Obstacle Sensing Robot Report

8/9/2019 Obstacle Sensing Robot Report

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A

Project Report

ON

Obstacle Avoidance

Robot

Submitted in the partial fulllment for the award of the deg

in

Bachelor Of Technolog

!N

"lectronics # $ommunication"ngineering

Submitted To

ubmitted B %iss& Shubhi agarwal An'ur$handra


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Anil'umar gangwar

(aurav 'umar )harmendra

'umar B&tech"&$& nal r& )epartment Of "lectronics"ngineering Rajshree group of !nstitution Of %anagement #Technolog

reill&

*+,-.,/

TABLE OF CONTENTS

• INTRODUCTION

• PLATFORM USED

• AIM OF THE PROJECT

• BLOCK DIAGRAM

• WORKING OF THE PROJECT

• CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

• COMPONENT LIST

• CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

• PCB LAYOUT


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• STEPS FOR MAKING PCB

• PROGRAMMING

• COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION

• APPLICATIONS

• CONCLUSION

• REFERENCE

INTRODUCTION The nature0s most spectacular creation is human brain& The

main feature of the human brain is its abilit to sense the

obstacles and respond according to them& The men alwas want

to transplant his abilit to the articial things so that the can not

onl sense the problem but also respond according to that&

In this com!titi"! co#o#$t! %o#&' !"!#( o#)$ni*$tion %$nts to

im#o"! th! !++ici!nc( $s %!&& $s its #o',cti"it(- To im#o"! th! !++ici!nc( o+

o#)$ni*$tion. $,tom$tion is $ #!+!##!' so&,tion-

Ro/ots h!& $,tom$t! tho,s$n's o+ +$cto#i!s $#o,n' th! %o#&'. m$0in)th! '!&i"!#( o+ m$i&. $c0$)!s $n' m$t!#i$&s +$st $n' !++ici!nt- Sci!ntists $n'

!n)in!!#s h$"! /!!n !1!#im!ntin) %ith sno% &o,)hs $n' !"!n $ss!n)!# c$#s

th$t c$n +o&&o% m$)n!tic &in!s in 2sm$#t3 hi)h%$(s- Th!s! #o/otic "!hic&!s c$n

s!ns! th! #o$'. o/st$c&!s $n' !$ch oth!#. !&imin$tin) t#$++ic sn$#&s $n' m$0in) o,#


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hi)h%$(s s$+!# $n' !$si!# to t#$"!&- Som!'$( %!4&& sim&( t!&& o,# c$#s %h!#! to

t$0! ,s $n' &in! +o&&o%in) ci#c,it#( %i&& h!& )!t ,s th!#! s$+!&( $n' %itho,t !++o#t-

O,# #o5!ct is O/st$c&! s!nsin) #o/ot. this #o5!ct is mic#ocont#o&&!# /$s!'

%! $#! ,sin) $ mic#ocont#o&&!# Atm!)$67 Atm!& Cont#o&&!# ,s!' +o# s!nsin) th!

si)n$&s $n' t$0in) '!cisions $cco#'in) to th$t mic#ocont#o&&!# is ,s!' +o# s!nsin)

th! 'ist$nc! $cco#'in) to "$&,! )i"!n /( 'ist$nc! s!nso#-

PLATFORM USED SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

6- B$scom +o# #o)#$mmin) o+ Mic#ocont#o&&!#

8- DIPTRACE +o# Ci#c,it D!si)nin)

9- DIPTRACE +o# PCB '!si)nin)

HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

6- MICROCONTROLLER Atm!)$67

8- CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

9- RESISTORS

:- CAPACITORS

;- TRANSISTERS

7- REGULATOR

- WHEELS

6?- BU@@ER

66- OBSTACLE SENSOR

68- BATTERY

69- REMOTE


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6:- TSOP6


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BLOCK DIAGRAM

BLOCK DIAGRAM

DIGITAL VALUE

%!$RO

$ONTRO11"R

Atmega,2

3)"$!S!ON %A4!N(5

S6PP17

S"$T!ON

R"%OT"

ROBOT!$ $ARROBOT!$ $AR

)!STAN$"

S"NSOR


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Working of the projectWORKING OF THE PROJECT

This #o5!ct com#is!s $ mic#ocont#o&&!#- A s!nso# +o# s!nsin) 'ist$nc! is

int!#+$c!' %ith cont#o&&!#. %hi&! mo"in) i+ th!#! is $n( o/st$c&! $##i"!. it %i&& s!n'

$n $n$&o) si)n$& to th! AR cont#o&&!# %hich h$s in/,i&t ADC- It con"!#t th!

$n$&o) si)n$& to 'i)it$& $n' t#$ns+!# it to mic#ocont#o&&!#. it %i&& #oc!ss th! si)n$&

$##i"! $t its in $n' cont#o& th! DC moto# mo"!m!nt- Th! DC moto# #,ns th!

%h!!&s -Th! si)n$& t#$ns+!# th#o,)h $ #!mot! int!#+$c!' %ith AR

mic#ocont#o&&!# -Th! t#$nsmitt!' si)n$& #!c!i"! /( th! #!c!i"!# on #o/otic ,nit- In

this %$( %! c$n m$0! $ #o/ot th$t s!ns!s th! o/st$c&!-

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM


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P C B R O B O T

R O B R F O B

B

1 T h u r s d a y , D e c e m b e r 1 7 , 2 0 0 9

T i t l e

S i e D ! c u m e " t # u m b e r

D a t e % S h e e t

' ( )

) C C

) S S

' ( )

) C C

) C C

) C C

) C C

) C C

) C C

) C C

D 2B * T T '

B * T T 'D +D 2D 1D 0

R C 2R C 1

P + . 0P + . 1 P + . 0 P + . 1

P + . 7

P + . 7R * 0 R * 0

P + . 1 P + . 0

R C 1

R C 2 D T F - D )

# D

R 7

R 2 / 2

R 1 0

R 7 0

R 9

R 7 0

2B D 1 + 9

3 +

R 4 T 0 + 5 6

12+

1B D 1 + 9

R

R 2 / 2

C 1 0C 4 (1 0 8 + )

C C C R1 0 P F

C 9C 4 (1 0 8 + )

3 (

R 4 T 0 + 5 6

12+

R 1 2R1 /

C 1 1 C C R

2 2 P F

C 1 2

C C R 2 2 P F

C 1 +C C R0 1 :

P ; C 1 F 7 2

1

2

+

(

7

9

1 0

1 1

1 2

1 +

1

1 (

1

1 7

1

2 1

2 2

2 +

2

2 (

2

2 7

2 8 C 4 R

R * 0 8 * # 0

R * 1 8 * # 1

R * 2 8 * # 2

R * + 8 * # + 8 ) R F

R * 8 T 0 C / 1

R * ( 8 * # 8 S S

O S C ;

O S C O

R C 0

R C 1

R C 2

R C +

R C

R C (

R C

R C 7

; # T 8 R B 0

R B 1

R B 2

R B +

R B

R B (

R B

R B 7

< += T * 4

>

3 1 0

R 4 T 0 + 5 6

12+

: 24 7 0 ( >

1

2

+

C 1C 4 (

1 0 8 + )

C +

C C R + 9 P F

C 2 C C R

+ 9 P F< 1= T * 4

1 2 >

: 1

9 C 2 0 ( 1

(

1

1 21 +1 1 (1 1 71 1 9

2+79

1 1

= 1

= 2

R S T

P 1 . 0P 1 . 1P 1 . 2P 1 . +P 1 . P 1 . (P 1 . P 1 . 7

P + . 0P + . 1P + . 2P + . +P + . P + . (P + . 7

R 1R1 /

R 1 +R2 / 2

3 9

R 4 T 0 5 6

12+

3

R 4 T 0 5 6

12+

3 7

R 4 T 0 5 6

12+(7

R 1 7R1 /

R 1 R1 /

R 1 (R1 /

R 1 R1 /

3 1

R 4 T 0 + 5 6

12+

B ? 1

B : ? ? R

R 2

R2 2 0

Component lit


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CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION !"

POWE SUPPL! SECTION"


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Conit o#!

6- eg#$%tor" LM


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8- Cr+*t%$ O*ci$$%tor" A c#(st$& osci&&$to# o+ 68 MH* is conn!ct!' $t in no-;.

16 $n' in no-:. 18 to )!n!#$t! th! +#!,!nc( +o# th! =>C8?;6

mic#ocont#o&&!# $n' :MH* is conn!ct!' $t in no-> $n' in no- 6?- Th!

c#(st$& osci&&$to# %o#0s on i!*o!&!ct#ic !++!ct- Th! c&oc0 )!n!#$t!' is ,s!'

to '!t!#min! th! #oc!ssin) s!!' o+ th! cont#o&&!#- T%o c$$cito#s $#! $&so

conn!ct!' on! !n' %ith th! osci&&$to# %hi&! th! oth!# !n' is conn!ct!' %ith

th! )#o,n'- As it is #!comm!n'!' in th! /oo0 to conn!ct t%o c!#$mic

c$$cito# o+ 8? +:?+ to st$/i&i*! th! c&oc0 )!n!#$t!'-

9- e*et *ection" It consists o+ $n #c n!t%o#0 consistin) o+ 6?M9;

c$$cito# $n' on! #!sist$nc! o+ 60- This s!ction is ,s!' to #!s!t th! cont#o&&!#

conn!ct!' $t in no-6 o+ AT=>c8?;6 $n' conn!ct!' $t in no-6 o+ PIC67F


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STEPS FOR MAKING PCB


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P#!$#! th! &$(o,t o+ th! ci#c,it ositi"!-

• C,t th! hoto+i&m s&i)ht&( /i))!# o+ th! si*! o+ th! &$(o,t-

• P&$c! th! &$(o,t in th! hoto#int!# m$chin! %ith th! hoto+i&m $/o"! it- M$0!

s,#! th$t th! /#omi'! '$#0 si'! o+ th! +i&m is in cont$ct %ith th! &$(o,t-

• S%itch on th! m$chin! /( #!ssin) th! ,sh /,tton +o# ; s!c-

• Di th! +i&m in th! so&,tion #!$#!' '!"!&o!# /( mi1in) th! ch!mic$&s A

B in !,$& ,$ntiti!s in %$t!#-

• No% c&!$n th! +i&m /( &$cin) it in th! t#$( cont$inin) %$t!# +o# 6 min-

• A+t!# this. 'i th! +i&m in th! +i1!# so&,tion +o# 6 min- no% th! n!)$ti"! o+ th!

Ci#c,it is #!$'(-

• No% %$sh it ,n'!# th! +&o%in) %$t!#-

• D#( th! n!)$ti"! in th! hotoc,#! m$chin!-

• T$0! th! PCB /o$#' o+ th! si*! o+ th! &$(o,t $n' c&!$n it %ith st!!& %oo& to

m$0! th! s,#+$c! smooth-

• No% 'i th! PCB in th! &i,i' hoto#!sist. %ith th! h!& o+ 'i co$t m$chin!-

• No% c&i th! PCB n!1t to th! n!)$ti"! in th! hoto c,#! m$chin!. '#(in) +o#

$#o1im$t! 6?68 min,t!-

• No% &$c! th! n!)$ti"! on th! to o+ th! PCB in th! U m$chin!. s!t th! tim!#

+o# $/o,t 8-; min,t! $n' s%itch on th! U &i)ht $t th! to-

• T$0! th! LPR '!"!&o!# in $ cont$in!# $n' #i)o#o,s&( mo"! th! PCB in it-


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• A+t!# this. %$sh it %ith %$t!# "!#( )!nt&(-

• Th!n $&( LPR '(! on it %ith th! h!& o+ $ '#o!# so th$t it is com&!t!&(

co"!#!' /( it-

• No% c&$m th! PCB in th! !tchin) m$chin! th$t cont$ins +!##ic ch&o#i'!

so&,tion +o# $/o,t 6? min,t!s-

• A+t!# !tchin). %$sh th! PCB %ith %$t!#. %i! it $ '#( c&oth so+t&(-

• Fin$&&( #,/ th! PCB %ith $ st!!& %oo&. $n' th! PCB is #!$'(-


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Progr%,,ing of

O%t&'le enin( )o%ot *INCLUDE + P,-F./0INC1 2 PROCESSOR SPECIFIC 3ARIABLE

DEFINITIONS

MAIN

MAINLOOP

L4CJNL DISTANCE50//5GA,

BSF PORTC56

GOTO GM,

GA,!

BCF PORTC56

GM,!

GOTO MAINLOOP


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INTRADC!

MO3F ADRES5W

MO3WF DISTANCE

RETURN

INCLUDE 78'/9:,0m'

%;


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l&,!

JNB p,0:5l&/

CLR p=09

SETBp=0,

CLR %;


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MICROCONTROLLER ATmega16 (AVR Series) 8bit

Mir!!"tr!##er

In our days, there have been many advancement in the field of Electronics and many

cutting edge technologies are being developed every day, but still 8 bit microcontrollers

have its own role in the digital electronics market dominated by 16-3 ! 6" bit digital

devices# $lthough powerful microcontrollers with higher processing capabilities e%ist in the

market, 8bit microcontrollers still hold its value because of their easy-to-understand-

operation, very much high popularity, ability to simplify a digital circuit, low cost compared

to features offered, addition of many new features in a single I& and interest of

manufacturers and consumers#

'oday(s microcontrollers are much different from what it were in the initial stage, and the

number of manufacturers are much more in count than it was a decade or two ago# $t

present some of the ma)or manufacturers are *icrochip +publication I&

microcontrollers., $tmel +publication $/0 microcontrollers., itachi, hillips, *a%im,

2, Intel etc# 4ur interest is upon ATmega16# It belongs to Atmel’s AVR series

micro controller family # 5et(s see the features#

PIN count: $tmega16 has got " pins# 'wo for ower +pin no#1 7v, pin no# 11 ground.,

two for oscillator +pin 1, 13., one for reset +pin 9., three for providing necessary power and

reference voltage to its internal $:&, and 3 +";8. I


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Cerial eripheral Interface

$tmega16 pin diagram

Analog comparator: 4n-chip analog comparator is available# $n interrupt is assigned for

different comparison result obtained from the inputs#

"#ternal Interrupt: 3E%ternal interrupt is accepted# Interrupt sense is configurable#


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$emory: It has ,2 Dbytes of In-Cystem Celf-programmable >lash program memory, 1"

ytes EE04*, Dbytes Internal C0$*# Aritelash < 1,

EE04*#

!loc%: It can run at a freFuency from 1 to 16 *G# >reFuency can be obtained from

e%ternal @uartG &rystal, &eramic crystal or an 0-& network# Internal calibrated 0& oscillator

can also be used#

$ore &eatures Bp to 16 *IC throughput at 16*G# *ost of the instruction e%ecutes ina single cycle# 'wo cycle on-chip multiplication# 3 ; 8 =eneral urpose Aorking 0egisters

ebug: H'$= boundary scan facilitates on chip debug#

Programming: $tmega16 can be programmed either by In-Cystem rogramming via

Cerial peripheral interface or by arallel programming# rogramming via H'$= interface is

also possible# rogrammer must ensure that CI programming and H'$= are not be

disabled using fuse bits if the programming is supposed to be done using CI or H'$=#

http://www.circuitstoday.com/atmega32-avr-microcontroller-an-introductionhttp://www.circuitstoday.com/atmega32-avr-microcontroller-an-introductionhttp://www.circuitstoday.com/atmega32-avr-microcontroller-an-introduction


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http://www.circuitstoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Block-Diagram-ATmega32AVR-8-bit-Microcontroller.jpg


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COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION

Dista"e SENSOR$

DESCRI%TION$

Th! LTM>< s!#i!s $#! mini$t,#i*!' #!c!i"!#s +o# in+#$#!' #!mot! cont#o& s(st!ms-

It is $ sin)&! ,nit t(! mo',&! %hich inco#o#$t!s $ PIN 'io'! $n' $ #!c!i"in)

#!$m&i+i!# IC- Th! '!mo',&$t!' o,t,t si)n$& c$n 'i#!ct&( /! '!co'!' /( $mic#o#oc!sso#- It h$s !1c!&&!nt s!nsiti"it( $n' #!&i$/&! +,nction !"!n in 'ist,#/!'

%o#0in) !n"i#onm!nt-


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25/59

V!#tage Regat!rs


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A '!#tage regat!r is an electrical regulator designed to

automaticall maintain a constant voltage level& !t ma use an

electromechanical mechanism8 or passive or active electronic

components& )epending on the design8 it ma be used to regulate

one or more A$ or )$ voltages& 9ith the e:ception of shuntregulators8 all voltage regulators operate b comparing the actual

output voltage to some internal :ed reference voltage& An

di;erence is amplied and used to control the regulation element&

This forms a negative feedbac' servo control loop& !f the output

voltage is too low8 the regulation element is commanded to

produce a higher voltage&


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with e:ternal components to obtain adjustable voltages and

currents&

0ig&re 18$ I"ter"a# b#!3 Diagram


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0ig&re 14 $ 0ie2 O&t5&t Regat!r

0eat&res

C Output $urrent up to ,A

C Output Doltages of /8 28 ?8 E8 ,+8 ,*8 ,/8 ,?8 *-D

C Thermal Overload Protection

C Short $ircuit Protection

C Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection


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DC &OTO

A DC ,otor is $n !&!ct#ic moto# th$t #,ns on 'i#!ct c,##!nt DC !&!ct#icit(-

Br#*he-

Th! /#,sh!' DC moto# )!n!#$t!s to#,! 'i#!ct&( +#om DC o%!# s,&i!' to th!moto# /( ,sin) int!#n$& comm,t$tion. st$tion$#( !#m$n!nt m$)n!ts. $n' #ot$tin)

!&!ct#ic$& m$)n!ts-It %o#0s on th! #inci&! o+ Lo#!nt* +o#c! . %hich st$t!s th$t $n(

c,##!nt c$##(in) con',cto# &$c!' %ithin $n !1t!#n$& m$)n!tic +i!&' !1!#i!nc!s $

to#,! o# +o#c! 0no%n $s Lo#!nt* +o#c!- A'"$nt$)!s o+ $ /#,sh!' DC moto#

inc&,'! &o% initi$& cost. hi)h #!&i$/i&it(. $n' sim&! cont#o& o+ moto# s!!'-

Dis$'"$nt$)!s $#! hi)h m$int!n$nc! $n' &o% &i+!s$n +o# hi)h int!nsit( ,s!s-

M$int!n$nc! in"o&"!s #!),&$#&( #!&$cin) th! /#,sh!s $n' s#in)s %hich c$##( th!

!&!ct#ic c,##!nt. $s %!&& $s c&!$nin) o# #!&$cin) th! comm,t$to# - Th!s!

comon!nts $#! n!c!ss$#( +o# t#$ns+!##in) !&!ct#ic$& o%!# +#om o,tsi'! th! moto#

to th! sinnin) %i#! %in'in)s o+ th! #oto# insi'! th! moto#-

S+nchrono#*

S(nch#ono,s DC moto#s. s,ch $s th! /#,sh&!ss DC moto# $n' th! st!!# moto# .

#!,i#! !1t!#n$& comm,t$tion to )!n!#$t! to#,!- Th!( &oc0 , i+ '#i"!n 'i#!ct&( /(

DC o%!#- Ho%!"!#. BLDC moto#s $#! mo#! simi&$# to $ s(nch#ono,s $c moto#-

Br#*h$e**

B#,sh&!ss DC moto#s ,s! $ #ot$tin) !#m$n!nt m$)n!t in th! #oto#. $n' st$tion$#(

!&!ct#ic$& m$)n!ts on th! moto# ho,sin)- A moto# cont#o&&!# con"!#ts DC to AC-

This '!si)n is sim&!# th$n th$t o+ /#,sh!' moto#s /!c$,s! it !&imin$t!s th!

com&ic$tion o+ t#$ns+!##in) o%!# +#om o,tsi'! th! moto# to th! sinnin) #oto#-

A'"$nt$)!s o+ /#,sh&!ss moto#s inc&,'! &on) &i+! s$n. &itt&! o# no m$int!n$nc!.

$n' hi)h !++ici!nc(- Dis$'"$nt$)!s inc&,'! hi)h initi$& cost. $n' mo#! com&ic$t!'

moto# s!!' cont#o&&!#s-

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushed_DC_Electric_Motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutator_(electric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushless_DC_electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepper_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushed_DC_Electric_Motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutator_(electric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushless_DC_electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepper_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_current


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DC MOTOR:

!n $n( !&!ct#ic moto#. o!#$tion is /$s!' on sim&! !&!ct#om$)n!tism- A

c,##!ntc$##(in) con',cto# )!n!#$t!s $ m$)n!tic +i!&' %h!n this is th!n &$c!' in

$n !1t!#n$& m$)n!tic +i!&'. it %i&& !1!#i!nc! $ +o#c! #oo#tion$& to th! c,##!nt in

th! con',cto#. $n' to th! st#!n)th o+ th! !1t!#n$& m$)n!tic +i!&'- As (o, $#! %!&&

$%$#! o+ +#om &$(in) %ith m$)n!ts $s $ 0i'. oosit! No#th $n' So,th o&$#iti!s

$tt#$ct. %hi&! &i0! o&$#iti!s No#th $n' No#th. So,th $n' So,th #!!&- Th! int!#n$&

con+i),#$tion o+ $ DC moto# is '!si)n!' to h$#n!ss th! m$)n!tic int!#$ction

/!t%!!n $ c,##!ntc$##(in) con',cto# $n' $n !1t!#n$& m$)n!tic +i!&' to )!n!#$t!

#ot$tion$& motion-

http://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/current.htmlhttp://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/current.htmlhttp://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/dc.htmlhttp://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/current.htmlhttp://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/current.htmlhttp://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/current.htmlhttp://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/dc.htmlhttp://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/current.html


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E"!#( DC moto# h$s si1 /$sic $#ts $1&!. #oto# $-0-$-. $#m$t,#!. st$to#.

comm,t$to#. +i!&' m$)n!ts. $n' /#,sh!s- In most common DC moto#s $n' $&&

th$t BEAM!#s %i&& s!!. th! !1t!#n$& m$)n!tic +i!&' is #o',c!' /( hi)hst#!n)th

!#m$n!nt m$)n!ts6- Th! st$to# is th! st$tion$#( $#t o+ th! moto# this inc&,'!s

th! moto# c$sin). $s %!&& $s t%o o# mo#! !#m$n!nt m$)n!t o&! i!c!s- Th! #oto#

to)!th!# %ith th! $1&! $n' $tt$ch!' comm,t$to# #ot$t! %ith #!s!ct to th! st$to#-

Th! #oto# consists o+ %in'in)s )!n!#$&&( on $ co#!. th! %in'in)s /!in)

!&!ct#ic$&&( conn!ct!' to th! comm,t$to#- Th! $/o"! 'i$)#$m sho%s $ common

moto# &$(o,t %ith th! #oto# insi'! th! st$to# +i!&' m$)n!ts-

Th! )!om!t#( o+ th! /#,sh!s. comm,t$to# cont$cts. $n' #oto# %in'in)s $#! s,chth$t %h!n o%!# is $&i!'. th! o&$#iti!s o+ th! !n!#)i*!' %in'in) $n' th! st$to#

m$)n!ts $#! mis$&i)n!'. $n' th! #oto# %i&& #ot$t! ,nti& it is $&most $&i)n!' %ith th!

st$to#s +i!&' m$)n!ts- As th! #oto# #!$ch!s $&i)nm!nt. th! /#,sh!s mo"! to th! n!1t

comm,t$to# cont$cts. $n' !n!#)i*! th! n!1t %in'in)- Gi"!n o,# !1$m&! t%oo&!

moto#. th! #ot$tion #!"!#s!s th! 'i#!ction o+ c,##!nt th#o,)h th! #oto# %in'in).

&!$'in) to $ +&i o+ th! #oto#s m$)n!tic +i!&'. '#i"in) it to contin,! #ot$tin)-

In #!$& &i+!. tho,)h. DC moto#s %i&& $&%$(s h$"! mo#! th$n t%o o&!s th#!! is $

"!#( common n,m/!#- In $#tic,&$#. this $"oi's '!$' sots in th! comm,t$to#-

Yo, c$n im$)in! ho% %ith o,# !1$m&! t%oo&! moto#. i+ th! #oto# is !1$ct&( $t th!

mi''&! o+ its #ot$tion !#+!ct&( $&i)n!' %ith th! +i!&' m$)n!ts. it %i&& )!t st,c0

http://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/dc.htmlhttp://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/beam.htmlhttp://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/current.htmlhttp://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/dc.htmlhttp://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/dc.htmlhttp://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/beam.htmlhttp://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/current.htmlhttp://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/dc.html


32/59

th!#!- M!$n%hi&!. %ith $ t%oo&! moto#. th!#! is $ mom!nt %h!#! th! comm,t$to#

sho#ts o,t th! o%!# s,&( i-!-. /oth /#,sh!s to,ch /oth comm,t$to# cont$cts

sim,&t$n!o,s&(- This %o,&' /! /$' +o# th! o%!# s,&(. %$st! !n!#)(. $n'

'$m$)! moto# comon!nts $s %!&&- Y!t $noth!# 'is$'"$nt$)! o+ s,ch $ sim&!

moto# is th$t it %o,&' !1hi/it $ hi)h $mo,nt o+ to#,! #i&! th! $mo,nt o+

to#,! it co,&' #o',c! is c(c&ic %ith th! osition o+ th! #oto#-

Cr+*t%$ O*ci$$%tor

It is o+t!n #!,i#!' to #o',c! $ si)n$& %hos! +#!,!nc( o# ,&s! #$t! is "!#( st$/&!

$n' !1$ct&( 0no%n- This is imo#t$nt in $n( $&ic$tion %h!#! $n(thin) to 'o %ith

tim! o# !1$ct m!$s,#!m!nt is c#,ci$&- It is #!&$ti"!&( sim&! to m$0! $n osci&&$to#

th$t #o',c!s som! so#t o+ $ si)n$&. /,t $noth!# m$tt!# to #o',c! on! o+ #!&$ti"!&(

#!cis! +#!,!nc( $n' st$/i&it(- AM #$'io st$tions m,st h$"! $ c$##i!# +#!,!nc(

$cc,#$t! %ithin 6?H* o+ its $ssi)n!' +#!,!nc(. %hich m$( /! +#om ;9? to 6


33/59

mi&&ion %i&& #!s,&t in $n !##o# o+ s&i)ht&( &!ss th$n on! h$&+ s!con' $ '$(. %hich

%o,&' /! $/o,t 9 min,t!s $ (!$#- This mi)ht not so,n' &i0! m,ch. /,t $n !##o# o+

6? $#ts !# mi&&ion %o,&' #!s,&t in $n !##o# o+ $/o,t $ h$&+ $n ho,# !# (!$#- A

c&oc0 s,ch $s this %o,&' n!!' #!s!ttin) $/o,t onc! $ month. $n' mo#! o+t!n i+ (o,

$#! th! ,nct,$& t(!- A #o)#$mm!' CR %ith $ c&oc0 this +$# o++ co,&' miss th!

#!co#'in) o+ $#t o+ $ T sho%- N$##o% /$n' SSB comm,nic$tions $t HF $n'

UHF +#!,!nci!s sti&& n!!' ;? H* +#!,!nc( $cc,#$c(- At ::? MH*. this is s&i)ht&(

mo#! th$n ?-6 $#t !# mi&&ion- O#'in$#( LC osci&&$to#s ,sin) con"!ntion$&

in',cto#s $n' c$$cito#s c$n $chi!"! t(ic$&&( ?-?6 to ?-6 !#c!nt +#!,!nc(

st$/i&it(. $/o,t 6?? to 6??? H* $t 6 MH*- This is OK +o# AM $n' FM /#o$'c$st

#!c!i"!# $&ic$tions $n' in oth!# &o%!n' $n$&o) #!c!i"!#s not #!,i#in) hi)h

t,nin) $cc,#$c(- B( c$#!+,& '!si)n $n' comon!nt s!&!ction. $n' %ith #,))!'

m!ch$nic$& const#,ction. -?6 to ?-??6. o# !"!n /!tt!# -???; st$/i&it( c$n /!

$chi!"!'- Th! /!tt!# +i),#!s %i&& ,n'o,/t!'&( !m&o( t!m!#$t,#! com!ns$tion

comon!nts $n' #!),&$t!' o%!# s,&i!s. to)!th!# %ith !n"i#onm!nt$& cont#o&

)oo' "!nti&$tion $n' $m/i!nt t!m!#$t,#! #!),&$tion $n' 2/$tt&!shi3 m!ch$nic$&

const#,ction- This h$s /!!n 'on! in som! comm,nic$tions #!c!i"!#s ,s!' /( th!

mi&it$#( $n' comm!#ci$& HF comm,nic$tion #!c!i"!#s /,i&t in th! 6>;?6>7; !#$. /!+o#! th! %i'!s#!$' ,s! o+ 'i)it$& +#!,!nc( s(nth!sis- B,t th!s! #!c!i"!#s %!#!

!1t#!m!&( !1!nsi"!. &$#)!. $n' h!$"(- M$n( mo'!#n cons,m!# )#$'! AM. FM.

$n' sho#t%$"! #!c!i"!#s !m&o(in) c#(st$& cont#o&&!' 'i)it$& +#!,!nc( s(nth!sis

%i&& 'o $s %!&& o# /!tt!# +#om $ +#!,!nc( st$/i&it( st$n'oint-

An osci&&$to# is /$sic$&&( $n $m&i+i!# $n' $ +#!,!nc( s!&!cti"! +!!'/$c0 n!t%o#0

Fi) 6- Wh!n. $t $ $#tic,&$# +#!,!nc(. th! &oo )$in is ,nit( o# mo#!. $n' th!

tot$& h$s!shi+t $t this +#!,!nc( is *!#o. o# som! m,&ti&! o+ 97? '!)#!!s. th!

con'ition +o# osci&&$tion is s$tis+i!'. $n' th! ci#c,it %i&& #o',c! $ !#io'ic

%$"!+o#m o+ this +#!,!nc(- This is ,s,$&&( $ sin! %$"!. o# s,$#! %$"!. /,t

t#i$n)&!s. im,&s!s. o# oth!# %$"!+o#ms c$n /! #o',c!'- In +$ct. s!"!#$& 'i++!#!nt


34/59

%$"!+o#ms o+t!n $#! sim,&t$n!o,s&( #o',c!' /( th! s$m! ci#c,it. $t 'i++!#!nt

oints- It is $&so ossi/&! to h$"! s!"!#$& +#!,!nci!s #o',c!' $s %!&&. $&tho,)h

this is )!n!#$&&( ,n'!si#$/&!-

E.TA /NOWLEDGE

S!nsin) Unit

S!nsin) ,nit consists o+ RF s!nso#s %h!n!"!# this s!nso# #!c!i"! RF si)n$&

th!( $ss in+o#m$tion in th! +o#m o+ hi)h o# &o% to th! cont#o&&!#- Wh!n!"!# $ 0!( is #!ss!' in $ 'ist$nt RF t#$nsmitt!# th$t 0!( is s!ns!' /( th! s!nso#

$n' +,#th!# in+o#m cont#o&&!# $/o,t th! 0!( #!ss!' $n' +,#th!# $ction c$n /!

!#+o#m!'-

Ra2i! re7&e" Reei'er


35/59

Tra"smitter

%-io fre0#enc+ F is $ +#!,!nc( o# #$t! o+ osci&&$tion %ithin th! #$n)! o+

$/o,t 9 H* to 9?? GH*- This #$n)! co##!son's to +#!,!nc( o+ $&t!#n$tin) c,##!nt

!&!ct#ic$& si)n$&s ,s!' to #o',c! $n' '!t!ct #$'io %$"!s- Sinc! most o+ this #$n)!

is /!(on' th! "i/#$tion #$t! th$t most m!ch$nic$& s(st!ms c$n #!son' to. RF

,s,$&&( #!+!#s to osci&&$tions in !&!ct#ic$& ci#c,its-

Speci%$ propertie* of F e$ectric%$ *ign%$*

E&!ct#ic$& c,##!nts th$t osci&&$t! $t RF h$"! s!ci$& #o!#ti!s not sh$#!' /( 'i#!ct

c,##!nt si)n$&s- On! s,ch #o!#t( is th! !$s! %ith %hich th!( c$n ioni*! $i# to

c#!$t! $ con',cti"! $th th#o,)h $i#- This #o!#t( is !1&oit!' /( hi)h +#!,!nc(

,nits ,s!' in !&!ct#ic $#c %!&'in). $&tho,)h st#ict&( s!$0in) th!s! m$chin!s 'o not

t(ic$&&( !m&o( +#!,!nci!s %ithin th! HF /$n'- Anoth!# s!ci$& #o!#t( is $n

!&!ct#om$)n!tic +o#c! th$t '#i"!s th! RF c,##!nt to th! s,#+$c! o+ con',cto#s.

0no%n $s th! s0in !++!ct- Anoth!# #o!#t( is th! $/i&it( to $!$# to +&o% th#o,)h

$ths th$t cont$in ins,&$tin) m$t!#i$&. &i0! th! 'i!&!ct#ic ins,&$to# o+ $ c$$cito#-

Th! '!)#!! o+ !++!ct o+ th!s! #o!#ti!s '!!n's on th! +#!,!nc( o+ th! si)n$&s-

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_signalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_waveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_weldinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_signalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_waveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_weldinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric


36/59

0re7&e"ies

NameSmb!# 0re7&e"

9a'e#e"gt

:A55#iati!"s

":tremel

low

freuenc

"1< FGF+ HI ,+8+++G

,++8+++ 'm

)irectl audible when

converted to sound8

communication with

submarines

Super

low

freuenc

S1< F+GF++ HI ,8+++G

,+8+++ 'm


converted to sound8 A$

power grids 3/+G2+ HI5

6ltra lowfreuenc

61< F++G

F+++ HI

,++G

,8+++ 'm


converted to sound8

communication with

mines

Der low

freuenc

D1< FGF+ 'HI ,+G,++ 'm


converted to sound

3below ca& *+ 'HI= or

ultrasound otherwise5

1owfreuenc

1< F+G

F++ 'HI ,G,+ 'm

A% broadcasting8navigational beacons8

low


37/59

freuenc

F++ %HI

amateur radio8

broadcast television8

aviation8 (PR8 %R!

6ltrahigh

freuenc

6H< F++G

F+++ %HI ,+G,++ cm

Broadcast television8

amateur radio8 mobile

telephones8 cordlesstelephones8 wireless

networ'ing8 remote

'eless entr for

automobiles8

microwave ovens8 (PR

Super

high

freuenc

SH< FGF+ (HI ,G,+ cm

9ireless networ'ing8

satellite lin's8

microwave lin's8satellite television8 door

openers

":tremel

high

freuenc

"H< F+G

F++ (HI ,G,+ mm

%icrowave data lin's8

radio astronom8

remote sensing8

advanced weapons

sstems8 advanced

securit scanning

FEATUES

Wi'! o!#$tin) "o&t$)! #$n)! CC6-;Q;-?

Lo% st$n'/( c,##!nt

A,to o%!# o++ +,nction +o# T8B

F!% !1t!#n$& comon!nts $#! n!!'!'

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground-penetrating_radarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_telephoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_telephoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordless_telephoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordless_telephoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_keyless_entryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_keyless_entryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_ovenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremely_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremely_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremely_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremely_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_sensinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_scanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground-penetrating_radarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_telephoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_telephoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordless_telephoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordless_telephoneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_keyless_entryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_keyless_entryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_ovenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremely_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremely_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremely_high_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_sensinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_scan


38/59

CAPACITO

A c%p%citor o# con-en*er is $ $ssi"! !&!ct#onic comon!nt consistin) o+ $ $i# o+

con',cto#s s!$#$t!' /( $ 'i!&!ct#ic ins,&$to#- Wh!n $ ot!nti$& 'i++!#!nc!

"o&t$)! !1ists $c#oss th! con',cto#s. $n !&!ct#ic +i!&' is #!s!nt in th! 'i!&!ct#ic-

This +i!&' sto#!s !n!#)( $n' #o',c!s $ m!ch$nic$& +o#c! /!t%!!n th! con',cto#s-

Th! !++!ct is )#!$t!st %h!n th!#! is $ n$##o% s!$#$tion /!t%!!n &$#)! $#!$s o+

con',cto# h!nc! c$$cito# con',cto#s $#! o+t!n c$&&!' &$t!s-

An i'!$& c$$cito# is ch$#$ct!#i*!' /( $ sin)&! const$nt "$&,!. c$$cit$nc!. %hich

is m!$s,#!' in +$#$'s- This is th! #$tio o+ th! !&!ct#ic ch$#)! on !$ch con',cto# to

th! ot!nti$& 'i++!#!nc! /!t%!!n th!m- In #$ctic!. th! 'i!&!ct#ic /!t%!!n th! &$t!s

$ss!s $ sm$&& $mo,nt o+ &!$0$)! c,##!nt- Th! con',cto#s $n' &!$'s int#o',c! $n

!,i"$&!nt s!#i!s #!sist$nc! $n' th! 'i!&!ct#ic h$s $n !&!ct#ic +i!&' st#!n)th &imit

#!s,&tin) in $ /#!$0'o%n "o&t$)!-

C$$cito#s $#! %i'!&( ,s!' in !&!ct#onic ci#c,its to /&oc0 th! +&o% o+ 'i#!ct c,##!nt

%hi&! $&&o%in) $&t!#n$tin) c,##!nt to $ss. to +i&t!# o,t int!#+!#!nc!. to smooth th!

o,t,t o+ o%!# s,&i!s. $n' +o# m$n( oth!# ,#os!s- Th!( $#! ,s!' in #!son$nt

ci#c,its in #$'io +#!,!nc( !,im!nt to s!&!ct $#tic,&$# +#!,!nci!s +#om $ si)n$&

%ith m$n( +#!,!nci!s-

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passivity_(engineering)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_differencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faradhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leakage_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_series_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakdown_voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supplyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LC_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LC_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passivity_(engineering)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_differencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faradhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leakage_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_series_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakdown_voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supplyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LC_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LC_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency


39/59

Theor+ of oper%tion

M$in $#tic&! C$$cit$nc!

Ch$#)! s!$#$tion in $ $#$&&!&&$t! c$$cito# c$,s!s $n int!#n$& !&!ct#ic +i!&'- A

'i!&!ct#ic o#$n)! #!',c!s th! +i!&' $n' inc#!$s!s th! c$$cit$nc!-

A sim&! '!monst#$tion o+ $ $#$&&!&&$t! c$$cito#

A c$$cito# consists o+ t%o con',cto#s s!$#$t!' /( $ noncon',cti"! #!)ion-Th!

noncon',cti"! s,/st$nc! is c$&&!' th! 'i!&!ct#ic m!'i,m. $&tho,)h this m$( $&so

m!$n $ "$c,,m o# $ s!micon',cto# '!&!tion #!)ion ch!mic$&&( i'!ntic$& to th!

con',cto#s- A c$$cito# is $ss,m!' to /! s!&+cont$in!' $n' iso&$t!'. %ith no n!t

!&!ct#ic ch$#)! $n' no in+&,!nc! +#om $n !1t!#n$& !&!ct#ic +i!&'- Th! con',cto#s

th,s cont$in !,$& $n' oosit! ch$#)!s on th!i# +$cin) s,#+$c!s. $n' th! 'i!&!ct#ic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_mediumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plattenkondensator_hg.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plattenkondensator_hg.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Capacitor_schematic_with_dielectric.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Capacitor_schematic_with_dielectric.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_mediumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge


40/59

cont$ins $n !&!ct#ic +i!&'- Th! c$$cito# is $ #!$son$/&( )!n!#$& mo'!& +o# !&!ct#ic

+i!&'s %ithin !&!ct#ic ci#c,its-

An i'!$& c$$cito# is %ho&&( ch$#$ct!#i*!' /( $ const$nt c$$cit$nc! C . '!+in!' $s

th! #$tio o+ ch$#)! Q on !$ch con',cto# to th! "o&t$)! V /!t%!!n th!m

Som!tim!s ch$#)! /,i&', $++!cts th! m!ch$nics o+ th! c$$cito#. c$,sin) th!

c$$cit$nc! to "$#(- In this c$s!. c$$cit$nc! is '!+in!' in t!#ms o+ inc#!m!nt$&

ch$n)!s

In SI ,nits. $ c$$cit$nc! o+ on! +$#$' m!$ns th$t on! co,&om/ o+ ch$#)! on !$chcon',cto# c$,s!s $ "o&t$)! o+ on! "o&t $c#oss th! '!"ic!-

En!#)( sto#$)!

Wo#0 m,st /! 'on! /( $n !1t!#n$& in+&,!nc! to mo"! ch$#)! /!t%!!n th!

con',cto#s in $ c$$cito#- Wh!n th! !1t!#n$& in+&,!nc! is #!mo"!'. th! ch$#)!

s!$#$tion !#sists $n' !n!#)( is sto#!' in th! !&!ct#ic +i!&'- I+ ch$#)! is &$t!#

$&&o%!' to #!t,#n to its !,i&i/#i,m osition. th! !n!#)( is #!&!$s!'- Th! %o#0 'on!

in !st$/&ishin) th! !&!ct#ic +i!&'. $n' h!nc! th! $mo,nt o+ !n!#)( sto#!'. is )i"!n

/(

ESISTO

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faradhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulombhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_(thermodynamics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equilibriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faradhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulombhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_(thermodynamics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equilibrium


41/59

R!sisto#s $#! ,s!' to &imit th! "$&,! o+ c,##!nt in $ ci#c,it- R!sisto#s o++!#

oosition to th! +&o% o+ c,##!nt- Th!( $#! !1#!ss!' in ohms +o# %hich th! s(m/o&

is Ω4- R!sisto#s $#! /#o$'&( c&$ssi+i!' $s

6 Fi1!' R!sisto#s

8 $#i$/&! R!sisto#s

Fi1e- e*i*tor* "

Th! most common o+ &o% %$tt$)!. +i1!' t(! #!sisto#s is th! mo&'!'c$#/on

comosition #!sisto#- Th! #!sisti"! m$t!#i$& is o+ c$#/on c&$( comosition- Th!

&!$'s $#! m$'! o+ tinn!' co!#- R!sisto#s o+ this t(! $#! #!$'i&( $"$i&$/&! in "$&,!#$n)in) +#om +!% ohms to $/o,t 8?MΩ. h$"in) $ to&!#$nc! #$n)! o+ ; to 8?-

Th!( $#! ,it! in!1!nsi"!- Th! #!&$ti"! si*! o+ $&& +i1!' #!sisto#s ch$n)!s %ith th!

%$tt$)! #$tin)-

Anoth!# "$#i!t( o+ c$#/on comosition #!sisto#s is th! m!t$&i*!' t(!-

It is m$'! /( '!osition $ homo)!n!o,s +i&m o+ ,#! c$#/on o"!# $ )&$ss. c!#$mic

o# oth!# ins,&$tin) co#!- This t(! o+ +i&m#!sisto# is som!tim!s c$&&!' th! #!cision

t(!. sinc! it c$n /! o/t$in!' %ith $n $cc,#$c( o+ ±6-

L!$' Tinn!' Co!# M$t!#i$&

Co&o,# Co'in) Mo&'!' C$#/on C&$( Comosition

Fi1!' R!sisto#


42/59

A Wire Wo#n- e*i*tor "

It ,s!s $ &!n)th o+ #!sist$nc! %i#!. s,ch $s nich#om!- This %i#! is %o,n'!' on to $

#o,n' ho&&o% o#c!&$in co#!- Th! !n's o+ th! %in'in) $#! $tt$ch!' to th!s! m!t$&

i!c!s ins!#t!' in th! co#!- Tinn!' co!# %i#! &!$'s $#! $tt$ch!' to th!s! m!t$&

i!c!s- This $ss!m/&( is co$t!' %ith $n !n$m!& co$tin) o%'!#!' )&$ss- This

co$tin) is "!#( smooth $n' )i"!s m!ch$nic$& #ot!ction to %in'in)- Common&(

$"$i&$/&! %i#! %o,n' #!sisto#s h$"! #!sist$nc! "$&,!s #$n)in) +#om 6Ω to 6??K Ω.

$n' %$tt$)! #$tin) , to $/o,t 8??W-

Co-ing Of e*i*tor "

Som! #!sisto#s $#! &$#)! !no,)h in si*! to h$"! th!i# #!sist$nc! #int!' on th!

/o'(- Ho%!"!# th!#! $#! som! #!sisto#s th$t $#! too sm$&& in si*! to h$"! n,m/!#s

#int!' on th!m- Th!#!+o#!. $ s(st!m o+ co&o,# co'in) is ,s!' to in'ic$t! th!i#

"$&,!s- Fo# +i1!'. mo,&'!' comosition #!sisto# +o,# co&o,# /$n's $#! #int!' on

on! !n' o+ th! o,t!# c$sin)- Th! co&o,# /$n's $#! $&%$(s #!$' &!+t to #i)ht +#om th!

!n' th$t h$s th! /$n's c&os!st to it- Th! +i#st $n' s!con' /$n' #!#!s!nts th! +i#st

$n' s!con' si)ni+ic$nt 'i)its. o+ th! #!sist$nc! "$&,!- Th! thi#' /$n' is +o# th!

n,m/!# o+ *!#os th$t +o&&o% th! s!con' 'i)it- In c$s! th! thi#' /$n' is )o&' o#

si&"!#. it #!#!s!nts $ m,&ti&(in) +$cto# o+ ?-6to ?-?6- Th! +o,#th /$n' #!#!s!nts

th! m$n,+$ct,#!4s to&!#$nc!-

RESISTOR COLOUR CHART

/ green

+ blac'

, brown

* red

F orange

- ellow

2 blue

> purple

? silver

E white

+ blac'

, brown

* red

F orange

- ellow

2 blue

> purple

? silver

E white

/ green

+ blac'

, brown

* red

F orange

- ellow

2 blue

> purple

? silver

E white

/ green

+ blac'

, brown

* red

F orange

- ellow

2 blue

> purple

? silver

E white


43/59

For e1%,p$e. i+ $ #!sisto# h$s $ co&o,# /$n' s!,!nc! (!&&o%. "io&!t. o#$n)! $n'

)o&'

Then it* r%nge 2i$$ 3e4

Y!&&o%:. "io&!t


44/59

Th! st$n'$#' co&o,# co'! c$nnot sho% "$&,!s o+ &!ss th$n 6? - To sho% th!s!

sm$&& "$&,!s t%o s!ci$& co&o,#s $#! ,s!' +o# th! thi#' /$n' )o&'. %hich m!$ns

?-6 $n' si&"!# %hich m!$ns ?-?6- Th! +i#st $n' s!con' /$n's #!#!s!nt th!

'i)its $s no#m$&-

For e1%,p$e"

#!'. "io&!t. )o&' /$n's #!#!s!nt 8< ?-6 8-<

/&,!. )#!!n. si&"!# /$n's #!#!s!nt ;7 ?-?6 ?-;7

Th! +o,#th /$n' o+ th! co&o,# co'! sho%s th! to&!#$nc! o+ $ #!sisto#- To&!#$nc! is

th! #!cision o+ th! #!sisto# $n' it is )i"!n $s $ !#c!nt$)!- Fo# !1$m&! $ 9>?

#!sisto# %ith $ to&!#$nc! o+ 6? %i&& h$"! $ "$&,! %ithin 6? o+ 9>? . /!t%!!n

9>? 9> 9;6 $n' 9>? 9> :8> 9> is 6? o+ 9>?-

A s!ci$& co&o,# co'! is ,s!' +o# th! +o,#th /$n' to&!#$nc!

si&"!# 6?. )o&' ;. #!' 8. /#o%n 6-

I+ no +o,#th /$n' is sho%n th! to&!#$nc! is 8?-

VAIABLE ESISTO"

In !&!ct#onic ci#c,its. som!tim!s it /!com!s n!c!ss$#( to $'5,st th! "$&,!s o+

c,##!nts $n' "o&t$)!s- Fo# n !1$m&! it is o+t!n '!si#!' to ch$n)! th! "o&,m! o+

so,n'. th! /#i)htn!ss o+ $ t!&!"ision ict,#! !tc- S,ch $'5,stm!nts c$n /! 'on! /(

,sin) "$#i$/&! #!sisto#s-


45/59

A$tho#gh the )%ri%3$e re*i*tor* %re #*#%$$+ c%$$e- rheo*t%t* in other

%pp$ic%tion*6 the *,%$$er )%ri%3$e re*i*tor* co,,on$+ #*e- in e$ectronic

circ#it* %re c%$$e- potentio,eter*7

TANSISTOS

A t#$nsisto# is $n $cti"! '!"ic!- It consists o+ t%o PN 5,nctions +o#m!' /(

s$n'%ichin) !ith!# t(! o# nt(! s!micon',cto# /!t%!!n $ $i# o+ oosit!

t(!s-

Th!#! $#! t%o t(!s o+ t#$nsisto#

6- nn t#$nsisto#

8- n t#$nsisto#

An nn t#$nsisto# is comos!' o+ t%o nt(! s!micon',cto#s s!$#$t!' /( $

thin s!ction o+ t(!- Ho%!"!# $ n t(! s!micon',cto# is +o#m!' /( t%o

s!ctions s!$#$t!' /( $ thin s!ction o+ nt(!-


46/59

T#$nsisto# h$s t%o n 5,nctions on! 5,nction is +o#%$#' /i$s!' $n' oth!# is

#!"!#s!' /i$s!'- Th! +o#%$#' 5,nction h$s $ &o% #!sist$nc! $th %h!#!$s $ #!"!#s!

/i$s!' 5,nction h$s $ hi)h #!sist$nc! $th-

Th! %!$0 si)n$& is int#o',c!' in th! &o% #!sist$nc! ci#c,it $n' o,t,t is

t$0!n +#om th! hi)h #!sist$nc! ci#c,it- Th!#!+o#! $ t#$nsisto# t#$ns+!#s $ si)n$& +#om

$ &o% #!sist$nc! to hi)h #!sist$nc!-

T#$nsisto# h$s th#!! s!ctions o+ 'o!' s!micon',cto#s- Th! s!ction on on!

si'! is !mitt!# $n' s!ction on th! oosit! si'! is co&&!cto#- Th! mi''&! s!ction is

/$s!-

E,itter " Th! s!ction on on! si'! th$t s,&i!s ch$#)! c$##i!#s is c$&&!' !mitt!#-

Th! !mitt!# is $&%$(s +o#%$#' /i$s!' %-#-t- /$s!-

Co$$ector " Th! s!ction on th! oth!# si'! th$t co&&!cts th! ch$#)! is c$&&!' co&&!cto#-

Th! co&&!cto# is $&%$(s #!"!#s!' /i$s!'-

B%*e " Th! mi''&! s!ction %hich +o#ms t%o n5,nctions /!t%!!n th! !mitt!# $n'

co&&!cto# is c$&&!' /$s!-


47/59

A t#$nsisto# #$is!s th! st#!n)th o+ $ %!$0 si)n$& $n' th,s $cts $s $n $m&i+i!#-

Th! %!$0 si)n$& is $&i!' /!t%!!n !mitt!#/$s! 5,nction $n' o,t,t is t$0!n

$c#oss th! &o$' Rc conn!ct!' in th! co&&!cto# ci#c,it- Th! co&&!cto# c,##!nt +&o%in)

th#o,)h $ hi)h &o$' #!sist$nc! Rc #o',c!s $ &$#)! "o&t$)! $c#oss it- Th,s $ %!$0

si)n$& $&i!' in th! in,t $!$#s in th! $m&i+i!' +o#m in th! co&&!cto# ci#c,it-

S2itch

A #!ss,#! s!nso# o# s%itch m!$s,#!s #!ss,#!- P#!ss,#! is ,s,$&&( !1#!ss!' in

t!#ms o+ +o#c! !# ,nit $#!$- A #!ss,#! s!nso# ,s,$&&( $cts $s $ t#$ns',c!# it

)!n!#$t!s $ si)n$& $s $ +,nction o+ th! #!ss,#! imos!'-


48/59

P#!ss,#! s!nso#s c$n /! c&$ssi+i!' in t!#m o+ #!ss,#! #$n)!s th!( m!$s,#!.

t!m!#$t,#! #$n)!s o+ o!#$tion. $n' most imo#t$nt&( th! t(! o+ #!ss,#! th!(

m!$s,#!- In t!#ms o+ #!ss,#! t(!. #!ss,#! s!nso#s c$n /! 'i"i'!' into +i"!

c$t!)o#i!s

89 A3*o$#te pre**#re *en*or

This s!nso# m!$s,#!s th! #!ss,#! #!&$ti"! to !#+!ct "$cc,m #!ss,#!-

:9 G%#ge pre**#re *en*or

This s!nso# is ,s!' in 'i++!#!nt $&ic$tions /!c$,s! it c$n /! c$&i/#$t!' to

m!$s,#! th! #!ss,#! #!&$ti"! to $ )i"!n $tmosh!#ic #!ss,#! $t $ )i"!n &oc$tion-

;9V%cc#, pre**#re *en*or

This s!nso# is ,s!' to m!$s,#! #!ss,#! &!ss th$n th! $tmosh!#ic #!ss,#! $t $

)i"!n &oc$tion-

59 Differenti%$ pre**#re *en*or

This s!nso# m!$s,#!s th! 'i++!#!nc! /!t%!!n t%o o# mo#! #!ss,#!s int#o',c!' $sin,ts to th! s!nsin) ,nit-

(9 Se%$e- pre**#re *en*or

This s!nso# is th! s$m! $s th! )$,)! #!ss,#! s!nso# !1c!t th$t it is #!"io,s&(

c$&i/#$t!' /( m$n,+$ct,#!#s to m!$s,#! #!ss,#! #!&$ti"! to s!$ &!"!& #!ss,#!-


49/59

Fi)" O!#$tion o+ #!ss,#! s%itch

878ore*i*ti)e Str%in G%#ge?

Us!s th! i!*o#!sisti"! !++!ct o+ /on'!' o# +o#m!' st#$in )$,)!s to '!t!ct st#$in

',! to $&i!' #!ss,#!- G!n!#$&&(. th! st#$in )$,)!s $#! conn!ct!' to +o#m $ %h!$t

ston! /#i')! ci#c,it to m$1imi*! th! o,t,t o+ th! s!nso#- This is th! most

common&( !m&o(!' s!nsin) t!chno&o)( +o# )!n!#$& ,#os! #!ss,#!

m!$s,#!m!nt-


50/59

C%p%citi)e Us!s $ 'i$h#$)m $n' #!ss,#! c$"it( to c#!$t! $ "$#i$/&! c$$cito# to

'!t!ct st#$in ',! to $&i!' #!ss,#!- Common t!chno&o)i!s ,s! m!t$&. c!#$mic.

$n' si&icon 'i$h#$)ms- G!n!#$&&(. th!s! t!chno&o)i!s $#! most $&i!' to &o%

#!ss,#!s A/so&,t!. Di++!#!nti$& $n' G$,)!

E$ectro,%gnetic ? M!$s,#!s th! 'is&$c!m!nt o+ $ 'i$h#$)m /( m!$ns o+

ch$n)!s in in',ct$nc! #!&,ct$nc!. LDT. H$&& E++!ct. o# /( !''( c,##!nt

#inci$&-

Pie>oe$ectric Us!s th! i!*o!&!ct#ic !++!ct in c!#t$in m$t!#i$&s s,ch $s ,$#t* to

m!$s,#! th! st#$in ,on th! s!nsin) m!ch$nism ',! to #!ss,#!- This t!chno&o)( is

common&( !m&o(!' +o# th! m!$s,#!m!nt o+ hi)h&( '(n$mic #!ss,#!s-

Optic%$ Us!s th! h(sic$& ch$n)! o+ $n otic$& +i/!# to '!t!ct st#$in ',! to

$&i!' #!ss,#!-

Potentio,etric ? Us!s th! motion o+ $ %i!# $&on) $ #!sisti"! m!ch$nism to '!t!ct

th! st#$in c$,s!' /( $&i!' #!ss,#!-

W@EEL

A 2hee$ is $ ci#c,&$# comon!nt th$t is int!n'!' to #ot$t! on $n $1i$& /!$#in)- Th!

%h!!& is on! o+ th! m$in comon!nts o+ th! %h!!& $n' $1&! %hich is on! o+ th! si1

sim&! m$chin!s- Wh!!&s. in con5,nction %ith $1&!s. $&&o% h!$"( o/5!cts to /!

mo"!' !$si&( +$ci&it$tin) mo"!m!nt o# t#$nso#t$tion %hi&! s,o#tin) $ &o$'. o#

!#+o#min) &$/o# in m$chin!s- Wh!!&s $#! $&so ,s!' +o# oth!# ,#os!s. s,ch $s $shis %h!!&. st!!#in) %h!!&. ott!#s %h!!& $n' +&(%h!!&-

Common !1$m&!s $#! +o,n' in t#$nso#t $&ic$tions- A %h!!& )#!$t&( #!',c!s

+#iction /( +$ci&it$tin) motion /( #o&&in) to)!th!# %ith th! ,s! o+ $1&!s- In o#'!# +o#

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bearing_(mechanical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel_and_axlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship's_wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steering_wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potter's_wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flywheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bearing_(mechanical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel_and_axlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship's_wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steering_wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potter's_wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flywheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axle


51/59

%h!!&s to #ot$t!. $ mom!nt n!!'s to /! $&i!' to th! %h!!& $/o,t its $1is. !ith!#

/( %$( o+ )#$"it(. o# /( th! $&ic$tion o+ $noth!# !1t!#n$& +o#c! o# to#,!-

CONNECTOS

Conn!cto#s $#! /$sic$&&( ,s!' +o# int!#+$c! /!t%!!n t%o- H!#! %! ,s!

conn!cto#s +o# h$"in) int!#+$c! /!t%!!n PCB $n' =?;6 Mic#o#oc!sso# Kit-

Th!#! $#! t%o t(!s o+ conn!cto#s th!( $#! m$&! $n' +!m$&!- Th! on!. %hich

is %ith ins insi'!. is +!m$&! $n' oth!# is m$&!-

Th!s! conn!cto#s $#! h$"in) /,s %i#!s %ith th!m +o# conn!ction-

Fo# hi)h +#!,!nc( o!#$tion th! $"!#$)! ci#c,m+!#!nc! o+ $ co$1i$& c$/&! m,st /!

&imit!' to $/o,t on! %$"!&!n)th. in o#'!# to #!',c! m,&timo'$& #o$)$tion $n'

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torque


52/59

!&imin$t! !##$tic #!+&!ction co!++ici!nts. o%!# &oss!s. $n' si)n$& 'isto#tion- Th!

st$n'$#'i*$tion o+ co$1i$& conn!cto#s ',#in) Wo#&' W$# II %$s m$n'$to#( +o#

mic#o%$"! o!#$tion to m$int$in $ &o% #!+&!ction co!++ici!nt o# $ &o% "o&t$)!

st$n'in) %$"! #$tio-

Se)en t+pe* of ,icro2%)e co%1i%$ connector* %re %* fo$$o2*"

6-APC9-;

8-APC<

9-BNC

:-SMA

;-SMC

7-TNC

>er

It is $n !&!ct#onic si)n$&in) '!"ic! %hich #o',c!s /,**in) so,n'- It is common&(

,s!' in $,tomo/i&!s. hon! $&$#m s(st!ms $n' ho,s!ho&' $&i$nc!s- B,**!#s


53/59

%o#0 in th! s$m! m$nn!# $s $n $&$#m %o#0s- Th!( $#! )!n!#$&&( !,i!' %ith

s!nso#s o# s%itch!s conn!ct!' to $ cont#o& ,nit $n' th! cont#o& ,nit i&&,min$t!s $

&i)ht on th! $#o#i$t! /,tton o# cont#o& $n!&. $n' so,n' $ %$#nin) in th! +o#m o+

$ contin,o,s o# int!#mitt!nt /,**in) o# /!!in) so,n'&

Th! %o#' /,**!# com!s +#om th! #$sin) nois! th$t /,**!#s m$'! %h!n th!(

%!#! !&!ct#om!ch$nic$& '!"ic!s. o!#$t!' +#om st!!''o%n AC &in! "o&t$)! $t

;? o# 7? c(c&!s-

T(ic$& ,s!s o+ /,**!#s $n' /!!!#s inc&,'! $&$#ms. tim!#s $n' con+i#m$tion o+

,s!# in,t s,ch $s $ mo,s! c&ic0 o# 0!(st#o0!-

*&E&8T+pe* of B#>>er*

The di;erent tpes of buIIers are electric buIIers8 electronic

buIIers8 mechanical buIIers8 electromechanical8 magnetic

buIIers8 pieIoelectric buIIers and pieIo buIIers&

=i9 E$ectric 3#>>er* X

A basic model of electric buIIer usuall consists of simple circuit

components such as resistors8 a capacitor and /// timer !$ or an

integrated circuit with a range of timer and multi.vibrator

functions& !t wor's through small bits of electricit vibrating

together which causes sound&

3ii5 "lectronic buIIers G

An electronic buIIer comprises an acoustic vibrator comprised of

a circular metal plate having its entire peripher rigidl secured to

a support8 and a pieIoelectric element adhered to one face of the

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alarmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alarmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timer


54/59

metal plate& A driving circuit applies electric driving signals to the

vibrator to vibrationall drive it at a ,N multiple of its natural

freuenc8 where N is an integer8 so that the vibrator emits an

audible buIIing sound& The metal plate is preferabl mounted to

undergo vibration in a natural vibration mode having onl one

nodal circle& The drive circuit includes an inductor connected in a

closed loop with the vibrator8 which functions as a capacitor8 and

the circuit applies signals at a selectivel variable freuenc to

the closed loop to accordingl var the inductance of the inductor

to thereb var the period of oscillation of the acoustic vibrator

and the resultant freuenc of the buIIing sound&

3iii5 %echanical BuIIer.

A 5o( /,**!# is $n !1$m&! o+ $ ,#!&( m!ch$nic$& /,**!#-

3iv5 PieIo BuIIers PieIoelectric BuIIers G

A piezo buzzer is made from two conductors that are separated b

PieIo crstals& 9hen a voltage is applied to these crstals8 the

push on one conductor and pull on the other& The result of this

push and pull is a sound wave& These buIIers can be used for

man things8 li'e signaling when a period of time is up or ma'ing

a sound when a particular button has been pushed& The process

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joy_buzzerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joy_buzzer


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can also be reversed to use as a guitar pic'up& 9hen a sound

wave is passed8 the create an electric signal that is passed on to

an audio amplier&

Pi!*o /,**!#s $#! sm$&& !&!ct#onic '!"ic!s th$t !mit so,n's %h!n '#i"!n /( &o%

"o&t$)!s $n' c,##!nts- Th!( $#! $&so c$&&!' i!*o!&!ct#ic /,**!#s- Th!( ,s,$&&(

h$"! t%o !&!ct#o'!s $n' $ 'i$h#$)m- Th! 'i$h#$)m is m$'! +#om $ m!t$& &$t!

$n' i!*o!&!ct#ic m$t!#i$& s,ch $s $ c!#$mic &$t!-

3v5 %agnetic BuIIers G

M$)n!tic /,**!#s $#! m$)n!tic $,'i/&! si)n$& '!"ic!s %ith /,i&tin osci&&$tin)

ci#c,its- Th! const#,ction com/in!s $n osci&&$tion ci#c,it ,nit %ith $ '!t!ction coi&.

$ '#i"! coi& $n' $ m$)n!tic t#$ns',c!#- T#$nsisto#s. #!sisto#s. 'io'!s $n' oth!# sm$&&

'!"ic!s $ct $s ci#c,it '!"ic!s +o# '#i"in) so,n' )!n!#$to#s- With th! $&ic$tion o+

"o&t$)!. c,##!nt +&o%s to th! '#i"! coi& on #im$#( si'! $n' to th! '!t!ction coi& on

th! s!con'$#( si'!- Th! $m&i+ic$tion ci#c,it. inc&,'in) th! t#$nsisto# $n' th!

+!!'/$c0 ci#c,it. c$,s!s "i/#$tion- Th! osci&&$tion c,##!nt !1cit!s th! coi& $n' th!

,nit )!n!#$t!s $n AC m$)n!tic +i!&' co##!son'in) to $n osci&&$tion +#!,!nc(- This

AC m$)n!tic +i!&' m$)n!ti*!s th! (o0! com#isin) th! m$)n!tic ci#c,it- Th!

osci&&$tion +#om th! int!#mitt!nt m$)n!ti*$tion #omts th! "i/#$tion 'i$h#$)m to

"i/#$t! , $n' 'o%n. )!n!#$tin) /,**!# so,n's th#o,)h th! #!son$to#-

In this #o5!ct. $ m$)n!tic /,**!# h$s /!!n ,s!'-

:77: Circ#it of 3#>>er


56/59

:77; o$e of 3#>>er in thi* project

B,**!# in this s(st!m )i"!s th! /!! %h!n c$# mo"!s insi'! c,ttin) th! in+#$#!'

&i)ht- B$sic$&&( it )!n!#$t!s th! si)n$& to in'ic$t! th$t c$# h$s !nt!#!' in th! $#0in)

s$c!-


57/59

FUTUE APPLICATIONS"

Robots help automate thousands of factories around theworld&

Robot ma'es the deliver of mail8 pac'ages and materials

fast and eKcient&

Scientists and engineers have been e:perimenting with snow

ploughs and even passenger cars that can follow magnetic

lines in LsmartM highwas& These robotic vehicles can sense

the road8 obstacles and each other8 eliminating traKc snarls

and ma'ing our highwas safer and easier to travel&

Someda we will simpl tell our cars where to ta'e us and

line following circuitr will help get us there safel and

without e;ort


58/59

Conc$#*ion

In th! conc&,'in) #!m$#0s %! %o,&' &i0! to s$( th$t $s o,# O/st$c&! s!nsin) #o/ot

s,cc!ss+,&&( +o&&o% th! $th. sti&& it n!!'s som! mo'i+ic$tion- Som! mo'i+ic$tions

$#! n!!'!' to m$0! it sm$#t!# so th$t it c$n %o#0 mo#! !++ici!nt&(- To m$0! it +$st

$n' +,#io,s. mo#! s!nsiti"! s!nso#s $#! n!!'!'- A&so "ision/$s!' #o/otic s(st!m

c$n /! '!"!&o!' so th$t it c$n o/t$in th! im$)!s o+ o/st$c&!s $n' c$n ch$n)! $th-

To m$0! it mo#! in',st#( o#i!nt!' +$st s!nso#s $#! #!,i#!'- Cont#o& c$n /!

im#o"!' /( ,sin) st!!# moto#s-


59/59

BIBLIOGAP@!

ELECTRONIC DEICES AND CIRCUIT THEORY BY ROBERT L-

BOYLSTEAD AND LOUIS NASHELSKY

2Em/!''!' S(st!m ,sin) =?;62 E/oo0

L$&it K,m$# )o!& $n' G$,#$" Sh$#m$ +#om M!!#,t

OPAMPS AND LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS BY RAMAKANT A-

GAYAKWAD

DIGITAL DESIGN BY M-MORRIS MANO

A COURSE IN ELECTRICAL END ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS

AND INSTRUMENTATION BY A-K-SAWHNEY

SOME OF THE FOLLOWING WEB SITES WERE ACCESSED

• %%%-$&&'$t$sh!!ts-com

• %%%-'$t$sh!!tc$t$&o)-com

• %%%-!&!ct#onicci#c,itsch!m$tic-com

• %%%-!$n$#om$-com

• %%%-($hoo-com

• %%%-)oo)&!-com

• %%%-sci!&!ct#onics-com

• %%%-$#$&&$1-com

• %%%-$#$&&$1inc-com
http://www.alldatasheets.com/http://www.datasheetcatalog.com/http://www.electroniccircuitschematic.com/http://www.epanaroma.com/http://www.yahoo.com/http://www.google.com/http://www.scielectronics.com/http://www.parallax.com/http://www.parallaxinc.com/http://www.alldatasheets.com/http://www.datasheetcatalog.com/http://www.electroniccircuitschematic.com/http://www.epanaroma.com/http://www.yahoo.com/http://www.google.com/http://www.scielectronics.com/http://www.parallax.com/http://www.parallaxinc.com/

Obstacle Sensing Robot Report

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