiological,orbe-

haviouralresponseofanindividual,whicheventuallycanresultintheillhealth(Palmer,1989).

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Several authorsemphasize that stress shouldbedefinedas aperceptualphenomenon (Cox,

1978), meaning that stress appears from the perception of individuals as that they cannot

handle thedemandsbeingmadeon them (Lazarus, 1966). Lazarus (1991) conducted an im-

portantresearchontherelationshipbetweenstressandemotions,alsodescribingthecoping

processes. The researcher has created a “Cognitive-Motivational-Relational Theory of Emo-

tion”,wherehehighlyemphasizedthatstressaswellasemotionsarenotcausedbyexternal

factors,butratherbyperson-environmentrelationships,whichcandifferovertimeordueto

circumstances.Therefore,discrepanciescanbefoundbetweentheone’sreactiontothesitua-

tionandtheobjectiverealityofit(Lazarus,1991).

Another important theory in the history of stress-related research is the “Theory of stress,

appraisal,andcoping”, introducedbyLazarusandFolkman(1984). Itstatesthatstressarises

fromtheappraisalofcertainenvironmentaldemandstoattackindividualresourcesandthere-

fore threaten thewell-being (Holroyd& Lazarus, 1982, cited by Dewe et al., 2012). Lazarus

distinguishesbetweentwotypesofappraisal:primaryandsecondary.Primaryappraisalrepre-

sentstheperson’sevaluationofthesituationorencounteranditspersonalmeaning,whereas

secondaryappraisalfocusesonthemeasuresthatcanbetakentodealwiththesituationand

thepersonalresourcesneededforthat(Deweetal.,2012).Thisiswhentheprocessofcoping

with the stress starts, that is, efforts made by an individual to manage the stress. The re-

searchershavedifferentiatedtwocopingapproaches:emotion-focusedandproblem-focused

coping. Emotion-focused coping is focused on dealing with unpleasant emotions caused by

stress,whileproblem-focusedcopingisdealingwiththeproblemsolving(Lazarus&Folkman,

1984).

Generally,stresscanhavesomesignificanteffectsonthe individual’sphysical,psychological,

anemotionalhealth.Stresscanweakentheimmunesystem,whichcanleadtoincreasedrisks

ofcontractingillnessesandinfections,causecardiovascular(e.g.highbloodpressureandheart

diseases),musculoskeletal (e.g.headachesandbackpain), andgastrointestinal systemprob-

lems(e.g.diarrhea)(Luthans,2011).Consequencesofstressonmentalhealthareoftendisre-

garded,yetstill itcantriggeranger,anxiety,depression,nervousness, tension,andboredom

(Luthans,2011).

2.1.1 Classificationsofstress

Sincethetermstressisnotaneasyonetodescribeandthereisnoonecertaindefinitionofit,

it isnowonder that several classificationsof the stresshavebeenproposedbydifferent re-

search.Levi(1971,citedbySzaboetal.,2012)wasthefirstonetoidentifythedifferencebe-

tween“positive”and“negative”stress.Later,Selye (1974) introducedtheappropriateterms

forthesekindsofstress:“eustress”forapositivestress,and“distress”foranegativeone.Se-

lyealsonoticedthatpeoplearequalifyingthestressortobedistressoreustress individually.

Thisdecisionisdependentnotonlyonanactualamountofdemandperceivedbytheindividu-

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al,butalsoonothercharacteristics,suchasthetiming,theperceptionofthedesirabilityofthe

demand, if it isbeneficial,whetherthedemand isself-imposedor imposedexternally,and if

imposedexternally,whereexactly itcamefrom(afriend,amanager,apolice,etc.) (Fevreet

al.,2003). Selye (1974, citedbySzabo,2012)hasunderlined inhisworks, that “stress isnot

whathappenstoyou,buthowyoureacttoit”.However,somecommonexamplesofdistress

andeustresscanbefoundintherelevantliterature.Thus,typicaltypesofdistressare:divorce,

punishment,injury,negativefeelings,financialproblems,workdifficulties(TheAmeriсanInsti-

tuteofStress,2016a),deathofafamilymember,conflict ininterpersonalrelationships, legal

problems, etc. (Mills et al., 2008). Eustress can be caused bymarriage, promotion, winning

money, establishing new relationships and making new friends, graduation (The Ameriсan

InstituteofStress,2016a),havingachild,takingavacation,retiring,learninganewhobby,etc.

(Millsetal.,2008).Eustresscanhavesuchpositive impactsas increasedmotivation, focused

energy,feelingofexcitement,orimprovedperformance.Distress,however,canleadtoanxie-

ty,decreasedperformance,mentalorphysicalproblems(Millsetal.,2008).

Lazarus (1966) has specified three kinds of stress: harm, threat, and challenge. Harm is the

psychologicaldamagethathasalreadyoccurredandcannotbechange;threatistheanticipa-

tion of harm that has not happened yet, but might already be unavoidable; and challenge

comes from the difficult demands that one feels confident to meet by mobilizing own re-

sources (Lazarus, 1993). These typesof stress are causedbydifferentpreceding events, not

only in an environment, but alsowithin the person, and can lead to various consequences.

Thus,stateofthreatcancauseseriousproblemswithmentaloperationsandweakenfunction-

ing,whereaschallengecanhaveverypositiveeffects,suchas improvedperformanceand in-

creasedmotivation(Lazarus,1993).

Dr.Albrechtdefinedfourcommontypesofemotionallyinducedstress.Theseare:timestress,

anticipatory stress, situational stress, and encounter stress (Albrecht, 1979). Time stress is

anxiousresponsetotheconceptoftime,forinstanceastrongfeelingoftheneedtodosome-

thing within a certain time period. People experiencing time stress can feel “desperate,

trapped, miserable, and often rather helpless” (Albrecht, 1979, p.89). Anticipatory kind of

stress, also sometimes generally referred to as a “worry” or fear of the future, is a state of

anxiety about some independent occasionwith little or no reason underlining. This type of

stressisexperiencedbyalmosteveryoneatleastoncetoacertainextentandcanbeexplained

asacommonworrythatsomethingwillgowrong(Albrecht,1979).Situationalstressisastate

ofanxietydue toa situation inwhichone feels threatened,has littleornocontrolover the

situationand isafraidto“loseface” intheeyesoftheothersortobephysically injured.En-

counterstressisafearofhavingtodealwithapersonorgroupofpeoplewhoonedoesnot

likeorwouldnotbewillingtodealwithatthecertainmoment.Encounterstresscanalsobea

resultofgettingtiredofinteractingwithtoomanypeople(Albrecht,1979).

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Otherwell-known typesof stressareacute,episodicacute, andchronic stress.Acute stress,

alsoknownas‘fightorflight’response, isthemostcommonkindofstressthateveryperson

experiencesmanytimesthroughoutlife.Usually,acutestressiscausedbycertaineventsinthe

recentpastorbytheanticipationofsomethinginthenearestfuture(AmericanPsychological

Association,2016b).Acutestresstendstobeshort-term,andaftertheresponsetoitisover,it

takes about 90minutes for themetabolism to get normal again (The Ameriсan Institute of

Stress,2016a).Thecommonsymptomsofacutestressare:emotionaldistress,muscularprob-

lems, stomach,gutandbowelproblems,aswell as increasedbloodpressure, sweatypalms,

dizziness, cold hands or feet, shortness of breath, etc. (American Psychological Association,

2016b).Acutestressassuchisnotdangerousandcanbesuccessfullytreatedandmanaged.

Episodicacutestressisamoreserioustypeofstress,whichoccurswhenapersonisexperienc-

ing acute stressmore frequently and does not get adequate relief. In contrast to the acute

stress,whichisrathershort-term,episodicacutestressisusuallyhappeningonthedailybasis.

Thiskindofstressischaracterizedwiththesymptomsofextensivearousal,suchaspermanent

headaches,migraines,hypertensions,andheartdiseases(AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,

2016b).

Chronicstressisthemostharmfulanddangeroustypeofstress.Itariseswhenoneisfeeling

trapped in a certain stressful situation and does not see any possible solution. This type of

stresscanbearesultofaPostTraumaticStressDisorderorchildhoodexperience,butalsoit

cancomefromtheuntreatedanduncontrolledeverydaystress(PortoleseDias,2012).Chronic

stressislong-termandthefactthatpeoplecangetusedtoitmakesthediagnosticevenmore

difficult (American Psychological Association, 2016b). Chronic stress can have such serious

physicalandpsychological consequencesasanxiety, insomnia,musclepain,highbloodpres-

sure,weakenedimmunesystem,etc.(AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,2016c).Apartfrom

beingaprimarycauseforsuchproblems,chronicstresscanstronglycontributetothedevel-

opmentofotherhealthproblems:heartdiseases,depression,orobesity(AmericanPsycholog-

icalAssociation,2016c).

Inorder todescribehowperformance isaffected throughout thedifferent stress stages,Dr.

Nixonhasdevelopeda‘HumanFunctionCurve’(seeFigure1).Asitcanbeseen,atthedrone

zonethereisnotenoughpositivestresstohaveanimpressiveperformance,thusonecanfeel

boredandnotmotivated.Duringprimarystagesofarousal,namelyhealthytension,theper-

formance is increasingtogetherwiththeamountofstress. In theC’Zonetheperformance is

reachingoneofthehighestlevelsduetoeustress(PortoleseDias,2012).Healthytensionrep-

resents the perfect state for not only top performance, but also for the sustainable success

andpersonalwellbeing(Holden,2008,p.295).Atthisstageonefeelsmentallyandphysically

healthy,motivatedandbalanced(Holden,2008).However,oncethepeakispassed,andstress

isgettingchronic,oneisenteringthefatiguezone(PortoleseDias,2012).Atthisstagenotonly

doestheperformancedecrease,butalsothedangerofnegativeconsequencesincreases.Itis

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importanttorecognizethesignsofchronicstressearlyenoughinordertominimizetheharm-

fuleffects(Holden,2008).Ifthisisnotdoneproperly,thezoneofexhaustionisentered,which

can lead to serious consequences, such as ill health or burnout, anddramatically decreased

performance.

FIGURE1THEHUMANFUNCTIONCURVE(PORTOLESEDIAS,2012)

Whentalkingabouttheclassificationofstress,itisimportanttoalwaysrememberthatithigh-

lydependsonapersonalityandtheperceptioncandramaticallydifferfrompersontoperson.

Forinstance,thesameeventcanbeconsideredbyonepersonasapositiveone,andtherefore

resultineustress,andforanotheroneitmightresultinacutestresswithnegativefeelingsand

consequences.However,therearesomecommoncharacteristicsofstressintermsofreaction

andconsequences.Someof those,mostly fromphysicalandpsychologicalperspective,were

discussed before in this section. However, as one can see from above, there are also other

important aspects that can be strongly affected, such as individual and group performance,

decision-makingprocesses,orperception(Kavanagh,2005).

2.1.2 Stressors

Theterm“stressor”itselfwasintroducedbySelye(1956)todefine“theexternalforceorinflu-

enceactingontheindividual”(citedbyFevreetal.,2003).However,eventhoughthisisamost

commonterminology,certainresearchershavebeenusingdifferentdefinitions.Forinstance,

someauthors,likeEdwards(1998),wereusingtheterm“stress”todefinetheseexternalforc-

es,and“strain”fortheresultingaction(Fevreetal.,2003).

So,generallyspeaking,stressorsarethesourcesofstressthatcanbebothinternalandexter-

nal.Similarlywiththestressitself,therearevariousclassificationsofstressorsofferedbydif-

ferent researchers. They can differ in terms of their origin, clarity, duration, choice, level of

inducedstressandifthestressorarisesaloneortogetherwiththeotherones(Weber,2011).

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One of the common classifications offers a logical division of stressors into four categories:

environmental,organizational,group,andindividualstressors(Anbazhaganetal.,2013).

Environmentalstressorsincludeseveralsocialandtechnicalinfluencingfactors,suchas“tech-

nological change, family demands and obligations, economic and financial conditions, race,

caste,class,ethnicidentity,relocationandtransfers”(Anbazhaganetal.,2013).Moregeneral-

ly,environmentalstressorshavebeendivided into4categories:cataclysmicevents, stressful

lifeevents,dailyhassles,andambientstressors.Cataclysmiceventsincludetheonesthatare

usuallyaffectingthewholecommunity,suchascatastrophes,naturalandtechnologicaldisas-

ters,andwars,butalsoimprisonment(Evans&Cohen,1987).Stressfullifeeventsareusually

the significantones that require somekindof personal or social adaptation, such as, for in-

stance,marital status, social or economic condition changes.Whereas daily hassles are the

situations that everyone is experiencing on a daily-basis and that are usually causing short-

termstress.Thesedailyhassles includeproblemsatworkor in the family,orenvironmental

conditions,suchasnoise,crowding,orweather.‘Ambientstressors’isthetermdevelopedby

Campbell (1983) todescribe the stressors that areoften representedasbackgroundperma-

nentconditionsthathavenegativeimpactsandcanbephysicallyperceptibleandhardlyman-

ageable.Oneof theexamplesofambientstressorswouldbe living inanareawithheavyair

pollution(Evans&Cohen,1987).

Organizational stressors are emerging from within the organization, for instance policies,

strategies, structureanddesign,processesorganizationandworkingconditions (Anbazhagan

etal.,2013).CooperandMarshall(1976)haveintroducedfivemaincategoriesofworkstress-

ors: ones intrinsic to the job, role in the organization, career development, relationship at

work, and organizational structure and climate.Organizational stressorswill be discussed in

moredetailsfurtherinthispaper.

Groupstressorsaretheonesthatoccurwithintheformalandinformalgroups,towhichone

belongs. Examples of such stressors are: lack of group cohesiveness, lack of social support,

interpersonal and inter group conflict. Individual stressors are considered to be the internal

ones, for instance, role conflict and ambiguity, personality traits, life and career changes

(Anbazhaganetal.,2013).

AnotherwidespreadclassificationofstressorsintroducedbyHill(1949,citedbyWeber,2011)

distinguishesbetweeninternalandexternalstressors,basedontheirorigin.Internalstressors

originatewithinapersonandrepresentstress-inducingthoughtsorbehaviour,personalper-

ceptions, and expectations. Common internal stressors are pessimism, putting pressure on

oneself to be perfect, negative self-talk, perfectionism, unrealistic expectations, and lack of

assertiveness(Greene,2013).Externalstressorsareallthatarenotself-induced,theyarecom-

ingfromoutside.Onecanarguethatforsomepeoplecopingwithexternalstressors ismore

challengingastheyareusuallyoutofindividual’scontrol(Weber,2011).Theexamplesofex-

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ternalstressorsaremajorlifechanges,work,financialproblems,relationshipandfamilyissues

(Greene,2013).

Asitwasalreadydiscussedabove,sometypesofstress(eustress)canhavepositiveeffectson

individuals,whilstothermighthavenegativeconsequences(distress).Thesimilarclassification

was used in the research about stressors behind positive and negative stress, which were

named challenge and hindrance stressors accordingly. Thus, hindrance stressors are the de-

mandsthatareperceivedbyanindividualasobstructivetheprogresstowardpersonalaccom-

plishments or goal attainment (Colquitt et al., 2010), whilst challenge stressors are the de-

mandsperceivedasopportunities fordevelopment, improvingknowledge,andgoalachieve-

ments (Colquitt et al., 2010). Many studies have been conducted with the focus on work-

relatedhindranceandchallengestressors(Cavanaughetal.,2000;Bingham,Boswell,&Bou-

dreau,2005).Cavanaughetal. (2000), for instance,havefoundthathindrance-relatedstress

hadnegativecorrelationwith jobsatisfactionandpositiveonewith jobsearchandturnover,

whereas challenge-related stress showed positive effects on managers’ motivation and job

satisfaction.

Patterson (1988) has studied the stress experienced by the families and therefore classified

stressorsbehinditbasedontheirorigin:individual,family,andcommunitystressors.Individu-

alstressorsinthiscaseare,forexample,illnessorlossofjob;familystressorsincludedivorce,

sexualabuse,havingachild;andcommunitystressorsareexternalones,likenaturaldisasters,

taxes,bankfailures,etc.(Weber,2011).

AnotherstressorclassificationwithinthefamilystressframeworkofferedbyBoss(1988,cited

byWeber, 2011)differentiates volitional andnonvolitional stressors. The volitional stressors

are the ones coming from voluntary induced events, such as wanted pregnancy, career

change, or start of education (Weber, 2011). Nonvolitional stressors are ones “that are not

soughtoutbutjusthappen,suchasbeinglaidofforthesuddenlossofsomeoneloved”(Boss,

1988,p.40).Apparentlycopingwithnonvolitionalstressorsismoredifficultthanwithvolition-

alduetolackofcontrolandsuddennessoftheincident(Weber,2011).

As it can be seen, there is thewhole variety of classifications of stressors based on diverse

criteria.Manyof thestressor types intersect,whichmakesdistinctiveandclearclassification

notpossible.However,understandingthenatureofstressors,andconsequentlyofstressori-

gins,canhelpnotonlymanagingtheexistingstressbetter,butalsoavoidingstressinthefu-

ture.

2.2 OccupationalStress

Occupationalstressasawidespreadphenomenonnowadayshasbeeninvestigatedandcate-

gorized by several authors. Several research are proving that stress at work is the leading

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sourceofstressamongAmericanadultsandthatithasdramaticallyincreasedduringthelast

decades(TheAmericanInstituteofStress,2016b).AsurveyconductedinCanadareportsthat

38.8%ofCanadiansbetweentheagesof15and75areexperiencingslightstressatwork,25%

are relatively stressed, and 5.4% of respondents are extremely stressed (Statistics Canada,

2002–updatedinSeptember2004,citedbyBrun&Lamarche,2006).Therisinginterestinthis

topiccanbeexplainedbysomeverysignificantconsequencesassociatedwiththeoccupation-

alstressforbothemployeesandemployers(Watkins,2003;Brun&Lamarche,2006).Inorder

tobeabletoanalyseallaspectoftheoccupationstress,itisfirstnecessarytounderstandthe

natureandthefoundationsoftheoccupationalstress.

Justaswiththegeneralstresstermdiscussedabove,thereisnoparticular,agreedupondefini-

tionoftheoccupationalstress,whichisalsosometimescalledjoborworkstress.Ross(1997,

p.42)statesthatoccupationalstressis“theformofphysiologicalandemotionalarousal”expe-

riencedbytheemployeewhenexposedtothethreateningsituationoraconflictwithanother

staffmemberor a client. According to the Leka et al. (2004), “work-related stress is the re-

sponse people may have when presented with work demands and pressures that are not

matchedto theirknowledgeandabilitiesandwhichchallenge theirability tocope”. It is im-

portanttounderstand,thatpressureatworkby itselfcannotbetotallyavoided inamodern

businessworldandisnotnecessarilydestructive.Onthecontrary,whenaworkerisexperienc-

inganadequateandmanageableamountofpressure,heorshemightfeelalertandinspired

todothejobandtolearn.Nevertheless,theperceptionofanacceptableamountofpressure

isveryindividualandoncethelimitisexceededtheconsequencesonemployee’shealthand

performance can be dramatic (WHO, 2016). According to several research papers, themost

stressfultypesofworkaretheoneswheredemandsandpressurestowardstheemployeesare

notmatchingtheirabilitiesandknowledge,whereworkersdonotgetanopportunitytomake

choicesortohaveanycontrol,andwheresupportfromothersislacking(Lekaetal.,2004).

At first,mostof theresearchonoccupationalstressand itsnaturewere focusedwithinpsy-

chologicalandmedicalfield,thus,puttingemphasisontheindividualbehaviours,personality

qualitiesandcopingmechanisms initiatedandmanagedby the individuals themselves (Lo&

Lamm, 2005). However, more recent studies have acknowledged the need to have amore

multifaceted view on the problem and to include the important environmental factors con-

tributing to the stress. Thus, such factors as employment (e.g. salaries, company rules and

policies,workingconditions),androlesplayedbyotherparties(e.g.employers,tradeunions,

orgovernmentagents)were recognized tobe significant inunderstanding thenatureof the

work-related stress (Lo& Lamm,2005). Furthermore,manyother aspectswere acceptedas

beinginfluentialonstresslevels:forinstance,poorworkorganization,poorworkdesign,poor

management,unsatisfactoryworkingconditions,andlackofsupportfromcolleaguesandsu-

pervisors(Lekaetal.,2004).

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Cooper,DeweandO’Driscoll(2001)havearguedthatoccupationalstresssourcescanbedivid-

edintothreegroups:job-specific,organizationalandindividualsources.Firsttwosourcesare

consideredtobeexternalorenvironmental.Theinvestigationoftheseenvironmentalsources

wasofagreatinterestformanyresearchers.Thus,CooperandMarshall(1976)intheirOccu-

pationalStressModelhavedistinguishedfivesourcesofworkstress:intrinsictojob,roleinthe

organization, career development, relationships at work, and organizational structure and

climate.Table1givesanoverviewofthesesourceswithsomeexamplesofpossiblestressors.

Environmentalsources Stressors

IntrinsictoJob Poorphysicalworkingconditions

Workoverload

Timepressures

Physicaldanger,etc.

RoleinOrganization Roleambiguity

Roleconflict

Responsibilityforpeople

Conflicts areorganizational boundaries (internal&exter-

nal),etc.

CareerDevelopment Overpromotion

Underpromotion

Lackofjobsecurity

Thwartedambition,etc.

RelationshipsatWork Poorrelationswithboss,subordinates,orcolleagues

Difficultiesindelegatingresponsibility,etc.

Organizational Structure and Cli-

mate

Littleornoparticipationindecision-making

Restrictionsonbehavior(budgets,etc.)

Officepolitics

Lackofeffectiveconsultation,etc.

TABLE1SOURCESOFSTRESSATWORK(COOPER&MARSHALL,1976)

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CartwrightandCooper (1997) furtherdevelopedtheabove-mentionedmodelandaddedan-

otherenvironmentalfactor,namelythehome-workinterface.Ithasbeenacknowledgedthat

workandfamilylifeareinterconnectedandcanhavehighimpactoneachother(Huangetal.,

2004, citedbyZhaoet al., 2011).According toGreenhausandBeutell (1985,p. 77, citedby

Zhaoetal.,2011)work-familyconflict is“a formof inter-roleconflict inwhichtherolepres-

suresfromtheworkandfamilydomainsaremutuallyincompatibleinsomerespect”.Lateron,

thisaspectalsobecameoneofthepointsofinterestformanyresearchersinvestigatingoccu-

pationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andotherwork-relatedissues(Chiangetal.,2010;Zhaoetal.,

2011).

IvancevichandMatteson(1980)haveofferedtodifferentiatebetweenextraorganizationaland

intraorganizational jobstressors.Extraorganizaionalstressorsincludesuchfactorsasfinancial

stability, family,health, andother stressors thatappearoutside thework life. Intraorganiza-

tionalstressorscanbedividedintofourcategories:individual,group,organizational,andphys-

ical environment. Schuler (1982) distinguishes seven types of work stressors: job qualities,

relationships,organizationalstructure,physicalqualities,careerdevelopment,changeandrole

intheorganization.

Roleconflictandroleambiguityarethejobstressantecedentsthathavebeenusedbynumer-

ousresearcherstoanalyseandmeasuretheoccupationalstress(Rizwanetal.,2014;Sherazet

al.,2014;Rametal.,2011;Kimetal.,2009).Roleconflictdefinitionsvaryamongtheresearch-

ers.Kahnetal.(1964)havestatedthatroleconflictoccurswhenworkersarerequiredtohave

twoormorecontradictorybehaviours.Theauthorsaredistinguishing five typesof role con-

flict: intersender conflict (whenexpectationsof twopeoplearenotmeetingeachother), in-

trasender conflict (mismatchbetween individual’sexpectationsand the role), inter-role con-

flict(whendemandsfromtwodifferentpositionsaremismatching),person-roleconflict(when

there is discrepancy between an individual and his/her role), and overload of roles (when

there is not enough time to practise two ormore roles that an individual has) (Kahn et al.,

1964).Generally,roleconflictisaresultofthemismatchbetweentheexpectationsofanindi-

vidualandtheactualperceptionoftherole.Roleconflicthasprovedtohavesomeunpleasant

consequencesontheemployeesandtheorganization,suchaspoorjobperformance,jobdis-

satisfaction, increased turnover (House&Rizzo,1972;Bhatti et al., 2010), andpsychological

stress(Bekkeretal.,2000).

Roleambiguityreferstothesituationwhenemployeeshavesomeuncertaintyabouthowthey

shouldbehaveandwhat is expectedof them (Kahnet al., 1964).House andRizzo (1972, p.

474)definedroleambiguityas“thelackofclarityandpredictabilityoftheoutcomesofone’s

behaviour”.Roleambiguityoccurswhenemployeesdonothaveastructuredandconsistent

jobdescription,whentherearenodirectionsonhowtomeetthejobrequirements,orwhen

theirperformanceassessmentisnotwell-defined(Sherazetal.,2014).Employeesexperienc-

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ing roleambiguityaremore likely toavoidmakingdecisions, to feelanxiousanddissatisfied

abouttheirwork(House&Rizzo,1972).

Hart andCooper (2001)haveofferedanorganizational health approach to theoccupational

stress,which is illustrated inFigure2.Theauthorsbelievethatboth individualandorganiza-

tional factorshavean influenceonemployee’swell-being that is, in turn,affectingorganiza-

tional performance. ‘Individual characteristics’ in this model represent personalities of the

employees,theircopingmechanisms,attitudesandbehaviors,while‘organizationalcharacter-

istics’ include both objective qualities of the organization (e.g. resources and structure) and

workers’ subjective perceptions of those (e.g. organizational climate andwork experiences)

(Hart&Cooper,2001).Oneofthestrengthsofthismodelisthatithasnotonlyacknowledged

theinteractionsbetweenindividualandorganizationalaspectsandtheirinfluenceonemploy-

ee’s well-being, but also included a solid link to organizational performance (Lo & Lamm,

2005).Moreover,themacro levelhasalsobeenincludedinthemodel,recognizingthe influ-

ence of external factors, such as government policies and legislation, interactions with the

customersandthepartners,anddemandsfromshareholders(Lo&Lamm,2005).

FIGURE2AHEURISTICMODELOFORGANIZATIONALHEALTH(HART&COOPER,2001)

Asalreadymentionedbefore,veryoftenoccupationalstressiscausedbythepoorworkdesign

andmanagementoftheorganization.Hazardsrelatedtoworkstresscanalsobedividedinto

twocategories:workcontentandcorkcontext(WHO,2016).Literatureonoccupationalstress

usuallydistinguishesninestress-relatedhazards,whicharepresentedintheTable1.However,

itisimportanttorememberthatsomehazardsarenotuniversalandsomeculturesmightnot

find themharmful (Lekaetal.,2004).As it canbeseen in theTable1,bothcategorieshave

many risk factors, which should be addressed for both preventing andmanaging thework-

stresslevelintheorganizations.

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Workcontent Workcontext

• Jobcontent

⇒ Monotonous,under-stimulating,meaningless

tasks

⇒ Lackofvariety

⇒ Unpleasanttasks

⇒ Aversivetasks

• Workloadandworkpace

⇒ Havingtoomuchortoolittletodo

⇒ Workingundertimepressures

• Workinghours

⇒ Strictorinflexibleworkingschedules

⇒ Longandunsocialhours

⇒ Unpredictableworkinghours

⇒ Badlydesignedshiftsystems

• Participationandcontrol

⇒ Lackofparticipationindecision-making

⇒ Lack of control (e.g. over work methods,

workpace,workinghours,andtheworken-

vironment

• Careerdevelopment,statusandpay

⇒ Jobinsecurity

⇒ Lackofpromotionprospects

⇒ Under-promotionorover-promotion

⇒ Workof“lowsocialvalue”

⇒ Pieceratepaymentschemes

⇒ Unclearorunfairperformanceevaluation

systems

⇒ Being over-skilled or under-skilled for a

job

• Roleintheorganization

⇒ Unclearrole

⇒ Conflictingroleswithinthesamejob

⇒ Responsibilityforpeople

⇒ Continuously dealing with other people

andtheirproblems

• Interpersonalrelations

⇒ Inadequate, inconsiderate or unsupport-

ivesupervision

⇒ Poorrelationshipswithco-workers

⇒ Bullying,harassmentandviolence

⇒ Isolatedorsolitarywork

⇒ No agreed procedures for dealing with

problemsorcomplaints

• Organizationalculture

⇒ Poorcommunication

⇒ Poorleadership

⇒ Lackofclarityaboutorganizationalobjec-

tivesandstructure

• Home-workinterface

⇒ Conflictingdemandsofworkandhome

⇒ Lackofsupport fordomesticproblemsat

work

⇒ Lack of support for work problems at

home

TABLE2STRESS-RELATEDHAZARDSATWORK(LEKAETAL.,2004)

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While organizational characteristics as well as environmental factors that can contribute to

employees’well-beingandstress levelshavebeenalready thoroughlydiscussedabove, indi-

vidualcharacteristics,toucheduponintheHartandCooper’smodel,areworthmentioningin

moredetails.Therearemany individualcharacteristicsthatcanhave influenceon jobstress,

butthisresearchwillgiveanoverviewonsomeofthem,namelyjobexperience,TypeAbehav-

iorpattern,andBigFivepersonalitycharacteristics.

Somestudieshaveestablishedthatthemoreexperiencetheindividualhas,thelessheorshe

isexposedtotheoccupationalstress.Thisrelationshipcanbeexplainedbyatleasttwotheo-

ries.First,theideaofselectivewithdrawal,thatstatesthatpeoplearemorelikelytovoluntary

leavethejobiftheyareexperiencingmorestress,which,inturniscausedbycertainpersonal

characteristics.Therefore,employeesthattendtostaywiththecompanyforlongertimeare

theoneswhoaremorestress-resistant(Motowidloetal.,1986).Theotherreasonisadapta-

tion. According to this concept, people tend to improve their coping mechanisms over the

time, thusmore experienced employeesmight becomemore stress-resistant (Motowildo et

al.,1986).

TypeAbehaviorisasyndrome,whichischaracterizedbyaggressiveness,competitiveness,and

impatience (Ivancevich&Matteson,1984).PeoplewithTypeAbehavior tendtobecontinu-

ouslyengaged inmanyactivities that implyovercomingobstacles ina shortamountof time

(Rose,1987).Thus,employeeswithsuchbehaviorareexpectedtobeinvolvedinmorestress-

fuleventsandperceivesomesituationsasmorestressful(Motowidloetal.,1986).

Even though the role of the Big Five personality characteristics in the occupational stress is

understudied,thistopic isstillofasubstantial interestfortheresearchersandthere issome

evidencethatsupportstheinterrelations.TheBigFivetheorydistinguishesbetweendifferent

personality characteristics, namely neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and

conscientiousness(Costa&McCrae1989,citedbyHart&Cooper,2001).Neuroticismrefersto

atendencyofapersontoconcentrateonnegativeaspectsofoneselfandtheenvironmentand

toexperiencenegativeemotions (Costa&McCrae1989,citedbyHart&Cooper,2001).This

typeofpersonalityhasbeenprovedtohaveoneofthestrongestrelationshipswiththestress

levels(Hart&Cooper,2001).Extraversiontypeofpersonalityreferstotheindividuals,whoare

tendingtobeactive,talkative,optimistic,affectionate,andperson-oriented(Costa&McCrae

1989,citedbyHart&Cooper,2001).Extraversionincludessuchaspectasgregariousness(the

extentofsocialinteractionofaperson),empathy(thelevelofinterpersonalwarmththatone

ispredisposedto),andpositiveaffectivity(theextentof individual’spositiveattitudeto life).

Scientific evidence shows that this personality trait is strongly linked with problem-focused

coping, positive life experiences, and psychological health (Hart& Cooper, 2001). The three

otherpersonalitytypes(openness,agreeableness,andconscientiousness)havenotyetyielded

anystrongscientificevidenceintermsofinterconnectionwiththeoccupationalstress,butone

can argue about potential relations. Thus, agreeableness refers to people, who tend to be

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compliant,helpful,andeasygoing(Costa&McCrae1989,citedbyHart&Cooper,2001).These

peoplemighthavebetterrelationshipswiththecolleaguesandsupervisorsduetotheircalm

and non-confrontational nature, and consequently lower levels of stress (Hart & Cooper,

2001).Opennesstypeofpersonalityrepresentspeoplewhoareopentonewideasandexperi-

ences (Costa&McCrae1989, citedbyHart&Cooper, 2001). This typeof personalitymight

havebothnegativeandpositivecorrelationswithoccupationalstress.Ontheonehand,these

peoplemightbehighlyengagedandmotivated,butontheotherhand,theycanbetoocrea-

tiveanddreamyforsomeorganizations,wherethisisnotencouraged(Hart&Cooper,2001).

Thelastbutnotleastpersonalitytype,conscientiousness,ischaracterizedbythetendencyto

bedevoted, respectful, and insistent (Costa&McCrae1989, citedbyHart&Cooper, 2001).

Theworkershaving thosepersonality traits canbeexpected tobemorepassionateanden-

gagedinthejob,whichinturnmayimprovetheirwell-beinganddecreasestresslevel(Hart&

Cooper,2001).

Apart from individualcharacteristicsandenvironmental factors, stress levelswereproved to

varyamongthedifferentdemographicgroups.Thus,womentendtosuffermorethanmennot

only from general stress (Almedia & Kessler, 1998; Rosch, 2014), but also from the work-

related stress (Michael et al., 2009). Research by Burke et al. (2008) reported that female

managersareexperiencingmorestressthanmaleonesduetothefamily-workconflict.Rosch

(2014) explains this phenomenon by hormonal differences (women’s hormone level is less

stablethanmen’s),orwomen’sgeneticpredispositionfordepression.Interestingly,thediffer-

ences in stresscanalsobeexplainedby the fact thatwomentend toconsultadoctormore

oftenthanmen,andthusaremore likelytobediagnosed(Rosch,2014).Possiblythis isalso

oneofthereasonswhyresearchdonebyO’NeillandDavis(2009;2011)inthehotelindustry

hasnotshownanysignificantdifferencesinoccupationalstressamongmenandwomen.

Some researchers haveproved thatmarital status influences stress levels of the individuals.

Thus, married employees tend to experience more stress than their unmarried colleagues

(Kessler,1979;Vanagas,2004).Parveen(2009)hasinvestigatedthedifferencesofoccupation-

alstressbetweenmarriedandunmarriedwomenandhassimilarlysupportedthenotionthat

marriedemployeeshaveexperiencedmore stress thanunmarriedones. These resultsmight

be explained bywork-family pressures, obligations, and increased home stressors (Parveen,

2009;O’Neill&Davis,2009).

Anotherpotentialfactorinfluencingthestresslevelsofindividualsishavingchildren.Asitwas

alreadymentionedbefore,havingachilditselfisconsideredtobeastressor.Thus,thereisno

surprisethatparentsaremoreexposedtothestressthannon-parents,especiallywhenthey

areemployed(Lamanna&Riedmann,2012;Hobart,2015).However,thestudybyO’Neilland

Davis(2009)hasnotfoundanysignificantdifferencesinstressexperiencedbytheemployees

whohadordidnothavechildren.

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Ageofindividualsisanotherfactorthatcaninfluencethelevelofstress.Researchonthestress

levelsamongAmericanshasshown,thatindividualsbetween18and47yearsoldreporthigh-

erstress levels thantheolderones (AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,2016a).Anotherre-

searchhasalsofoundthatyoungadults(25-35yearsold)andearlymiddleaged(36-45years

old)wereexperiencingmorestressduetosuchjobstressorsasroleoverload,roleambiguity,

andstrenuousworkingconditionscomparedtolatemiddleaged(46-60yearsold)employees

(Chandraiahetal.,2003).Theseresultsmight reflect thedifferences inperceptionofcertain

stressorsandthecopingmechanismsthatpeoplehaveatdifferentages.Thus,manystressors,

such as marriage, divorce, having children, or changes at work are more relevant for the

youngeradults,andtheeverydayhasslesthat influencethestress levelareperceivedas less

stressfulforolderpeople(Aldwinetal.,1996).

Lastbutnotleast,theleveloftheeducationoftheemployeescanalsoinfluencetheoccupa-

tionalstressexperiencedbythem.Thus,researchhasshownthatbettereducatedpeopletend

tobemoreexposedtostressatwork(Doughty,2013).Thereasonunderlyingthisphenome-

nonmight be that individuals with higher qualifications and abilities havemore demanding

jobs and facemore responsibilities (Doughty, 2013). However, the research among hospital

nurseshasshowncontradictingresults,indicatingthatnurseswithsecondaryschooleducation

werefeelingmorestressfulatworkthantheoneswithacollegedegree(Golubicetal.,2009).

Thestudyonstressamongpoliceemployeeshasfoundthattherelationshipbetweeneduca-

tionandoccupational stress is non-linear. The results indicated that the respondentswith a

high school diplomahad thehighest stress levels,whereas employeeswithmaster’s degree

sufferedfromstressleastofall.Butatthesametimeofficerswithbachelor’sdegreewereless

exposedtostresscomparedtocollegegraduates(Bartholome,2007).

2.2.1 EffectsofOccupationalStress

Stressatworkcanhaveimpactsonbothindividualsandtheorganization.Individualssuffering

fromworkstresscanhavevariousproblems,suchasinabilitytorelaxortoconcentrate,diffi-

cultieswith thinking logically andmakingdecisions, feelingdistressed and irritable.One can

also have troubles with sleeping, feeling tired, depressed, or anxious, or even have serious

physicalproblems,suchasheartdiseases,disordersofthedigestivesystem,increasesinblood

pressure,headaches,ormusculo-skeletaldisorders(Lekaetal.,2004).Inextremecases,when

stress is leftuntreatedand isnotmanagedproperly, theconsequencesmaybeasseriousas

psychiatricdisordersandpsychologicalproblems(Lekaetal.,2004).Whenworkersaresuffer-

ingfromstressandnotgettingenoughsupport,orsimplyarenotawareofthewaystoman-

agethestress,theymightalsogetengagedinunhealthyactivities,suchassmoking,consuming

alcoholortakingdrugs(Lekaetal.,2004).

Researchershavealsofoundthatstresscanbeoneofthemainfactorsinsuchaggressiveac-

tionsassabotage,interpersonalaggression,hostility,andcomplaints(Luthans,2011).Moreo-

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ver,theseactionsareprovedtobesignificantforpoorjobperformance,loweredself-esteem,

resentmentofsupervision,inabilitytoconcentrateandmakedecisions,andjobdissatisfaction

(Luthans,2011;O’Neill&Davis,2009).Alltheseconsequencesofstressarecostlyfortheem-

ployerand,therefore,ofcourse,unfavourable.

Othereffectsofoccupationalstressonthecompaniesaresometimesmoreapparent, for in-

stancethedamagedonetotheorganization’s imageboth internallyandexternally,andcon-

sequently,increasedcomplaintsfromcustomersandclients.Unsafeworkingenvironmentand

increasednumberofaccidentsatworkcanleadtodirectcostsfortheorganizationintermsof

insurance and legal claims (Luthans, 2011; Leka et al., 2004). Last but not least, stress can

heavily increasenotonlyemployees’absenteeism,butalsoboosttheturnoverrates(Lekaet

al.,2004;O’Neill&Davis,2009).

Accordingtoexistingliterature,therearefourwaysinwhichemployeescanreactonthework

stressandjobdissatisfaction:exit,voice,loyalty,andneglect(Farrell,1983,citedbyHonetal.,

2013).Workers canchose to leave theorganization (exit), theycanprefer to stayand tobe

activelyinvolvedinseekingforimprovementsandreducingthesourcesofstress(voice),some

mightdecidetostayinthecompanyandacceptthesituationasitiswithoutanyattemptsto

improve it (loyalty), or they can remain and passively demonstrate withdrawal behaviours

(neglect).AccordingtoFarrell(1983,citedbyHon,2013),theexitadvoicereactionsarecon-

structivefortheorganization,whileloyaltyandneglectaredestructiveones.

2.2.2 ManagingOccupationalStress

Managing stress atwork is important due to the various consequences thatwere discussed

above.Eventhoughmanyofthemaredealingwithindividuals,theyallmightresultinnegative

counter-productive consequences for the organization (e.g. job dissatisfaction, absenteeism,

increasedturnoverintention(Kimetal.,2009).CooperandPayne(1998,citedbyRoss,1997)

insistthatpreventativemeasurestakenbythemanagementoftheorganizationcanmaximize

theprofitmargins andensureemployees’productivity and satisfaction. Therefore,organiza-

tionsshouldbeconcernedaboutandengagedintheactionsandmeasurestonotonlyprevent

excessiveoccupationalstressamongtheemployees,butalsotobeabletoproperlymanageit

inordertominimizethenegativeeffects.

AccordingtotheWorldHealthOrganization(1986,citedbyLekaetal.,2004)healthisnotonly

theabsenceofdisease,butastateofcompletephysical,mentalandsocialwell-being.There-

fore,ahealthyworkingenvironmentdoesnotonlymeantheabsenceofharmfulconditions,

butalsoactivelypromotinghealthyones(Lekaetal.,2004).Thiscouldincludesuchactionsas

“continuousassessmentofriskstohealth,theprovisionofappropriateinformationandtrain-

ingonhealth issuesandtheavailabilityofhealthpromotingorganizationalsupportpractices

andstructures”(Lekaetal.,2004).

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Inordertominimizetheoccupationalstress,employeesshouldhavetheopportunitytocon-

trol theirwork, be engaged, and receive enough support from the colleagues and theman-

agement (WHO, 2016). Research conducted by Hon et al. (2013) states that feedback from

supervisorscanencourageemployees’creativityandthushelpthemtoperceivestressasra-

ther challenge-related andpositive. Ross (1997) has found that clear and autonomouswork

role, improved communication among the employees andwith themanagement, andmore

attentionfromthemanagementtotheneedsoftheworkersandtheirfamiliescancontribute

totheeffectivestressavoidanceorminimization.

2.2.3 OccupationalStressintheHospitalityIndustry

The occupational stress in “low risk industries” that are employing emotional and aesthetic

labour(Hannifetal.,2006)hasalreadybeendiscussedinseveralresearchpapers.Eventhough

hospitality industrybelongstothose“lesshazardous” industries, thereareseveral important

characteristicsthatmakehotelbusinessenvironmentratherstressfulfortheemployees.First

ofall,manyhotelworkershavetoconstantlybeinadirectcontactwithcustomers,providing

servicesinafriendly,positive,andempatheticway(Lo&Lamm,2005).Moreover,employees

inmanycustomer-oriented industriesareoftenmoreexposedto theworkstressdueto the

conflictingdemands from thecompany, the supervisors,and theclients (Ruyteretal.,2001,

citedbyO’Neill&Davis, 2009).Also theworking conditions inhospitality industry areoften

characterisedbylowwages, irregularworkinghours,highworkdemandsandintensiveinter-

actionswiththeclients(Lo&Lamm,2005).

Some authors argue that hotelwork environment is especially stressful due to the dichoto-

mous nature of the hotel industry, meaning that the emphasis put on fluctuating financial

profits and tightmargins are going alongwith the necessity to deliver quality service (Lo&

Lamm,2005).Variousstudieshavealsoprovedoccupationalstresstohavenegativeinfluence

onprovidingqualitycustomerserviceduetotheincreasedexhaustionoftheworkers(Varca,

1999;O’Neill&Davis,2009).

Studies about thework-related stress in hospitality industry have found the correlation be-

tween stress and the physiological symptoms the employees are facing, such as headaches,

fatigue,indigestion,ulcers,bloodpressure,heartattacks,andstrokes(Kroneetal.,1989).The-

seconsequencesmightdecreasetheefficiencyofemployeesandincreasehealthexpenditures

fortheemployer(O’Neill&Davis,2009).

O’NeillandDavis(2011)intheirresearchaimedtounderstandthenatureandquantityofhos-

pitality employee stress. The authors identified twomost common stressors – interpersonal

tensions andoverloads, and came to a conclusion thathotelmanagers are feeling themost

stressors.Theyalsostatedthatjobstressandhealthproblemshavepositivecorrelation.

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A studybyBrymeretal. (1991)has investigated theperceived stress levelof thehospitality

managersbyasking them toestimate their stress levelon the scale from1 (very low) to10

(very high). The average response was 7.55, which demonstrated a relatively high level of

stressamongthemanagers(Brymeretal.,1991).Hannifetal.(2006)intheirarticle“Occupa-

tional Stress In The Service Sector: ANewDimension” have studied how service sector em-

ployees perceive stress andmanage it. They came to a conclusion that although employees

perceivetheirstress levelas lowtomoderate,absenteeismandstaffturnoverratesarehigh

andincrease.Anbazhaganetal.(2013)intheirresearchpaperhaveusedOccupationalStress

Index in order tomeasure occupational stress of hotel employees in Puducherry. The study

showed that 93.33% of the employees are suffering from stress andmoderate level of job

stressisprevailingintheindustry.Karatepeetal.(2014)haveevidencedthatchallengestress-

orscanhavepositiveinfluenceonthejobsatisfactionandjoboutcomesinthehotelindustry

aswell.Theauthorscametoaconclusionthatchallengestressors leadtoworkengagement

thatinturnenhancesjobperformance(Karatepeetal.,2014).

2.3 Jobsatisfaction

Jobsatisfactionisoneoftheimportanttopicstostudywhenitcomestohumanresources.The

fact that inhotelbusinessemployeesareconstantly interactingdirectlywithcustomersonly

proveshowessentialitistoknowwhichfactorscaninfluencejobsatisfactionandwhatconse-

quencestheremightbe.

It isbelieved that theconceptof job satisfactionwas first introducedby Landsberger (1958,

citedbyKhuong&Tien,2013).Althoughhedidnotmention jobsatisfactionas such,Lands-

bergerintroducedthebasisforthisterm.HisHawthorneeffectindicatedthatemployeesare

workingnotonlybecausetheyarepaidforthat.Furtheron,theconceptwasthoroughlyinves-

tigatedandthejobsatisfactionideaemerged.Themostcommondefinitionofjobsatisfaction

wasofferedbyLocke(1969,p.317),whodefinedjobsatisfactionas“thepleasurableemotion-

alstateresultingfromtheappraisalofone’sjobasachievingorfacilitatingones’jobvalues”.

Manystudies identify jobsatisfactionas“anaffectiveoremotionalresponsetothecompari-

sonbetweenactualanddesiredjobcharacteristics”(Edwards&Shipp,2007,p.220).Another

definitionofferedbyBrief(1998,p.86)statesthatjobsatisfactionis“aninternalstatethatis

expressedbyaffectivelyand/orcognitivelyevaluatinganexperiencedjobwithsomedegreeof

favourordisfavour”.Thelatterdefinitiondenotesanimportantfactthatjobsatisfactioncon-

sistoftwocomponents:anaffectivereaction(i.e.,whethertheemployeelikesordislikesthe

job), and a cognitive appraisal (i.e., whether the job is valuable for the employee) (Locke,

1976). However, this dichotomous view on job satisfactionwas found rather confusing and

thus two solutionswereoffered.Onewaywouldbe todefine job satisfactionexclusivelyby

cognitive component, that is as “a positive (or negative) evaluative judgement one makes

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aboutone’sjoborjobsituation”(Weiss,2002,p.175).Theotheroptionwouldbetoconcen-

trateonaffectiveterms,andthustreatthecognitiveappraisalasaseparatefactor(Edwards&

Shipp,2007).

Theantecedentsof jobsatisfactioncanbedivided into twogroups: theones intrinsic to the

jobenvironmentandrelatedtothejobitself,andtheonesarisingfromtheindividual’scharac-

teristicsandtraits(Spector,1997,citedbyAl-Ababneh&Lockwood,2010).Armstrong(2003)

offered a more detailed classification and distinguished between extrinsic factors, intrinsic

factors, social relationshipsatwork, individual’scapabilities todothe job,andthequalityof

supervision.

Thefactorsinfluencingthejobsatisfactioncanbesummarizedalongthefollowingdimensions:

the work itself, pay, promotions, supervision, work group and working conditions (Luthans,

2011).Thus,theinterestingandchallengingcontentofwork,careerdevelopmentopportuni-

ties,andfamily-friendlyjobenvironmentcanpositivelyinfluencethejobsatisfaction.Fairand

competitivewagesandsalariesarehighlycontributingtothejobsatisfactionofanemployee,

alsobecausetheemployeesperceivepayasanindicatorofhowvaluabletheyarefortheor-

ganization(Luthans,2011).Promotionopportunitieshavequitediverseoutcomesintermsof

jobsatisfaction.Forinstance,employeespromotedonthebasisoftheirperformancearefeel-

ingmoresatisfiedthantheonespromotedonthebasisofseniority.Supervisionaffectsthejob

satisfactionintermsofpersonalinterestofsupervisorsintheemployee’slife,andtheoppor-

tunities for the employees to participate in the decisions that influence their jobs.Having a

strong,friendly,effective,andcooperativeteamatworkcanpositivelyinfluencethejobsatis-

factionoftheemployees.However,havinga“good”teamatworkisnotcrucialtobesatisfied.

Butthenegativeinfluenceofbadrelationshipsinthegrouphasmuchmoresignificanceforthe

lowerjobsatisfaction.Thesameprincipleappliestotheworkingconditions:iftheyaresuita-

ble,theeffectonsatisfactionisnotsignificant,buthavingpoorworkingconditionscanheavily

decreasejobsatisfaction(Luthans,2011).Researchhasfoundthatsuchindicatorsassalaries,

relationshipswithcolleaguesandsupervisors,andwork itselfarethemost importantfor job

satisfaction (Gallardoet al., 2010).HRmanagementpractices, jobdesign and characteristics

canalsoinfluencejobsatisfactionofemployees(Kusluvanetal.,2010).

Studyhasshownthathygienefactorsarethemostrelevantwhendefiningthejobsatisfaction

levels in the hospitality industry due to lower expectations of the employees in this sector

(Mullins,1998).Thesefactorsincludeworkingconditions,interpersonalrelations,supervision,

job security, benefits, companypolicies andmanagement, and salary (Herzberg et al., 1959,

citedbyAl-Ababneh&Lockwood,2010).Themotivationalfactorsfromthetheoryintroduced

by Herzberg et al. (1959, cited by Al-Ababneh & Lockwood, 2010), namely recognition, ad-

vancement,achievement,autonomy,workitselfandresponsibility,werefoundtohavesignifi-

cantly less impact on job satisfaction in tourism industry. Accordingly, several studies have

already evidenced that, for instance, sales managers facing high job demands, work-family

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conflict,andhavinglowjobcontroltendtohavelowerjobandlifesatisfaction(Chiangetal.,

2010;Zhaoetal.,2011).

Clearly,jobsatisfactionisanimportantaspectinthelivesofemployeesandenhancingitcan

bringbenefitsforthecompanyaswell.Forinstance,jobsatisfactioncanmoderatelyincrease

job performance. Of course, job satisfaction alonewill notmake the employees stay in the

company and remain loyal, but it candefinitely help to avoid extremelyhigh turnover rates

anddecreaseabsenteeism.Moreover,increasingjobsatisfactionoftheemployeescanreduce

occupationalstress(Luthans,2011).Thus,employersshouldratherbeinterestedinhowthey

can improve job satisfaction among their employees. For instance, having fair salaries and

wages, benefits, and offering promotion opportunities have proved to be important factors

enhancingjobsatisfaction(Luthans,2011).AccordingtoLametal.(2001),oneofthewaysto

increase job satisfaction among employees canbe organizing trainingworkshops anddevel-

opment plans, especially for new employees. Making jobs more fun can also decrease the

chancesthatemployeesfeeldissatisfiedwiththeirjob(Luthans,2011).

Differencesinjobsatisfactionaccordingtoseveraldemographiccharacteristicswereofinter-

est forseveralresearchers.For instance,studiesonthedifferencesduetothegenderofthe

respondents have yielded controversial results. Thus,many researchers have not found the

differencestobesignificantbetweenmenandwomen(Burkeetal.,2008;Civilidag&Sargin,

2013;Civilidag,2014).However,therewassomeevidencethatwomenreportedoverallhigher

jobsatisfactionthanmen(Al-Ababneh&Lockwood,2010).

SanerandEyüpoğlu(2013)intheirresearchonjobsatisfactionamongacademicshavefound

thatmarriedrespondentsindicatehighersatisfactionthanunmarriedones.However,Azimet

al.(2013)havenotfoundanysignificantdifferencesinjobsatisfactionduetothemaritalsta-

tus.

Ageprovedtohavesignificantinfluenceonthejobsatisfactioninsomeresearchpapers.Thus,

middle-aged employees (36-45 years old) reported more job satisfaction than the younger

adults (Chandraiah et al., 2003; Al-Ababneh& Lockwood, 2010). The lowest job satisfaction

levelswerereportedbytheemployeesunder25yearsold(Al-Ababneh&Lockwood,2010).

Intermsofeducation,aresearchbyAl-AbabnehandLockwood(2010)hasfoundthatemploy-

ees holding a degree are significantlymore satisfiedwith their job then the oneswithout a

degree.However,therehavebeenresearchers,whofoundeducationtoeitherhavenegative

influenceon the job satisfaction (Rogers, 1991, citedbyBilgic, 1998), orno significant influ-

enceatall(Bilgic,1998).

Studiesoneffectsofparenthoodonjobsatisfactionofemployeesdidnotcometoacommon

conclusion.Someresearchershavefoundthathavingchildrendoesnotaffectjobsatisfaction

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(Forgionne&Peeters,1982,citedbyBilgic,1998),whileothershaveconcludedthatnumberof

childrennegativelyinfluencesjobsatisfaction(Bilgic,1998).

Ithasalreadybeenmentionedbefore,that jobsatisfactioncanbe influencedbytheoccupa-

tionalstress.Theinterrelationsbetweenthesetwoimportantaspectsofworkhavebeenofa

great interestofmanyscientists.Thus, ithasbeen found that stressatworkhas strongand

negative correlation with job satisfaction in different industries (Richardson & Burke, 1991;

Cavanaughetal.,2000;Rizwanetal.,2014;Xiangetal.,2014).Researchconductedinthehos-

pitality sectorhas foundsuchstressorsas interpersonal tensionsand roleambiguity tohave

significantnegativecorrelationwithjobsatisfaction(Yang,2010).

2.4 Employeeloyalty

Employeeloyaltycanbedefinedasa“psychologicalattachmentorcommitmenttotheorgani-

zation” (Wan, 2012, p. 2). It arises form the increased job satisfaction and further develops

intothesenseofcommitmentandemotionalattitudetowardsthecompany.Aloyalemployee

ismorelikelytoworkefficientlytowardstheorganizationalgoalsanddemonstrateproductivi-

tyandcustomerorientation(Wan,2012).

However,themoderndefinitionofemployeeloyaltyisrathercomplexandhassteppedaway

from the traditional understating of loyalty as a “lifetime relationshipwith a particular em-

ployer”(Wan,2012,p.3).Nowadays,a longertenurewithanemployerdoesnotnecessarily

meanemployee loyalty.For instance,manyemployeesclaimthattheyarestayingatcurrent

jobbecausetheyfeelobligedtostay(34%),theybelieveitwouldbedifficulttoleave(41%),or

becausetheyareafraidofnotbeingabletofindanotherjob(27%)(Wan,2012).Thenumbers

indicatethatasignificantnumberofemployeesarestayingwiththeircurrentemployerrather

outofnecessitythanloyalty.

Thelatestinvestigationsonemployeeloyaltyaroundtheworldshowcontradictingresultson

thelevelsofemployeeloyalty.Ontheonehand,theinternationalsurveyonemployeeloyalty

conductedbyManpowerGroup(2002)confirmsthattheemployee loyalty isgrowingallover

theworld, although it varies across geographical locations and demographic groups. For in-

stance, the highest loyalty levelswere observed inMexico, theNetherlands and theUnited

States,whereasthelowestloyaltylevelswerereportedinJapanandItaly. Intermsofdemo-

graphiccharacteristics, ithasbeenfoundthatwomen(76%)aremoreloyaltowardtheirem-

ployer thanmen (68%) (ManpowerGroup,2002).On theotherhand, researchconductedby

NextGenerationConsulting, Inc. (2002,citedbyWan,2012)suggeststhat jobrotationshave

alreadybecomeanormandbytheageof32employeeshavehadontheaverageninejobs.

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ThereportofWalkerEmployeeRelationsBenchmark1999(Wan,2012)hasidentifiedthat33%

of employees arenot committed to the companyandareplanning to leavewithin thenext

twoyears.Themainreasonsfordecreasedloyaltyandintentionstoleavetheorganizationare

“lackofmeaning,lackofefficacy,lackofvalues,lackofpersonalgrowthandlackofcommuni-

ty”(Wan,2012,p.4).

Employeeloyaltyisanimportantfactorfortheorganizations,especiallyintheserviceindustry.

Therehasbeenscientificevidencethatemployeeloyaltypositivelyinfluencescustomerloyal-

ty,whichinturnincreasesrevenuesforthecompany(Ruccietal.,1998,citedbyWan,2012).

The service-profit chain concept, developed byHeskett et al. (1994), found the relationship

betweensuchfactorsasprofitability,customerloyalty,andemployeesatisfaction,loyalty,and

productivity.AsitcanbeseeninFigure3,inordertohavesatisfied,andthusloyal,customers,

thevalueoftheserviceprovidedshouldbemeaningful.Thiscanbeachievedwiththehelpof

thesatisfiedandthusproductiveandloyalemployees.Thisconceptonceagaindemonstrates

thatsatisfactionoftheemployeesisdirectlyandstronglycorrelatedwiththeirloyalty(Heskett

etal.,1994).

FIGURE3THELINKSINTHESERVICE-PROFITCHAIN(HESKETTETAL.,1994)

Therehavebeenmanystudiesontheantecedentsoftheemployeeloyaltyandorganizational

commitment.Ofcourse,monetary rewards, sufficientand fairwages,andbenefitsare influ-

encing loyaltyoftheemployees.But ithasbeenprovedthatthereareother,non-monetary,

factors that are more critical and should not be underestimated. For instance, work-family

balanceandmanagementacknowledgingthesignificanceofpersonalandfamilylifearesome

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oftheessentialfactorscontributingtoemployeeloyalty(Wan,2012).Onthecontrary,work-

familyconflictisarecognizedproblemthathasbeenoftenprovedtohavehighimpactonem-

ployee turnover, poormorale, decreasedperformance and commitment (Zhao et al., 2011).

ResearchconductedbyKaratepeandUludag (2008) similarlyconfirms the fact that frontline

hotelemployees’ tendency to leave the job is significantlyandpositivelycorrelatedwith the

conflictsrelatedtoworkandfamilyimbalance.

Another important factor influencingemployee loyaltymentioned inmany studies isperfor-

manceappraisalandfeedback(Jawahar,2006;Wan,2012).Notonlyfair,objective,andclear

evaluationofemployee’sperformancecaninfluencetheloyalty(Wan,2012),butitalsoplaysa

significantroleintherelationshipbetweenemployeeloyaltyandsatisfaction(Jawahar,2006).

Furthermore, relationships with supervisors and managers are of importance for employee

loyalty.Qualityofsupportandsupervision,strongleadership,effectivemanagement,appreci-

ation and positive attitude from the supervisors lead to higher levels of employee loyalty

(Locke,1976;ManpowerGroup,2002;Wan,2012).Amongotherdriversforemployeeloyalty

aretheopportunitiesforpersonalgrowth,appropriateskillstraining,theorganizationsatisfy-

ing the needs of the customers or the society (Wan, 2012), good teamwork, trustworthy

brand,varietyandpersonalinterestinthejob(ManpowerGroup,2002).

Servicesectoremployeesreported‘openandhonestcommunication’asoneofthemost im-

portantfactorsfortheirloyalty(ManpowerGroup2002).Otherreasonsforhigherstaffturno-

veridentifiedbythehotelemployeesinthestudyconductedbyFallonandRutherford(2010,

p.454)are:“treatmentbysuperiors,amountofworkhours,jobpressure,scheduling,training,

fringebenefitpackages,betteropportunitieselsewhere,andphysicaldemandofthejob”.

Admittedly, therehavenotbeenmanystudies thatexplored the influenceofdemographical

groups on the employee loyalty. However, several studies have included this aspect in the

framework.Thus,as itwasalreadymentionedabove,womentendtoshowmore loyalty to-

wardsthejobthanmen(ManpowerGroup,2002;Sheikhy&Khademi,2015).Studyconducted

bySheikhyandKhademi(2015)hasnotfoundanysignificantdifferencesintheloyaltyofthe

employeesduetotheireducation.

Another studyhas indicated thatemployees in theage from55 to64are stayingwith their

current employer for much longer period of time (median of 9.3 years) compared to the

youngerworkersintheagefrom25to34(medianof2.9years)(Taylor,2006).However,long-

er tenuredoesnotnecessarilyequal tohigheremployee loyalty.As itwasdiscussedbefore,

theremightbeotherfactorsthatcancauselongertenure.

Theeffectsofhavingchildrenonthe loyaltyofanemployeearenotsufficientlystudied.The

researchbySibbaldetal.(2003)hasindicatedthatemployeeswithchildrenunder18yearsold

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were less likely to leave the company. Thismight be explainedby the bigger amount of re-

sponsibilitiesthatparentshave,however,doesnotnecessarilymeanthattheloyaltyishigh.

Morerecentstudieshavealsoshownthatorganizationalloyaltyhasverystrongnegativecor-

relation with turnover intentions (Wright & Kehoe, 2009; Bhatnagar, 2012; Mohsin et al.,

2015),meaningthatengagedand loyalworkersaremore likely tobesatisfiedwiththeir job

and therefore less exposed to the problem of absenteeism and turnover. Thus, it is of im-

portanceandinteresttohaveacloserlookattheturnoverissues.

Staffturnoverhasbeenatopicofinterestformanyresearchersinrecentyears.Employeesin

theserviceindustryareessentialforthesuccessofthecompanyastheyaredirectlyinvolved

inservicedeliveryprocessandcanaffectcustomersatisfaction.However,staffturnover,espe-

ciallyinthehospitalityindustryhasbecomeexceptionallyhighinthelastdecades(Yang,2010)

andisoftenaround200%to300%peryear(Demiretal.,2007,p.477).Theseaspectsmakeit

ofahighinterestandimportancetoinvestigatethereasonsunderlyingthephenomena.

Turnoverintentionisa“consciousanddeliberatewilfulnesstoleavetheorganization”(Tett&

Meyer,1993,p.262)anditrepresentstheindividual’sownsubjectivepossibilityorprobability

to leave the job in the nearest future (Halawi, 2014).Mobley et al. (1979, cited by Halawi,

2014) distinguished four cognitive stages of turnover intention: (1) Thinking of quitting; (2)

Planningtostayorleave;(3)Searchingforalternativecareer;(4)Adesiretoleavecurrentca-

reer.

PorterandSteers (1973) introducedoneof the firstmodels investigating theantecedentsof

turnover.Theyhavegroupedthefactorsaffectingtheturnoverasfollows:organization-wide,

immediateworkenvironment,jobcontent,andpersonalfactors.Organization-widefactorsare

payandpromotion,jobsecurity,andorganizationalsize.Whiletheimpactofthefirsttwofac-

torsontheturnoverisratherclearandisrepresentedbynegativecorrelation,thethirdone,

organizational size,didnot showsignificant impacton staff turnover,however, absenteeism

was considerably higher in larger companies (Porter& Steers, 1973). Immediatework envi-

ronmentfactorsincludesupervisorystyle,workunitsize,andthenatureofpeergroupinterac-

tion.Jobcontentfactorsarerepresentedbythegeneralnatureofwork,jobstressandrepeti-

tiveness, job autonomy and responsibility, and role ambiguity and conflict. The evidence

showed that turnover has positive correlation with such factors as job dissatisfaction, job

stress and repetitiveness, perceived lack of job autonomyor responsibility (Porter& Steers,

1973,Ahmadetal.,2012).Roleambiguityandroleconflictcaninfluenceturnoverintwoways:

first, theclarityofthe jobrequirementscanhelptohirepeoplewhoareappropriateforthe

jobandareawareoftheexpectationandtherewardsinthefirstplace,andsecondly,precise

roleperceptionscanhelptoadjusttheexpectationsofexistingemployeestorealisticlevels.In

bothcases,theexpectationsoftheemployeesaremore likelytobemetandthereforetheir

satisfaction is expected to be higher and decrease the turnover intentions (Porter& Steers,

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1973). Last but not least, personal factors that can affect staff turnover include age, tenure

with the organization, similarity of job and vocational interest, personality traits, and family

considerations. While age and the time spent in the organization are negatively correlated

withtheturnover,similaritybetweentheactualjobandthevocationalinterestshasapositive

relationshipwithemployee’swithdrawalintentions.Accordingtotheresearch,moreextreme

personalitytraitscanleadtoincreasedturnover.Marriageandfamilyconcernseffectonturn-

overdifferbygender.Thus,womentendtowithdrawduetofamilycircumstances,whilemen

donotshowanytendencyduetothisfactor(Porter&Steers,1973).

Thereisageneralnotionthatthelongeraworkerstaysintheorganization,themorevaluable

heorshebecomes(Iqbaletal.,2015).However,therearecertainresearcherswhopointout

thedichotomousunderstandingoftheturnoverprocessassuch.Wood(1992,p.95)mentions

thattherearetwoopinionsaboutthelabourturnover:“Thefirstseeslabourturnoverasprob-

lematicfortheindustry,thesecondregardshighturnoverasanunavoidableandevenneces-

saryanddesirablefeatureofhotelsandcatering”.Manley(1996)discussesbothviewsonthe

turnoverproblemandstressestheneedforbetterresearchandunderstandingofthetopicin

ordertobeabletomanagetheturnoverissueappropriately.

Oneofthemainargumentsfortheturnoverhavingpositiveeffectsisthevalueofmobilityfor

thestaff(Bowey,1976,citedbyDeery&Shaw,1997).Riley(1980)supportstheideathathigh-

er turnover facilitates the development of skills among the employees. However, it is im-

portant to understand that these arguments are coming from the employee’s point of view

ratherthanmanagement’sororganisation’s.Sullivan(2009)converselyarguesthatthereare

positiveeffectsofturnoverontheorganizationaswell.Hedistinguishesbetweenthreetypes

ofstaffturnoverintheorganizations:desirable,neutral,andundesirable.Desirableturnoveris

referredtolosingtheemployeeswithpoorperformance,irrelevantskills,ortendencytocre-

ateproblems.Neutralturnovermightimplysomereplacementcostsbutisstillconsideredto

beacceptable.Examplesofneutralturnoverwouldbeemployees leavingthepositionthat is

notdifficulttofillagain,theoneswhowerehiredforshort-terminthefirstplace,orworkers

quitting the jobdue to illnessorotherunpredictablecauses.Theworst typeof turnover for

thecompanyis,ofcourse,criticalorundesirableturnover.Thisturnoverincludestopemploy-

ees,whoarecriticalforperformingcertaintasks,providingveryspecificknowledgeorexperi-

ence,leadingormanagingtheteam.Ifanemployeehasbeenanessentialpartofthesucces-

sionplanorifheorsheleftthejobtogotothedirectcompetitor,theconsequencesforthe

organizationcanbesevere(Sullivan,2009).

Amongother potential negative consequences for the organization causedby high turnover

rates are decreased quality of services and goods, high replacement and recruitment costs,

andreducedproductivityandprofitability(Johnson,1981,citedbyDeery&Shaw,1997;Man-

ley,1996).Anothereffectofturnoverthatisparticularlyrelevantforthehotelindustryisthat

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loyalguestsarenotrecognizedbythenewstaff,andtheriskoftheguestsfollowingfavorite

stafftootherhotels(Manley,1996).

Previousresearchhasalsofoundevidencethatjobstresshasnegativecorrelationwithorgani-

zational commitment (Garg&Dhar, 2014).Althoughmoredecent researchon the interrela-

tionsbetweenoccupationalstressandemployeeloyaltyislacking,thereissufficientevidence

thatemployeesexperiencingmorestressarealsomorelikelytoleavetheorganization(House

&Rizzo,1972;Cavanaughetal.,2000;Bhattietal.,2010).

Itcanbeconcludedfromtheabovethatmostoftheantecedentsareusuallyundercontrolof

the management, meaning that once the drivers for employee loyalty are understood, the

appropriatestrategiescanhelptoincreaseloyaltyanddecreasetheturnoverintheorganiza-

tion.Wan(2012)hasgivenadecentoverviewofthepossiblemeasuresthatcanimprovethe

loyalty of the employees. For example, creating dialoguewith employees, listening to their

needs,providingconstructivefeedback,advocatingforthem,andhavingthebroaderperspec-

tiveoftheirliveswillhelptoovercomecommunicationandwork-lifebalanceissues.Establish-

inggoodworkingconditions,ensuringacompetitivesalary,providingpropertraining,empow-

eringandengagingemployeeswillcertainlyenhancetheirloyaltytothecompany(Wan,2012).

Nevertheless, thestrategiesshouldbechosenpurposefullyandmustaddressclearlydefined

problemsandobjectives.

2.5 Chainvsindependenthotels

Inordertobeabletoanswertheresearchquestionofthecurrentpaper,itisalsonecessaryto

giveanoverviewofwhatismeantbytheindependentandchainhotelsandwhatarethedif-

ferencesbetweenthem.Thedistinctionbetweenchainandindependenthotelisbasedonthe

principleofownershipandaffiliation.Thus,independenthotelismanagedindividuallyandhas

no affiliationwith other properties (Kasavana& Brooks, 2005, cited by Kapiki, 2013). Chain

hotelisonebelongingtoagroupofhotelswithasharedcommonbrandandacertaindegree

ofcommonmanagement(Becerraetal.,2016).Chainaffiliationoptionsincludemanagement

contracts,franchises,andreferralgroups(Kasavana&Brooks,2005,citedbyKapiki,2013).

Belongingtoahotelchaincanhavecertainbenefitsforthehotel.Firstofall,positiveeffectsof

belongingto thehotelchainarereflected in the financialperformancesandhighercompeti-

tivenessinthemarket(Becerraetal.,2016).Researchhasshownthatchainhotelshavelower

failureratesthrougheconomiesofscaleandtransferofknowledgewithinthechain(Ingram&

Baum,1997,citedbyBecerraetal.,2016).

However,belonging toa chain canbevery costly fora company,e.g. costsofmaintaininga

franchise represent6-8%ormoreof the revenue (Kapiki, 2013).Besides, somestudieshave

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not indicated significant differences in revenue or performance between independent and

chainhotels(Becerraetal.,2016).Moreover,astudyconductedbyO’NeillandCarlbäck(2011)

hasstatedthatwhilechainhotelshavehigheroccupancyrates,independentpropertiesbene-

fitfromhigheraveragedailyratesandrevenuesperavailableroom.Aresearchconductedby

Kapiki(2013)hasconcludedthat,forinstance,theindependenthotelsinGreeceperformcon-

siderablybetterthanthechainones.So,forcertaintypesofhotels,dependingontheirmarket

positioning and segmentation, it is more advantageous to operate independently (Raleigh,

1999,citedbyKapiki,2013).

Mostofthestudiesconductedtocomparethechainandindependenthotelswerefocusingon

their performance, revenues, or competition (Kapiki, 2013; Becerra et al., 2016). However,

littleresearchhasbeendonetoevaluateandcomparetwotypesofhotelsintermsofrather

humanrecoursesandorganizationalbehaviourissues,suchasoccupationalstress,jobsatisfac-

tion,andemployeeloyalty.Althoughthesetopicsarewellcoveredbythestudieswithrespect

tothehospitalityindustryasawhole,thereisacertainlackofcomparativeresearchdonein

thisarea.LoandLam(2005) intheirstudyinvestigatedtheoccupationalstressformtheem-

ploymentrelationsperspectiveanddidthisbycomparinganindividualandachainhotel.The

resultsof theperceivedoccupational stressby theemployeeswerequite similar,withchain

hotelemployeesfacingslightlyhigherlevelsofstress(Lo&Lamm,2005).However, itcannot

be reliably concluded that thedifferencesbetween the twohotels are causedby thediffer-

enceintheownership.Consequently,furtherresearchonthisparticulartopicisneeded.

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3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter describes themethodology that has beenused for testing the hypotheses pre-

sentedintheintroduction.Theaimofthispaperistoanalysethedifferencesbetweenchain

andindependenthotelsintheoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyalty.The

investigationofthesefactorsfromdifferentpointsofviewisalsooneoftheobjectivesofthis

research. The study addresses the correlations betweenoccupational stress, job satisfaction

and employee loyalty in both hotels. Further, all variables are also tested on the significant

differences based on various demographic characteristics. Last but not least, the significant

differencesbetweenthehotelsare tested.Followingsectionsgiveamoredetailedoverview

onthemethodologyusedinthisresearch.

3.2 Selectionofmethodology

Duetotheexploratorynatureofthecurrentresearch,aquantitativecomparativecasestudy

method is selected. Case study is a detailed analysis of specific social settings or its certain

aspects(Black&Champion,1976,citedbyPizam,1994).Yin(2009)statesthatcasestudyisan

empiricalmethod,whichthoroughlyanalysesacontemporaryphenomenonwithinitsreal-life

context. Case studymethodology is widely used in tourism and hospitality related research

(Beeton,2005).Takingintoconsiderationthecomplexityofthisfield, it is impossibletohave

oneappropriatemethodology for the research; therefore, thecombinationsofmethodsand

differentalternativesaresoughtfor.

Casestudymethodischosenforthecurrentresearchduetoseveralreasons.Oneofthemain

advantagesofthecasestudymethodologyisthatitallowsflexibilityinusingdifferentkindsof

data-collection(Black&Champion,1976,citedbyPizam,1994).Moreover,casestudymeth-

odologyallowsnotonlytoperformanexploratorypartoftheinvestigation,butalsotoinclude

interpretation,reasoningandlogic,andthushelptogetplace-specificconceptualvisionsthat

canbefurthertestedforwiderapplicabilityeitherbydoingadditionalcasestudiesorbyapply-

ingothertypesofmethodology(Beeton,2005).Inotherwords,casestudiescanhelptocollect

background informationand togenerate furtherhypotheses (Pizam,1994).Thecomparative

natureofthecurrentcasestudymethod,therefore,givesanopportunityforeducingandde-

finingnewdimensionsanddissimilaritiesintheinvestigatedtopic.

Asmentionedbefore, case study approaches arewidely used in the tourismandhospitality

research.Veal (1992)distinguishesbetweendifferent typesofcasestudiesperformed in the

tourism sector. For instance, case studies can consist of single individuals (e.g. Rapoport &

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Rapoport, 1975),whole countries (e.g.Williams& Shaw, 1988), or companies and organiza-

tions(e.g.Harris&Leiper,1995).Luetal.(2013)haveconductedacasestudyresearchonthe

businesshotelchains.LoandLamm(2005)intheirresearchonoccupationalstressinthehos-

pitality industryhavechosenacomparativecasestudyanalysis,alsocomparingtwotypesof

hotels:chainandindividuallyowned.

3.3 Researchinstrument

Aquantitativeresearchmethod isusedforprimarydatacollection in this research.Apaper-

and-pencilself-administeredquestionnaire(Appendix1)techniqueischosenduetothenature

oftheresearchandthemeasurementscaleschosen.Inordertoensureanonymityandelimi-

nateinterviewerbias,standardizedquestionsaredesigned.

Thequestionnaireisdividedinto4sections.Thefirstone,BackgroundInformationpartisde-

signedinordertocollectdemographiccharacteristics,suchasgender,age,maritalstatus,ed-

ucation, number of children at home (if any), aswell as the position of an employee in the

hotel.Theother threeparts includequestions fromthescales thatwerechosen tomeasure

threevariablesanalyzedinthecurrentstudy,namelyoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,and

employeeloyalty.Themeasurementscalesarediscussedinthefollowingsections.

3.3.1 Occupationalstress

Occupational stress isdeterminedusing theGeneric JobStressQuestionnaire -GJSQ (NIOSH

GenericJobStressQuestionnaire,n.d),whichwasdevelopedwithinTheNationalInstitutefor

OccupationalSafetyandHealth(NIOSH)andbasedonframeworksproposedbyCaplanetal.

(1975),CooperandMarshall(1976),andHouse(1974)(RationaleforNIOSHGenericJobStress

Questionnaire,n.d.).Thequestionnaireisadaptedtothecurrentresearchgoalsandinterests.

TheQuestionnaire thoroughly covers various aspects of job, fromwhich the following parts

have been used: Conflict AtWork; Job Requirements; Mental Demands;Workload and Re-

sponsibility;YourJob;YourJobFuture(NIOSHGenericJobStressQuestionnaire,n.d).

ThefollowingeightoccupationalstressorsaremeasuredbymeansofadaptedNIOSHGeneric

JobStressQuestionnaire(n.d.):roleconflict(Cronbach’sα=0.82),roleambiguity(Cronbach’s

α=0.74;), intragroupconflict(Cronbach’sα=0.86), intergroupconflict(Cronbach’sα=0.85),

job future ambiguity (Cronbach’s α =0.65),workload (Cronbach’s α =0.85), responsibility for

people(Cronbach’sα=0.62),andmentaldemands(Cronbach’sα=0.75).Asgenerallyaccept-

edlevelofthereliabilityofmeasurementscales,representedbyCronbach’sα,variesbetween

0.70and0.95 (Tavakol&Dennick,2011), itcanbethat theallbutone jobstressor fulfil the

criteria. Intermsofvalidity,thescalesincludedintheNIOSHGJSQwerealreadychosenwith

theconditionofacceptablereliabilityandvalidity.Moreover,theNIOSHGJSQitselfwastested

andprovedtobereliableandvalid(Kazronianetal.,2013).

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Allquestionsaremeasuredonthebasisof5-pointLikertscaletoguaranteeconsistentresults.

Thequestionsaredesignedinsuchaway,thatafterreversingnecessaryitems,theaverageof

allitemswascomputedinordertopresenttheoverallstresslevelscoreforanindividual.The

higherthescore,thehigheristhestresslevel,withaminimumof1andamaximumof5.

3.3.2 Jobsatisfaction

In order tomeasure the job satisfaction, the questions covering this topic from the above-

mentionedNIOSHGenericStressQuestionnaire(n.d.)areadapted.Themeasuresweredevel-

opedbyCaplanetal.(1975)withCronbach’sα=0.83,whichrepresentstheacceptablelevelof

reliability (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011). Again, after reversing the scores, the average score is

computed,withthefollowingmeaning:thehigherthescoreis,thehigherthejobsatisfaction

is,withaminimumof1andamaximumof3.

3.3.3 Employeeloyalty

Employee loyalty isanalysedusingtheAntecedentsofEmployeeLoyaltyScale,developedby

ChenandWallace(2011)forinvestigatingthefactorsinfluencingemployeeloyalty.Thisscale

consistsof21 itemsin5variousfactors,whicharemeasuredona5-pointLikertscale.The5

factors representedareas follows:Commitment toManagersandCompany (Cronbach’sα=

0.74), JobConditions (Cronbach’sα=0.73), PersonalBenefits (Cronbach’sα=0.70), Service

ElementandLocation(Cronbach’sα=0.69),andCareerandStatus(Cronbach’sα=0.78)(Chen

&Wallace,2011).Again,thismeasurementscalefactorscanbeconsideredreliable,withonly

onealphaslightlylowerthan0.70(Tavakol&Dennick,2011).

3.4 Selectionofstudysite

Theempiricaldatawascollected inthe latespring,simultaneously inbothhotels inorderto

avoidpotentialbiasduetothedifferentoccupancy.Moreover,sincethehighseasonfortour-

ismwasalreadystarting,bothhotelshaveindicatedgoodoccupancyrates,whichmeansthat

theemployeeswerealreadyexposedtomoredemanding jobconditions.Thequestionnaires

weredistributedamongtheemployeesfromcertaindepartments(Housekeeping,FrontOffice,

Food&Beverage,Reservations,andSalesdepartments)intwohotels,whichagreedtopartici-

pate in theresearch.Thehotelsarebothsituated inonecitycenter inRussia,belongtothe

samehotelcategory(fourstars),however,therearecertaindifferences intheorganizational

profile of the twohotels. Table 3 gives an overviewof the important details about the two

hotelsinvolvedinthecurrentstudy.HotelAisindependentlyownedandoperated,whileHo-

telBbelongstotheinternationalhotelchain.AsitcanbeseenfromTable3,thehotelshave

notabledifferenceinthenumberofrooms.However,theroomstoemployeeratiosarevery

similar,whichgivessomecomparisonbase.

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HotelA HotelB

Typeofbusiness Independenthotel Chainhotel

Ageofbusiness 10years 2years

Numberofrooms 245 120

Numberofemployees Total: 203 Total: 102

Housekeeping 37 Housekeeping 20

FrontOffice: 20 FrontOffice: 11

Food&Bever-

age:

74 Food&Bever-

age:

47

Reservations: 7 Reservations: 3

Sales: 4 Sales: 4

Rooms to employee

ratio

1.21 1.17

Restaurant/Bar +/+ +/+

Meetingfacilities + +

TABLE3CHARACTERISTICSOFTHECASESTUDYHOTELS

3.5 Dataanalysis

Thecurrentstudyrepresentsacorrelationalresearchmethod–thevariablesaremeasuredin

orderto identifypotentialrelationshipsbetweenthem.SPSSsoftware,version21 isusedfor

identification of correlations. First, the datasets are examined using the histogram and the

Kolmogorov-Smirnovtestinordertoevaluatethedistributiononnormality.Ifthenormaldis-

tribution is proved, the t-test is used to measure the two parametric independent groups.

However, if thenormaldistribution is violated,Mann-WhitneyU-Test is chosen for thenon-

parametric independent groups comparison. If the comparison is done betweenmore than

twoindependentgroups,thenparametricANOVAtestornon-parametricKruskal-WallisH-test

isused.Finally,theresultswiththerespecttothesignificanceandthedirectionofthecorrela-

tionsareanalysed.

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4 RESULTS

Theempiricalresultsofthepresentstudyarepresentedinthissection.First,thegeneralde-

scriptionofthesampleisgiven,includingresponserateanddemographiccharacteristics(Ap-

pendix2).Further,theanalysisofthehypothesesisdemonstratedanddiscussed.Thecorrela-

tionsanddescriptivestatisticsarecarriedoutusingtheSPSSsoftware,version21.

4.1 Descriptionofthesample

Asitwasalreadymentionedbefore,thecurrentstudyisfocusedonvariousanalysesofoccu-

pationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltyamongemployeesfromtwohotelsand

fromfollowingdepartments:housekeeping,frontoffice,foodandbeverage,reservations,and

sales. InHotelA the total of 142questionnairesweredistributed, and97of thosewere re-

turnedcompleted, resulting ina response rateof68.3%. InHotelB,85questionnaireswere

distributed,and61ofthosewerecompletedandreturned,givingaresponserateof71.8%.

AsitcanbeseenfromtheFigure4,femaleemployeesrepresentthemajorityofthesamplein

both hotels, although the proportions are similar across the two hotels. Thus, Hotel A has

70.1%ofwomenand29.9%ofmen,comparedto67.2%womenand32.8%meninHotelB.

FIGURE4GENDEROFRESPONDENTSINTHECASEHOTELS

In termsofage,as it canbe seen fromtheFigure5, themajorityof respondents fromboth

hotels arebetween25and34yearsold.However,HotelAhasa slightlybigger shareof re-

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spondentsat this age. Theotheragegroupsaremoreequallydistributed inHotelB than in

HotelA.

FIGURE5AGEOFRESPONDENTSINTHECASEHOTELS

Intermsofeducation,asitcanbeseenfromFigure6,theeducationlevelvariesconsiderably

betweenthetwohotels.WhileinHotelAthemajorityofrespondentsfinishedhighschool,in

HotelBslightlymoreemployeesfromthesamplegraduatedfromcollege.

FIGURE6EMPLOYEES'EDUCATIONINTHECASEHOTELS

Intermsofmaritalstatus,therearesomenoteworthydifferencesobservedbetweentheho-

telsaswell.ItcanbeseeninFigure7,thatwhileHotelAhasthebiggestproportionofsingle

employees (40.21%),most of the respondents fromHotel B aremarried (47.54%). A higher

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proportionofyoungerrespondentsinHotelAmightexplainsuchadifference:87.62%ofem-

ployeesareunder34yearsold,comparedto65.57%intheHotelB.

FIGURE7EMPLOYEES'MARITALSTATUSINTHECASEHOTELS

Figure 8 demonstrates the percentages of employees in each hotel with respect to their

parenthoodstatus.Thus,itcanbeseenthatthemajorityoftheemployeesinHotelA(59.79%)

doesnothavechildren,whilethemajorityofrespondentsinHotelB(57.38%)hasatleastone

childathome.

FIGURE8PARENTHOODSTATUSESOFEMPLOYEESINTHECASEHOTELS

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4.2 Testingthehypotheses

Thissectionrepresentstheanalysisofthehypothesesthatwereproposedintheintroduction.

First,thecorrelationsbetweenoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltyare

analysedineachcasehotel.Then,thesamefactorsareexaminedintermsofdifferencesdue

tothedemographicgroupsineachofthehotels.Finally,thedifferencesinoccupationalstress,

jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltybetweenthetwocasestudyhotelsareinvestigated.

4.2.1 Correlationsbetweenoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloy-

alty

Interestingly,theresultsofcorrelationanalysisbetweenthetreevariableswereslightlydiffer-

entforthetwohotels.Table4representstheresultsofthecorrelationsamongthevariablesin

Hotel A,whereas Table 5 – in Hotel B. Findings rejectedH1 in both hotels, suggesting that

there is a significant negative correlation between occupational stress and job satisfaction

among employees. Thus, the higher occupational stress level is, the lower job satisfaction

amongemployees.However,onehastoadmitthatthestrengthofcorrelationinbothhotelsis

ratherweak (HotelA: correlation coefficient = -0.303; p = 0.003<0.01;Hotel B: correlation

coefficient=-0.263,p=0.041<0.05).Thisfindingsupportstheliteratureonthepreviousre-

searchpapersthatoccupationalstressnegativelyinfluencesthejobsatisfaction(Richardson&

Burke,1991;Cavanaughetal.,2000;Rizwanetal.,2014).

TABLE4CORRELATIONSBETWEENOCCUPATIONALSTRESS,JOBSATISFACTION,ANDEMPLOYEELOYALTYINHOTELA

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TABLE5CORRELATIONSBETWEENOCCUPATIONALSTRESS,JOBSATISFACTION,ANDEMPLOYEELOYALTYINHOTELB

H2couldonlyberejectedbytheresultsformHotelA,wherestresslevelhasratherweak,but

significant negative correlation with employee loyalty (correlation coefficient = -0.240; p =

0.018<0.05),meaningthatthemorestress isexperiencedbyanemployee,thelowerhisor

herloyaltytotheorganizationis.TheresultsonthishypothesisinHotelBarenotsignificant(p

=0.147>0.05).Thus,H2forHotelBissupported.

Employee loyaltyand jobsatisfactionvariableshaveshownsignificantcorrelationonly inthe

Hotel B, with amoderate positive relationship (correlation coefficient = 0.550; p = 0.000 <

0.01).H3isthereforerejected,whichmeansthatthemoresatisfiedtheemployeesinHotelB

are,themoreloyaltheyfeeltowardstheirjob.However,H3forHotelAhastobesupported,

asthecorrelationisnotsignificant(p=0.089>0.05).

4.2.2 Moderatingroleofgender

AfterrunningKolmogorov-Smirnovtestandobservingthehistograms,itcanbeconcludedthat

thegroupsarenotnormallydistributed;therefore,Mann-WhitneyU-testischosen.Aftertest-

ingall thevariableswith respect to thegenderno significantdifferencewas foundbetween

menandwomenintermsofoccupationalstressandjobsatisfactioninbothhotels(Appendix

3). Thus,H4aandH4bare supported. However,H4c in Hotel Awas rejected,meaning that

therearesignificantdifferences(p=0.000<0.05)betweenmenandwomenintermsoftheir

employee loyalty in the independent hotel. As can be seen from the Table 6,mean rank is

higherformalerespondents(67.10),whichmeansthatmaleemployeesinHotelAtendtobe

moreloyalthanfemale(41.28)employees.

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TABLE6DIFFERENCESINOCCUPATIONALSTRESS,JOBSATISFACTION,ANDEMPLOYEELOYALTYBETWEENMENANDWOMENIN

HOTELA

4.2.3 Moderatingroleofmaritalstatus

Normal distribution is proved to be not possible according to histograms and Kolmogorov-

Smirnov tests, thus, Kruskal-Wallis H-test for non-parametric independent groups is chosen.

There isnoevidenceofsignificantdifferences inoccupational stress, jobsatisfaction,orem-

ployeeloyaltyduetomaritalstatusinbothhotels(Appendix3).Therefore,allthreehypothe-

ses,H5a,H5b,andH5caresupported.

4.2.4 Moderatingroleofage

Kolmogorov-Smirnovtestsandhistogramsshowthatthegroupsarenotnormallydistributed.

Therefore, Kruskal-WallisH-test fornon-parametric groups is chosen. Kruskal-Wallis test has

shownsignificantdifferencesduetotheageofrespondents inoccupationalstress inHotelA

(Table7).However,inordertofindoutwhichagegroupssignificantlydifferfromeachother,

post-hoc test is done: pairwise Mann-Whitney tests with Bonferroni correction

(0.05/6=0.00833)forall6pairs.AsallMann-Whitneytestswerenotsignificant(p>0.00833),

itcanbeconcluded,thatnosignificantdifferencesexistacrosstheagegroups.Thus,H6afor

thebothhotelsissupported.

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TABLE7DIFFERENCES INOCCUPATIONALSTRESS, JOBSATISFACTION,ANDEMPLOYEELOYALTYDUETOTHEAGE INHOTELA

(KRUSKAL-WALLISTEST)

EmployeeloyaltyinHotelBsignificantlydiffersdependentontheageofrespondent(p=0.007

<0.05)accordingtotheKruskal-Wallistest(Table8).Nevertheless,post-hoctestisneeded,so

pairwiseMann-Whitney testswithBonferroni correction (0.05/6=0.00833) for all 6 pairs are

run.Allthesetestsarenotsignificant(p>0.00833),thusitcanbeconcluded,thatnosignifi-

cantdifferencesinemployeeloyaltyexistduetotheageinHotelB.Thus,H6cforbothhotels

issupportedaswell.

Jobsatisfactiondoesnotdifferwithrespecttotheageofrespondentsinbothhotels(Table7;

Table8).Therefore,H6bissupportedforbothhotels.

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TABLE8DIFFERENCES INOCCUPATIONALSTRESS, JOBSATISFACTION,ANDEMPLOYEELOYALTYDUETOTHEAGE INHOTELB

(KRUSKAL-WALLISTEST)

4.2.5 Moderatingroleofeducation

Groupssplitbyhighestlevelofeducationareprovedtonotbenormallydistributed,thusKrus-

kal-Wallistestischosentoanalyzethemoderatingroleofeducationinoccupationalstress,job

satisfaction, and employee loyalty. The results for Hotel A are not significant (Appendix 3).

ThusH7a,H7b,andH7caresupportedfortheindependenthotel.

However,Kruskal-WallistesthasshownsignificantresultsforallthreevariablesinHotelB(p<

0.05), as it can be seen in Table 9. Yet, the post-hoc test is still needed. Pairwise Mann-

Whitney tests with Bonferroni correction (0.05/10=0.005) are run to verify the differences

betweenall5groups.

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TABLE 9 DIFFERENCES IN OCCUPATIONAL STRESS, JOB SATISFACTION, AND EMPLOYEE LOYALTY DUE TO THE EDUCATION IN

HOTELB(KRUSKAL-WALLISTEST)

Theresultsindicatethatcertainsignificantdifferencesbetweengroupshavebeenfound.Thus,

highschoolgraduates(meanrank=15.62)areexperiencingmoreworkrelatedstressthanem-

ployeeswithabachelor’sdegree(meanrank=4.60).AsitcanbeseeninTable10,thisrelation-

shipissignificant(p=0.004<0.005).

TABLE10OCCUPATIONALSTRESSDIFFERENCESBETWEENHIGHSCHOOLANDBACHELORGRADUATESINHOTELB

RespondentswithBachelor’sdegreearealsosignificantlymore loyalandmoresatisfiedwith

their jobthantheCollegegraduates.Table11illustratesthedifferencesinloyalty(p=0.001<

0.005),whereasTable12demonstratesthedissimilaritiesinjobsatisfaction(p=0.004<0.005).

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Thedifferencesacrossothergroupshavenotbeenprovedsignificant.Thus,H7a,H7b,andH7c

canbepartiallyrejectedfortheHotelB.

TABLE11EMPLOYEELOYALTYDIFFERENCESBETWEENCOLLEGEANDBACHELORGRADUATESINHOTELB

TABLE12JOBSATISFACTIONDIFFERENCESBETWEENCOLLEGEANDBACHELORGRADUATESINHOTELB

4.2.6 Moderatingroleofparenthood

Normal distribution in the groups is proved to be not possible according to histograms and

Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests, thus, Mann-Whitney U-test for non-parametric independent

groupsischosen.Thedifferencesinthethreevariablesduetotheparenthoodstatusforboth

casestudyhotelshavebeenfoundnotsignificant(Appendix3).Therefore,theH8a,H8b,and

H8caresupported.

4.2.7 Differencesinoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltybe-

tweenindependentandchainhotels

Inordertohaveanoverviewonthegeneralresultsfrombothhotels,descriptivestatisticsare

used.Thus,Table13describeswhatarethemean,medians,maximumandminimumvaluesof

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respective variables are.When looking at the descriptive data, it is necessary to remember

thatstressand loyaltyweremeasuredonthe5-pointLikertscale, therefore,5wouldbethe

maximumofstressaswellasofloyalty.Whereas,themaximumvalueforjobsatisfactionis3.

TABLE 13DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS, JOB SATISFACTION, AND EMPLOYEE LOYALTY IN CASE STUDY

HOTELS

First,thetwohotelsweretestedonnormaldistributionwiththehelpofhistogramsandKol-

mogorov-Smirnov tests.Occupational stressandemployee loyaltyvariablesseemtobeboth

normally distributed in two hotels according to the histograms (Appendix 3). However, job

satisfactionseemstobenotnormallydistributed.Inordertocheckthevisualperception,Kol-

mogorov-Smirnovtestsarerun.TheresultsarerepresentedinTable14.Kolmogorov-Smirnov

tests do not show any violations of the normal distribution (Occupational stress: p=0.420 >

0.05,p=0.158>0.05;Employeeloyalty:p=0.843>0.05;p=0.894>0.05).Thus,t-testforcom-

paringparametric independentgroupsischosenforthesevariables.Sincenormalityassump-

tion is significantly violated for job satisfaction (p=0.024 < 0.05, p=0.033 < 0.05), Mann-

WhitneyU-testisused.

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TABLE14KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOVTESTRESULTSFOROCCUPATIONALSTRESS, JOBSATISFACTION,ANDEMPLOYEELOYALTY

ACROSSTWOCASESTUDYHOTELS

Table 15 represents the results ofMann-Whitney Test on differences in job satisfaction be-

tweenhotels.Itcanbeseen,thattheoutcomeisnotstatisticallysignificant(p=0.291>0.05),

meaning that there are no significant differences between job satisfaction reported by the

employees.Thus,H10issupported

TABLE15MANN-WHITNEYTESTRESULTSONDIFFERENCESINJOBSATISFACITONBETWEENCASESTUDYHOTELS

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However,theT-Testsfortheothertwovariableshaveshownsignificantresults.Table16indi-

cates that according to themeans, occupational stress level amongemployees inHotelA is

significantlyhigherthaninHotelB(p=0.000<0.05).Therefore,H9isrejected.

TABLE16T-TESTRESULTSONDIFFERENCESINOCCUPATIONALSTRESSBETWEENCASESTUDYHOTELS

AscanbeseeninTable17,theextentofemployees’loyaltysignificantlydiffersacrossthetwo

hotels (p=0.000 < 0.05).More precisely, according to themeans, employees in Hotel B are

moreloyalthaninHotelA.Thus,H11isrejected.

TABLE17T-TESTRESULTSONDIFFERENCESINEMPLOYEELOYALTYBETWEENCASESTUDYHOTELS

4.3 Conclusion

Thischapterpresentedthemainresultsofthecurrentresearch.Thehypothesesformulatedto

addresstheresearchquestionsweretestedandtherelationshipswerepointedout.Table18

givesanoverviewoftheresultsonhypotheses,whethertheyhavebeenrejectedorsupported

forbothcasestudyhotels.Discussionoftheresultsandtheconclusionsarepresentedinthe

nextchapter.

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HotelA HotelB

Supported Rejected Supported Rejected

H1 X X

H2 X X

H3 X X

H4a X X

H4b X X

H4c X X

H5a X X

H5b X X

H5c X X

H6a X X

H6b X X

H6c X X

H7a X X

H7b X X

H7c X X

H8a X X

H8b X X

H8c X X

H9 Rejected

H10 Supported

H11 Rejected

TABLE18RESULTSOFHYPOTESESTESTING

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5 DISCUSSIONANDCONCLUSION

This chapter is focusedon thediscussionof theempirical results of current study. Thus, re-

searchquestionsthatwereposedintheintroductionareaddressedonceagaintosummarize

theresultsanddrawconclusions.Further,limitationstothisstudy,potentialfurtherresearch

andoverallconclusionarepresented.

5.1 Interpretationofresults

This section discusses the empirical research results of the current study. This is done by

groupingtheoutcomesaccordingtotheresearchquestionsposedinthebeginningofthere-

search.Results onhypotheses testing arediscussed in corresponding researchquestion sec-

tion.

5.1.1 RQ1:What are the relationships betweenoccupational stress, job satisfac-

tion,andemployeeloyaltyinchainhotelandindependenthotel?

The researchquestionwasaddressedby thehypotheses1,2, and3.Hypothesis1hasbeen

rejected,meaningthatbothcasehotelspresentedweak,butsignificantnegativecorrelations

between the two variables. This outcome has supported the existing literature stating that

thereisanegativerelationshipbetweenoccupationalstressandjobsatisfaction(Richardson&

Burke,1991;Cavanaughetal.,2000;Rizwanetal.,2014). Indeed,negativeconsequencesof

hindrance-related occupational stress on the employee’s physiological and psychological

healthcannotbeunderestimated(Cavanaughetal.,2000;Luthans,2011).Jobsatisfaction,in

turn, is a “pleasurable emotional state” (Locke, 1969, p. 317). Thus, it is not surprising that

these twovariablesarenegatively correlated. It ishard to imagine thatanemployeewho is

exposedtostrongorcontinuousstresscanfeelsatisfactionwithhisorherwork.

Hypotheses2and3havebeenrejectedbasedontheresultsfromonlyoneofthetwohotels.

Thus,therelationshipbetweenoccupationalstressandemployeeloyaltyinHotelAwassignif-

icantlynegative.Thereislackofresearchsupportingorcontradictingthisoutcome,however,

the evidence shows that stressed employees have stronger intention to leave the company

(Cavanaughetal.,2000;Bhattietal.,2010).

Hypothesis3,statingthatthereisnosignificantcorrelationbetweenemployeeloyaltyandjob

satisfaction,hasbeenrejectedinthecaseofHotelB.Thus,itcanbeconcludedthatmoresat-

isfiedemployeesinHotelBtendtobemoreloyal.Thisfindingsupportstheexistingliterature

that claims that job satisfaction and employee loyalty have a positive relationship (LaLopa,

1997;Abdullahetal.,2009).Moreover,itisarguedthatemployeeloyaltyactuallyarisesfrom

theincreasedsatisfaction(Wan,2012).Thefactthathypotheses2and3wereonlyrejectedby

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oneofthehotelsmightbeattributedtothelimitationsofthestudy, i.e.rathersmallsample

size.

5.1.2 RQ 2: Which demographic characteristics play moderating roles in occupa-

tionalstress, jobsatisfaction,andemployee loyalty inchainhoteland inde-

pendenthotel?

Asitcanbeseenfromtheliteraturereview,researchershavenotreachedaconsensusonhow

occupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,andemployeeloyaltydifferamongdifferentdemographic

groups.Therefore,itwasalsointerestingtoexaminethemoderatingrolesofthesegroupson

chainandindependenthotels.

Moderatingroleofgenderhasbeenfoundtobenotsignificantforalmostallvariablesinboth

hotels,meaningthattherewasnosignificantdifferenceinoccupationalstress,jobsatisfaction,

oremployeeloyaltybetweenmenandwomen.Theonlyexceptionwastheloyaltyofmenin

HotelA,whichwassignificantlyhigher than theoneofwomen.However, this result contra-

dictsprevious research conductedbyManpowerGroup (2002).Nonetheless, it has tobead-

mittedthattheproportionofmaleandfemalerespondentsinthesampleswasnotequal,with

muchhigherrepresentationoffemaleemployees.Thisfactmighthavebeenapredetermining

factorfortheoutcome.

Maritalstatuswasfoundtohavenosignificantmoderatingeffectacrossalltestedvariablesin

bothhotels.Theseresultsarequitecontradictingtosomeofthepreviousstudies.Thus,there

is evidence thatmarriedemployeesareexperiencingmore stress (Kessler, 1979), but at the

sametimearemoresatisfiedthanunmarriedworkers(SanerandEyüpoğlu,2013).This isra-

ther surprising and unexpected fact, sincework stress and job satisfaction have been often

proved to have a negative correlation (Richardson & Burke, 1991; Cavanaugh et al., 2000;

Rizwanetal.,2014).However, therehavebeen researchpapers thathavenotdetectedany

relationshipbetweenjobsatisfactionandmaritalstatus.

Moderatingroleofagehas found littlesignificantsupport in thecurrent research.Thus,age

was found tobesignificantmoderator foroccupational stress in the independenthotel,and

for employee loyalty in the chain hotel.However, tests have shownno significant results in

termsof thedetectabledifferencesacross theagegroups.Mostprobably, thisphenomenon

canbeexplainedbyarathersmallsamplesize,whichwashighlyunderrepresentedbycertain

agegroups.

Educationwasdeterminedasafactorwithsignificantinfluenceonallthreevariables,butonly

inthechainhotel,andonlyacrosscertaingroups.Thus,employeeswithabachelor’sdegree

weresignificantlymoresatisfiedwithandloyaltotheirjob.Thisfactcontradictssomestudies

thathaveproveneducation tonothave any influenceonbothemployee loyalty (Sheikhy&

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Khademi, 2015) and job satisfaction (Bilgic, 1998). At the same time, these finding are sup-

ported by the study conducted by Al-Ababneh and Lockwood (2010), who also stated that

moreeducatedemployeesareusuallymoresatisfiedwiththeirjobs.Anotherfindinginterms

ofeducationisthatemployeeswhofinishedhighschoolwereexperiencingmoreoccupational

stressthanoneswithabachelor’sdegree.Eventhoughliteraturesuggeststhatmoreeducated

employeesareexposedtomorestress than leasteducated, ithasbeennotedthat this rela-

tionship is not linear. Thus, in order tomake valid conclusions, is necessary tohave amore

representativesamplewithratherequallydistributededucationlevelsamongrespondents.

Previousresearchonhowparentsdifferformnon-parentsintermsoftheirexposuretowork

stress,jobsatisfaction,andloyalty,wasquitecontradicting.Whileresearchershavenotcome

to a consensus on this topic, current study has not identified any significant influence of

parenthoodonthesevariables.

Toconclude,ithastobeadmittedthatcurrentresearchhasnotfoundsomestrongandsignif-

icant evidence about certain demographic groups and theirmoderating roles in employees’

occupational stress, job satisfaction, and loyalty. The differences between the two types of

hotelhavealsonotbeenapparent,whichcouldalsobecausedbyquiteasmallsamplesize.

However,sincepreviousresearchonthesetopicswasnotconsistentandsometimespresent-

edabsolutelycontradictoryresults,itisofinteresttocontinueresearchinthisareainorderto

getabetterunderstandingandamorecompletepictureofthesceneryofwork-relatedstress,

satisfaction,andloyalty.

5.1.3 RQ3:Are thereanydifferences inoccupational stress, job satisfaction, and

employeeloyaltybetweenchainandindependenthotels?

Differencesbetweenchainand independenthotelshavealwaysbeena topicof interestnot

onlyforresearchers,butalso,andmaybeevenmore,forthepractitioners.Intherecentyears,

theincreasedcompetitiononthemarketmakesitevenmorecrucialtoknowhowtogainthe

competitiveadvantage.Certainly,bothchainaffiliatedandindependenthotelshavetheirad-

vantagesanddisadvantages.Chainhotelscanbenefitfromthesharedknowledgeandexper-

tise,financialstability,andmarketingactivities(Ingram&Baum,1997,citedbyBecerraetal.,

2016; Becerra et al., 2016). However, it is a well-known fact that people are themost im-

portantassetintheserviceindustry.Thus,understandingthenatureofsuchimportantfactors

as occupational stress, job satisfaction, and employee loyalty can help not only in properly

managinghumanresources,butalsoinmakingtheworkplaceattractiveforthepotentialtal-

ents.Moreover,understandingsomedifferencesbetweenthechainandindependenthotelsin

termsofwhatdotheyofferasaworkplaceandwhateffects,ifany,mighttherebeonyouas

anemployee.

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TheresultsofthisstudyrejectHypothesis9andsuggestthatthereisasignificantdifferencein

occupationalstress levelandemployees’ loyaltybetweentheindependentandthechainho-

tel.Theoutcomeofthestatisticalresearchshowsthatemployeesintheindependenthotelare

significantlymorestressedthantheonesinthechainhotel.Thiscouldbeexplainedbyvariety

of factors.For instance,hotelchainsusuallyhavequitestrictandwell-definedorganizational

structure,with clear rolesacrossalldepartments.Moreover,working ina relatively recently

openedhotelmightinducemorechallenge-relatedstressorswithpositiveeffects(Cavanaugh

etal.,2000)fortheemployees,whilemanagementmightbemoreattentiveandresponsiveto

thenewideas,suggestions,andtheoverallsatisfactionoftheiremployees.Ontheotherhand,

independenthotelmighthaveamorehierarchicalorganizationalstructure,especiallyconsid-

eringthatitisonthemarketforalready10yearsandtheorganizationalculturemightbefairly

outdated.Themanagement’svisionandevaluationofcertainaspectsofworkcanbeaffected

bytheacquiredhabitofseeingtheminthesamelightforalongertime.Thiscanresultinvi-

ciouscircleofgettingused to theexistingproblem,notundertakingactions to solve it, thus

experiencemorestress,andgetintoneworthesameissuesagain.

Hypothesis11hasbeen rejectedaswell,meaning that thedifference inemployee loyalty in

twohotelsweresignificant.Thesecouldalsobeexplainedbyavarietyoffactors.Bothmone-

taryandnon-monetaryrewardshavebeenprovedtohaveinfluenceontheemployeeloyalty

(Wan,2012),thusemployeesinthechainhotelmightbeinamoreadvantageouspositionin

theseterms.Forinstance,someemployeesmightvaluenotonlythefeelingofbelongingtoa

world-knownbrandgroup,butalsothebenefitsofferedtotheemployeesbythehotelchain,

forinstance,specialoffers,orparticularroomratesforemployees,familiesandfriends.

Lastbutnotleast,therewasnosignificantdifferencefoundinthejobsatisfactionoftheem-

ployeesformthetwohotels.However,onehastoadmit,thatmeanvalueof jobsatisfaction

levelinthechainhotelisslightlyhigherthanintheindependentone.Sinceallthreevariables

provedtohavesignificantcorrelationsatleastinoneofthehotels,andsincethevaluesofjob

satisfactionaresomewhathigherinthechainhotel, itcanbeassumedthatthesmallsample

sizehasplayedacrucialroleinsupportingtheHypothesis10.

5.2 Limitationsandfutureresearch

The proper understanding of the dimensions of occupational stress and its correlationwith

other important workplace related employee’s characteristics is of utmost significance as it

allowsto improveandoptimisehumanresourcesmanagement,decreasestaff turnover,and

increase job satisfaction. However, it is crucial to remember that some particular kinds of

stresscanalsohavepositiveeffectsleadingtoincreasedproductivityofworkersandultimately

tohigherjobsatisfaction(Cavanaughetal.,2000;Colquittetal.,2010).

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Yettherearesomelimitationstothestudythathavetobetakenintoaccountwhenevaluating

theresultsoftheresearch,suchasrelativelysmallsample,localspecificsofthebusiness,per-

sonal characteristics of individuals that affect the results, and other types of potential bias.

Certain demographic groupswere underrepresented, resulting in less significant results and

conclusions.Moreover,casestudymethodologychosenfor thecurrentresearch impliescer-

tainlimitationsaswell.Sincetherehasbeenlackofscientificevidenceonthedifferencesbe-

tweenchainandindependenthotelsintermsofworkstress,satisfaction,andemployeeloyal-

ty, the generalizations should be done cautiously. Moreover, in order to make conclusions

aboutthesedifferences,moreextensiveandspecificresearchinthisfieldisneeded.

Humanresourcesareofagreatimportanceinhospitalitybusinessdeterminingthesustained

interest of researchers in this topic. In order to be able to successfully manage human re-

sourcesitisvitaltounderstandtheunderlyingcausesofsuchissuesasoccupationalstress,job

satisfaction, or employee loyalty, and their intercorrelation.However, there aremanymore

factors thatmightalsohaveasignificant influence,butcouldnotbe identifiedandanalysed

within this study. Further researchonvery specific stressorsand thewaysof stress releases

couldnotonlybeofinterestfortheoreticalpurposes,butalsogeneratesomevaluablesugges-

tions.Moreover,itisalreadyknown,thattherevenuesandprofitabilityoftheserviceorgani-

zationsarehighlydependentnotonlyonthesatisfiedcustomers,butalsoonthesatisfiedand

loyal employees (Heskett et al., 1994). Since researchers tend to be interested in how the

ownershipof thehotel is influencing financial performanceand competitiveness (Becerra et

al., 2016), it is of great interest to seewhether there is evidence of interrelations between

revenuesandemployeessatisfactioninchainandindependenthotels.Deeperresearchonthis

topicmightopennewdoorstotheunderstandingofdifferencesbetweenaffiliatedandinde-

pendent hotels in termsofwork-related stress, satisfaction, andemployee loyalty, and thus

assistinfurtherimprovementsanddevelopmentsinthisfield.

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APPENDICES

Appendix1:Questionnaire

DearSir/Madam,

Wewouldliketoknowaboutyourworkenvironmentandhowitaffectsyou.Thisinformation

isnotavailableanywhereelse.Youranswersontheenclosedformsareneeded.

PLEASEDONOTPUTYOURNAMEONANYOFTHEFORMSPROVIDED.Youranswersareto

remainanonymous.Theinformation,whichyouprovidewillbecombinedwithotheranswers

onlyinstatisticalsummaries.

Thankyouforyourcooperationandsupport.

I. BackgroundInformation

1. Whatisyourgender?

a. Male

b. Female

2. Howoldareyou?

a. <18

b. 18-24

c. 25–34

d. 35–44

e. 45–54

f. 55–64

g. 65–74

h. >74

3. Whatisyourmaritalstatus?

a. Married

b. Inarelationship

c. Single,nevermarried

d. Single,divorced

e. Single,widowed

4. Ifyouhavechildrenlivingathome,howmanyareineachofthefollowingage

groups?

a. Lessthan4yearsold__________

b. 4through12yearsold__________

c. 13through18yearsold__________

d. 19andolder__________

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5. Whatisthehighestcompletedlevelofeducation?

a. Secondaryschool

b. Highschool

c. College

d. Bachelor’sdegree

e. Master’sdegree

f. Professionaldegree

g. Doctoratedegree

6. WhatisyoucurrentJOBTITLE?____________________

II. Occupationalstress

Conflictatwork

Pleaseanswerthefollowingquestionsaboutyourworksituation

Strongly

disagree

! Strongly

agree

Question 1 2 3 4 5

1 Thereisharmonyinmydepartment

2 In our department, we have lots of bickering over who

shoulddowhatjob

3 There is difference of opinion among the members of my

department

4 Thereisdissensioninmydepartment

5 Themembersofmydepartmentaresupportiveofeachoth-

er’sideas

6 Thereareclashesbetweensubgroupswithinmydepartment

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7 Thereisfriendlinessamongthemembersofmydepartment

8 Thereis“we”feelingamongmembersofmydepartment

9 There are disputes betweenmy department and other de-

partments

10 There is agreement betweenmydepartment andother de-

partment

11 Otherdepartmentswithhold informationfortheattainment

ofourdepartmenttasks

12 Therelationshipbetweenmydepartmentandotherdepart-

ments is harmonious in attaining the overall organizational

goals

13 There is lack ofmutual assistance betweenmy department

andotherdepartments

14 There is cooperation between my departments and other

departments

15 Therearepersonalityclashesbetweenmydepartmentsand

otherdepartments

16 Otherdepartmentscreateproblemsformygroup

Jobrequirements

Nowwewouldlikeyoutoindicatehowoftencertainthingshappenatyourjob.

Rarely ! Veryoften

Question 1 2 3 4 5

1 Howoftendoesyourjobrequireyoutoworkveryfast?

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2 Howoftendoesyourjobrequireyoutoworkveryhard?

3 How often does your job leave you with little time to get

thingsdone?

4 Howoftenisthereagreatdealtobedone?

5 Howoftenisthereamarkedincreaseintheworkload

6 Howoftenisthereamarkedincreaseintheamountofcon-

centrationrequiredonyourjob?

7 Howoftenisthereamarkedincreaseinhowfastyouhaveto

think?

8 Howoftendoesyourjobletyouusetheskillsandknowledge

youlearnedinschool?

9 Howoftenareyougivenachancetodothethingsyoudothe

best?

10 Howoftencanyouusetheskills fromyourpreviousexperi-

enceandtraining?

Mentaldemands

Pleaseindicatethedegreetowhichyouagreeordisagreewiththefollowingstatementsabout

yourjob.

Strongly

disagree

! Strongly

agree

Question 1 2 3 4 5

1 Myjobrequiresagreatdealofconcentration

2 Myjobrequiresmetoremembermanydifferentthings

3 Imustkeepmymindonmyworkatalltimes

4 Icantakeiteasyandstillgetmyworkdone

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5 Icanletmymindwanderandstilldothework

Workloadandresponsibility

Thenextfewitemsareconcernedwithvariousaspectsofyourworkactivities.Pleaseindi-

catehowmuchofeachaspectyouhaveonyourjob.

Hardlyany ! Agreatdeal

Question

1 Howmuchtimedoyouhavetothinkandcontemplate?

2 Howmuchworkloaddoyouhave?

3 Whatquantityofworkdoothersexpectyoutodo?

4 Howmuchtimedoyouhavetodoallyourwork?

5 Howmanyprojects,assignments,ortasksdoyouhave?

6 Howmanylullsbetweenheavyworkloadperiodsdoyou

have?

7 Howmuch responsibility do you have for the future of

others?

8 Howmuchresponsibilitydoyouhaveforthejobsecurity

ofothers?

9 Howmuchresponsibilitydoyouhave for themoraleof

others?

10 How much responsibility do you have for the welfare

andlivesofothers?

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Yourjob

Howaccurateareeachofthefollowingstatementsindescribingyourjob?

Very inaccu-

rate

! Very accu-

rate

Question 1 2 3 4 5

1 IfeelcertainabouthowmuchauthorityIhave.

2 Thereareclear,plannedgoalsandobjectivesformyjob.

3 Ihavetodothingsthatshouldbedonedifferently.

4 IknowthatIhavedividedmytimeproperly.

5 IreceiveanassignmentwithoutthehelpIneedtocomplete

it.

6 Iknowwhatmyresponsibilitiesare.

7 Ihavetobendorbreakaruleorpolicyinordertocarryout

anassignment.

8 Iworkwithtwoormoregroupswhooperatequitedifferent-

ly.

9 Iknowexactlywhatisexpectedofme.

10 Ireceiveincompatiblerequestsfromtwoormorepeople.

11 Idothingsthatareapttobeacceptedbyonepersonandnot

acceptedbyothers

12 I receive an assignment without adequate resources and

materialstoexecuteit.

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78

13 Explanationisclearaboutwhathastobedoneonmyjob.

14 Iworkonunnecessarythings.

Yourjobfuture

Inthefuture,somejobswillbechangingwhileotherswillbestayingthesame.Hereare

somequestions,whichdealwiththistopic.

Somewhat

uncertain

! Verycertain

Question 1 2 3 4 5

1 Howcertain are youaboutwhat your future careerpicture

lookslike?

2 Howcertainareyouoftheopportunitiesforpromotionand

advancementwhichwillexistinthenextfewyears?

3 Howcertainareyouaboutwhetheryourjobskillswillbeof

useandvaluefiveyearsfromnow?

4 Howcertainareyouaboutwhatyourresponsibilitieswillbe

sixmonthsfromnow?

5 Ifyoulostyourjob,howcertainareyouthatyoucouldsup-

portyourself?

III. Jobsatisfaction

Wewouldliketoknowhowsatisfiedyouarewithyourjob.

1. Knowingwhatyouknownow,ifyouhadtodecidealloveragainwhetherto

takethetypeofjobyounowhave,whatwouldyoudecide?

a. Iwoulddecidewithouthesitationtotakethesamejob

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79

b. Iwouldhavesomesecondthoughts

c. IwoulddecidedefinitelyNOTtotakethistypeofjob

2. Ifyouwerefreerightnowtogointoanytypeofjobyouwanted,whatwould

yourchoicebe?

a. Iwouldtakethesamejob

b. Iwouldtakehavedoubtstotakethesamejob

c. Iwouldtakeadifferentjob

3. Ifafriendofyourstoldyouhe/shewasinterestedinworkinginajoblike

yours,whatwouldyoutellhim/her?

a. Iwouldstronglyrecommendit

b. Iwouldhavedoubtsaboutrecommendingit

c. Iwouldadviseagainstit

4. Allinall,howsatisfiedwouldyousayyouarewithyourjob?

a. Iamverysatisfied

b. Iamsomewhatsatisfied

c. Iamnotatallsatisfied

IV. Employeeloyalty

Commitmenttomanagersandcompany

Strongly

disagree

! Strongly

agree

Question 1 2 3 4 5

1 Ienjoygoodcommunicationswithmymanagers

2 Irespectmyheadofdepartment

3 Ienjoygoodcommunicationswithmywork-mates

4 Iamproudofmycompany

5 Ithinkoftheworkplaceasmysecondhomeandwork-mates

asmyfamily

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Jobconditions

Strongly

disagree

! Strongly

agree

Question 1 2 3 4 5

1 Ireceivegoodtrainingwiththiscompany

2 Thereareopportunitiesforskills’developmentinmyjob

3 Theworkinghoursaresuitableforme

4 Thejobisvaried,eachdayisdifferent

5 Ihavejobsecurity

Personalbenefits

Strongly

disagree

! Strongly

agree

Question 1 2 3 4 5

1 Thebenefitsofferedaregood

2 Thesalaryofferedisgood

3 Thematernity/paternitypackageisgood

4 Thejobisfun

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Serviceelementandlocation

Strongly

disagree

! Strongly

agree

Question 1 2 3 4 5

1 Ilikeprovidinggoodservicetothecustomers

2 Ienjoymeetingcustomers

3 Igetpersonalsatisfactionformmyjob

4 Thelocationofmyworkplaceisconvenientforme

Careerandstatus

Strongly

disagree

! Strongly

agree

Question 1 2 3 4 5

1 Myjobishighlyrespectedintheindustry

2 Myjobishighlyrespectedinthesociety

3 Ihaveacareerpathplannedforme/Ihavegoodpromotional

prospects

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Appendix2:DescriptiveStatistics

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Appendix3:Correlationsandstatisticaltests

ModeratingroleofgenderinHotelB:

ModeratingroleofmaritalstatusinHotelA:

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ModeratingroleofmaritalstatusinHotelB:

ModeratingroleofeducationinHotelA:

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ModeratingroleofparenthoodinHotelA:

ModeratingroleofparenthoodinHotelB:

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HistogramsofHotelAandHotelB(Occupationalstress)

HistogramsofHotelAandHotelB(Employeeloyalty)

HistogramsofHotelAandHotelB(Jobsatisfaction)

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