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International Journal of Advanced Life Sciences (IJALS) ISSN2277 – 758X

Shivi Bhasin et al., IJALS, Volume (8) Issue (2) May - 2015. RESEARCH ARTICLE

Introduction

The most important natural gift for mankind is

water, which plays an important role in different vital

and structural activities. It is well known that water

is a prime source for industrial development, irrigation,

hydroelectric generation, drinking purpose and

domestic uses for human survival. The quality of water

in Indian cities is deteriorating rapidly due to increase

in population, industrialisation, development and lack

of proper sanitary facilities and treatment of waste, all

of which put together a great pressure on the existing

water resources. It is felt that there is urgent need to

document the quality of water and to identify future

trends, particularly in developing towns. The causative

factors responsible for degradation of water quality

need to be evaluated so as to take the proper steps

before the situation becomes worse and uncontrollable.

The Kshipra river is one of the sacred Indian

rivers and treated as the soul of the city Ujjain. The

shape and structure of the river flank the city suggests

the intimacy and religious activities and tourism are

dependent on Kshipra river. In the “Avantika Khand”of “Skanda puran” the importance of Ujjain and itsenvironments and about Kshipra river is described in

AbstractAn attempt has been made to analyse water quality of the river Kshipra

in Ujjain and Dewas district of Madhya Pradesh (M.P). India. Kshipra is a lowflowing river subjected to varying degree of pollution caused by numerousuntreated or partially treated waste inputs from municipal effluents, differentworship rituals and anthropogenic activities. In the present study, water qualityof the river was analysed by collecting samples from November 2013 - October2014 covering all three seasons. Different physicochemical parameters includingair and water temperature, transparency, turbidity, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO),biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), totalhardness, chloride, calcium, carbonate, bi-carbonate, total alkalinity, faecal andtotal coliform were analysed. Lower values of DO (3.8-8.4mg/lit), higher valuesof COD (24.4-180.6 mg/lit) and BOD (13.6-43.8 mg/lit) indicate a higher degreeof organic pollution rendering water to be unsuitable for drinking and bathingpurpose. Presence of faecal and total coliform indicates contamination of theriver water by faeces and certify the presence of pathogenic microbes. Ramghat,Mangalnath and Triveni were found to be the most impaired segment of the riverdue to performance of worship rituals and anthropogenic activities. However,water quality index and water quality of the entire stretch of Kshipra river wasfound to be bad at all five sites and water of the river is reported to be in D classwith respect to CPCB classification criteria. So, water quality monitoringprograms and public awareness are urgently required to achieve standardsdetermined by CPCB and WHO for the maintenance and conservation of thissacred river.Keywords : Physico-chemical, microbiological parameters, water quality,pollution and Kshipra river

Observations on physicochemical and microbiological parameters of Kshipra riverwith special reference to water quality

Shivi Bhasin, Arvind N. Shukla and Sharad ShrivastavaSchool of Studies in Zoology and Biotechnology, Vikram University, Ujjain (M.P.), India

E-mail: [email protected]

Corresponding AuthorShivi Bhasin

School of Studies in Zoologyand Biotechnology,Vikram University,Ujjain (M.P.), India

Email : [email protected] History

Received on 22 February, 2015;Received in revised form

23 March, 2015; Accepted20 April, 2015

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“Avanti kshetra Mahatmya” (Chapter 40 - 47). The

main catchment areas of the river such as Indore,

Dewas and Ujjain are polluted due to intensive

urbanisation and industrialization. Besides this the

agriculture in their regions is another source of

pollution. During rainy season, the fertilizers and

pesticides used in crop field are drained into the

Kshipra river along with several other agricultural

waste. The domestic waste of Indore, Dewas and Ujjain

city are also source of pollution, some open drainages

at Ujjain contains dyes of Bhairavgarh prints are

numerous in number that they have to be considered as

a source of pollution. Further indiscriminate defecation,

littering of solid waste all around and into the river,

washing of vehicles and cloths, crimination and

dumping of ashes of dead bodies, mass bathing,

dumping of flowers and coconuts, cattle’s bathingand some other anthropogenic stresses are the main

source for disturbing the water quality and ecological

status of this river. It is essential to get timely,

information of the water quality status of this river to

take proper precautions before this water body is fully

destroyed. In view of the above the present study is

conducted to observe the detail water quality monitoring

of Kshipra river which will be useful for getting the

clean water and thus conservation of this holy river.

Materials and Methods

Study area

River Kshipra originates from a hill of Vindhya

range, one mile south of Kshipra village lying 12 km

southeast of Indore city (M.P.). It flows approximately

between latitude 22º49’ and 23º50’N, longitude of75º45’ and 75º35’S. River flows across the Malwa

plateau to join river Chambal which later joins Gangtic

system. In the present study, five study sites with high

anthropogenic activities were selected on the banks of

river Kshipra, they include Kshipra village (1), Triveni

(2), Ramghat (3), Mangalnath (4) and Mahidpur (5).

Water Sampling

Sampling was collected monthly from November

2013 to October 2014 for isolation of microorganisms.

Bacterial samples were collected aseptically using 500

ml sterile bottles and kept in an ice bucket, then they

were transported to the base laboratory within 24 hours.

For analysis of physicochemical parameters, samples

were collected in 2 lit. sterile bottles, which were kept

in ice bucket and transported to the base laboratory

within 24 hours.

Isolation and Identification of Total and Faecal

coliform

The microbiological parameters like total

coliform, faecal coliform were isolated by using

methods of APHA (2005). These samples were diluted

to 103 and were subjected to the membrane filtration

technique, after filtration membranes were placed on

different media and then incubated at 37 C for 24

hours. MaConkey Agar and Briliant Green media were

used for obtaining faecal and total coliform count.

Analysis of Physicochemical Parameters

Sampling and analysis of various physico-

chemical parameters were done by using standard

methods given in APHA (2005). Water Quality Index

was calculated according to Mr. Brain Orams WQI

Index, consumer support group online calculator

(Oram, 2007).

Results and Discussion

Seasonal physicochemical and bacteriological

variations of Kshipra river at five different sites from

October 2013-November 2014 are represented in

Table 1 - 5. About seventeen physicochemical and

microbiological parameters such as Air temperature,

water temperature, pH, turbidity, transparency, total

hardness, calcium, chloride, carbonate, bi-carbonate,

total alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen

demand, chemical oxygen demand, faecal coliform,




total coliform and water quality index were estimated.

Variations registered in different parameters are

summed up as follows

Temperature

Air temperature values ranged between 12.2C-

44.0C at all five sites. Minimum value of 12.2Cwas observed at Ramghat in the month of December

2013 and maximum value of 44.4C was observed at

Kshipra village in the month of May. Surface water

temperature ranged between 18.1 - 31.2C, 18.2 -

32.7C, 14.6-27.2C, 10.9 - 31.9C and 16.8 - 30.2Cat one to five selected study sites respectively. The

minimum water temperature value 10.9C was reported

at Mangalnath in the month of December 2013,

whereas maximum temperature 32.7C was recorded

at the Triveni study site during the month of May.

Gangwar et.al (2012) reported water temperature

within a range of 20.4-21.7C, 33.4 - 35.9C and 30.1 -

31.9C in winter, summer and rainy seasons respecti-

vely from river Ramganga U. P. Krishna et.al (2012)

reported water temperature within range of 9.25 -

21.05C and 8.01-22.13C from river Kaveri, Tamil

Nadu. Temperature also affects chemical reactions and

reaction rates within the water thereby influencing its

suitability for use (Matcalf and Eddy, 2003).

Transparancy

Transparency of any water body is turbidity

dependent. Higher the turbidity lower is the trans-

parency. In the present study the maximum trans-

parency was observed at Kshipra village (86.0cm) in

the month of December and minimum was observed

at Ramghat (33.8 cm) in the month of August. Low

transparency was recorded during the summer due

to high turbidity and algal blooms while maximum

transparency was observed in winter which denotes

comparatively clean water. Similar trends were reported

by different researchers in various ranges 21 – 48 cm

in Mandakini river U.P. (Chaurasia and Rajkiran,

2014), 7.5 - 48.5 cm in the Manipur river system

(Singh et al., 2010) and 60 - 220 cm from Nile river

Egypt (Sabae and Rabeh, 2007).

Turbidity

The turbidity in water is the reduction of

transparency due to the presence of particulate matter

such as clay or silt finely divided organic matter,

plankton or other microscopic organism. Turbidity

values in the present study are exhibited between 12 -

40 NTU. The maximum value of 40 NTU was observed

at Ramghat and a minimum of 12 NTU was reported

in January at Kshipra village. Maximum values during

the summer are due to reduction in water volume and

higher concentration of organic matter, whereas vice-

versa minimum turbidity values were reported during

the winter season. Similar, trends were reported by

different researchers Kumar and Sharma (2002) at

Krishna river, Mishra and Joshi (2003) at Ganga

Haridwar, Begam et al. (2006) at Davangere reservoir

Karnatak and Chauhan and Singh (2010). Some

workers have reported higher turbidity values during

monsoon season due to runoff and inflow of water

(Ganwar et al., 2012). Turbidity is reported in different

ranges 5.6 - 5.9 NTU in Owena Dam, Nigeria (Irenosen

et al., 2012) and Ganga river (Kumar et al. 2010). The

turbidity values of Kshipra river show intermediate

position when compared to other rivers. However, it

was found to be above maximum permissible limits.

Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)

pH value is the logarithm of hydrogen ion

activity in moles / litre. In water solutions variations in

pH values from 7 are mainly due to hydrolyses of salt

of strong bases and weak acid or vice-versa. pH in the

Kshipra river system ranged from 7.7 - 8.9 at all five

sites respectively. Minimum values (7.7) were observed

at Triveni in the month of November and maximum

values were observed in the month of June (8.9) at




Ramghat. The main reason for high pH in summer is

due to high pollution load in river during summer

which directly influences pH values. A higher value

of pH in summer is also attributed to the fact that in

summer an increase in photosynthetic activities in

the river is observed and natural water are alkaline

due to the presence of a large quantity of black ashes

of dead bodies and other organic materials which are

constantly added in Kshipra river. Bhagat et al. (2013)

has reported pH within the range of 9.2 - 11.7 in Sutlej

river Punjab. Gangwar (2012) recorded pH values

range between 8.1-8.8 from river Ramganga, U.P.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Dissolved oxygen is one of the most important

and highly fluctuating factors in water (Solanki, 2007).

It reflects the physical and biological process prevailing

in water. Its presence is essential to maintain various

forms of biological life in water. The effects of a

waste discharge in a water body are largely determined

by the oxygen balance of the system. The organisms

become stressed when DO level drops to 4 - 2 mg/lit.

The present study reports DO within range of 3.8-8.4

mg/lit. Highest DO in Kshipra river system was

reported at Kshipra village during winter, whereas lowest

Table - 1. Physico-chemical and Microbiological parameters during November 2013 to October 2014 at Kshipravillage study site of Kshipra river

Parameters Nov.2013

Dec.2013

Jan.2014

Feb.2014

Mar.2014

Apr.2014

May.2014

Jun.2014

Jul.2014

Aug.2014

Sep.2014

Oct.2014

AtmosphericTemperature (ºC)

25 19 13.1 20 30 43 44 40 32.4 31.9 30.2 28.5

Water Temperature(ºC)

20.2 18.1 19.0 18.5 28.0 31.2 30.8 31.2 30.6 29.2 27.6 25.8

Transparency (cm) 79 86 84 60 54 52 47 43 40 40 56 70Turbidity (NTU) 16 15 12 13 18 23 27 32 28 26 21 23pH 7.9 8.0 7.9 8.0 8.2 8.4 8.4 8.5 8.4 8.3 8.2 8.2Carbonate (mg/l) 8 8 7 10 14 17 22 24 20 18 14 12Bicarbonate (mg/l) 180 176 164 166 182 184 188 190 186 186 184 182Total Alkalinity(mg/l)

188 184 171 176 196 201 210 214 206 204 198 294

Chloride (mg/l) 59.94 54.94 51.94 55.94 59.94 69.93 71.92 74.92 71.92 69.93 70.92 67.93Calcium (mg/l) 56.11 55.31 53.70 56.91 59.31 64.12 66.53 67.33 66.53 64.92 59.31 57.71Total Hardness(mg/l)

156 142 144 146 150 158 172 190 188 184 178 166

Dissolved Oxygen(mg/l)

7.6 7.8 8.4 7.6 7.4 7.2 6.8 6.6 6.8 7.2 7.4 7.4

Biological OxygenDemand (mg/l)

14.2 13.6 14.2 15.8 16.2 16.8 18.4 19.8 19.2 17.6 17.2 15.8

Chemical OxygenDemand (mg/l)

35.6 33.4 34.2 37.6 38.8 38.6 39.2 39.8 38.4 36.8 36.4 36.2

Faecal Coliform(X 103 CFU/100ml)

86 74 72 78 88 94 104 98 106 97 90 93

Total Coliform(X 103 CFU/100ml)

140 138 142 150 160 190 182 196 198 180 176 164

Water QualityIndex

30 29 30 29 27 25 23 24 24 25 26 26




values were registered at Ramghat in summer, which

is reflection of continuous discharge of organic waste,

nutrient input, industrial discharge, agricultural and

urban runoff which results in decreased DO content.

Bhagat et al. (2013) observed DO within range of

3.0 - 9.3 mg/lit where highest values were observed

in summer season at Sutlej river Punjab. Zeb et al.

(2011) reported DO to lie in the range of 4.5-8.5 mg/ lit

where high values were reported in winter and lower in

summer season in Siran river Pakistan. Gangwar et al.

(2012) reported DO within range of 5.8-6.3 mg/lit on

Ramganga river U.P. Krishna et al. (2012) registered

DO ranged between 5.24-11.47 mg/lit in Kaveri river

Tamil Nadu. Solanki et al. (2012) recorded DO values

within range of 4 - 8 mg/lit in Sabarmati river Gujrat.

Chaurasia et al. (2015) reported DO within range of

5.98 - 7.88 mg/lit in Mandakni river M.P. Bhutiani

et al. (2014) reported DO values ranged between 9.50-

11.0 mg/lit in Ganga river. Singh et al. (2013) recorded

DO values were ranged between 0.9 - 6.9 mg/lit on

Gomti river which was found to be associated with

regions having high sewage drainage and maximum

turbidity. Comparatively, least DO concentration

pattern can be seen in the present study in Kshipra

river which may be due to disposal of domestic sewage,

other oxygen demanding waste and pilgrim activities.

Table - 2. Physico-chemical and Microbiological parameters during November 2013 to October 2014 at Trivenistudy site of Kshipra river

Parameters Nov.2013

Dec.2013

Jan.2014

Feb.2014

Mar.2014

Apr.2014

May.2014

Jun.2014

Jul.2014

Aug.2014

Sep.2014

Oct.2014


20.6 19.4 17.2 24.3 31.1 39.2 41.3 41.5 29.4 28.5 28.9 24.6


18.5 17.9 18.2 21.6 27.8 30.8 32.7 32.4 24.8 23.7 23.5 20.4

Transparency (cm) 72.2 82.4 81.3 68.6 50.4 49.3 44.4 41.5 36.6 36.8 50.6 65.4Turbidity (NTU) 20 18 19 24 25 26 28 35 38 39 35 26pH 7.7 8.0 7. 8.0 8.4 8.6 8.8 8.8 8.6 8.5 8.3 8.0Carbonate (mg/l) 12 10 10 12 17 24 26 28 26 22 18 14Bicarbonate (mg/l) 242 234 272 306 312 324 336 348 346 308 280 252Total Alkalinity(mg/l)

254 244 282 318 329 348 362 376 372 330 298 266


362 420 394 360 420 492 420 432 440 380 372 366


6.2 6.4 6.4 6.0 5.6 5.4 5.2 4.8 5.2 6.0 6.0 6.2


23.2 22.8 22.4 24.4 29.2 34.4 39.6 40.8 40.2 34.2 28.6 26.2


65.4 64.2 65.8 69.4 90.4 112.8 124.2 130.8 129.2 102.4 80.6 72.6


162 158 164 170 198 256 268 290 274 270 196 172


312 309 306 346 372 382 560 600 572 482 344 328

Water QualityIndex

27 26 27 25 26 21 19 18 20 20 22 25




Total Alkalinity

Alkalinity of water is a measure of weak acid

present in it and of the cations balanced against them.

Total alkalinity of water is due to the presence of the

mineral salt present in it. Likewise measuring alkalinity

is important in determining river’s ability to neutralize

acidic pollution. It is primarily caused by carbonate

and Bi-carbonate ions (Singh et al., 2010). The present

study reports alkalinity to lie within the range of

171-381mg/lit where maximum values of alkalinity

were reported at Mangalnath and lower values were

reported at Kshipra village respectively. Alkalinity is an

important parameter for assessment of water quality as

reported by researchers in different water bodies.

Kumar et al. (2011) reported alkalinity within 123 -

240 mg/lit from Yamuna river at Hamidpur. Bhor

et al. (2013) observed highest alkalinity (791.8 mg/lit)

in the month of June from Godavari river at Nasik.

Arora (2012) registered alkalinity values ranging

between 28 - 31 mg/lit from Ganga river. Similarly,

Raghuvanshi et al. (2014) recorded alkalinity ranged

between 150.7 - 189.3 mg/lit where higher values were

registered during summer. Values of alkalinity were

high during the summer this is due to low water level,

discharge of untreated waste, addition of sewage and

domestic waste, etc. The alkaline nature of water

could be attributed to the buffering capacities of

inorganic substances. Alkalinity itself is not harmful

to humans, still the water supply is less than 100 mg/lit

of alkalinity are desired for domestic use. In Kshipra

river total alkalinity value exceeded desirable limit at

all study sites throughout the study period.

Total hardness

Hardness in water comprises the determination of

Calcium and magnesium ions as they are the main

constituent of the earth crust and are responsible for

rock formation. This often leads to considerable

hardness level in surface water. Hardness values in the

present study were registered within the range of 142 -

524 mg/lit and maximum values were observed at

Ramghat whereas minimum were observed at Kshipra

village. Ramghat is one of the biggest mass bath

centres of Kshipra river, it also accounts for high

anthropogenic activities and worship rituals. The

accumulation of soap films, hair, dead skin, body oil,

dirt and body ashes at Ramghat make it to be the most

favourable centre for hardness. High values of hardness

in summer are mainly due to rising temperature,

increasing the solubility of calcium and magnesium

salts and due to reduced water volume. One of the

arbitrary classification of water by hardness include;

Soft up to 50 mg/lit, moderately soft 51-100 mg/lit,

slightly hard up to 101-150 mg/lit, moderately hard up

to 150-250 mg/lit, hard up to 251-350 mg/lit and

extensively hard over 350 mg/lit (IEPA, 2001).

According to the classification of IEPA with reference

to hardness, water of the river Kshipra was found to

vary from being moderately hard to being extensively

hard. Similar, trends have been reported by researchers

in different water bodies. Zeb et al. (2011) reported

mean hardness values of 56.9 mg/lit in the winter

and 67.7 mg/lit in summer at Siran river Pakistan,

Irenosen et al. (2012) reported hardness within range

of 62.27 - 97.00 mg/lit where higher values were

reported in the summer owena dam nigeria. Similarly,

many Limnologists have reported value of hardness

in different water bodies in India. Sharma et al. (2014)

reported high hardness values (850 mg/lit) from

Hindon river U.P. in summer and lower in monsoon

and winter. Bhor et al. (2013) reported maximum

hardness values (791 mg/lit) in June from Godavari

river at Nasik. Krishna et al. (2012) reported highest

values of hardness in the month of May and June and

low values in November in Kaveri river at Tamil Nadu.

Chloride

Chloride can take as one of the main ingredients




of water pollution, which enters river water from

sewage drains of the city along with drainage basin

and discharge of domestic sewage. Man and other

animals excrete very high quantity of chloride together

with nitrogenous compound. Minimum (51.94 mg

/lit) and maximum values (209.97 mg/lit) of chloride

in Kshipra river water were obtained at Kshipra

village in the month of January and Ramghat in the

month of June respectively. Higher values of chloride

were observed during the summer and the onset of rain.

During summer water level was considerably low in

comparison to other two seasons due to evaporation

and the concentration of anion was raised. High chloride

concentration in water indicates the presence of

Table - 3. Physico-chemical and Microbiological parameters during November 2013 to October 2014 at Ramghatstudy site of Kshipra river

Parameters Nov.2013

Dec.2013

Jan.2014

Feb.2014

Mar.2014

Apr.2014

May.2014

Jun.2014

Jul.2014

Aug.2014

Sep.2014

Oct.2014

Atmospherictemperature (ºC)

18.0 12.2 24.0 23.2 35.1 35.8 31.0 30.6 28.0 27.2 26.6 24.5

Watertemperature (ºC)

17.0 14.6 19.1 20.2 25.2 26.3 27.2 25.8 25.2 23.9 22.2 20.2

Transparency(cm)

61.1 68.2 76.2 70.1 48.2 43.1 38.2 35.1 34.0 33.8 37.5 44.6

Turbidity (NTU) 25.0 21.0 19.0 23.0 29.0 34.0 40.0 39.0 40.0 36.0 37.0 30.0pH 8.2 8.0 8.0 8.2 8.3 8.6 8.8 8.9 8.8 8.7 8.5 8.4Carbonate (mg/l) 14 14 13 15 20 25 30 33 35 27 24 18Bicarbonate(mg/l)

248 242 260 293 318 330 344 348 346 322 290 258

Total Alkalinity(mg/l)

262 242 273 308 338 355 374 381 346 349 314 276

Chloride (mg/l) 110.88 108.89 105.89 122.87 134.86 145.85 198.80 208.79 209.79 159.84 139.86 121.87Calcium(mg/l)

74.54 72.14 72.94 78.55 82.56 88.17 89.77 92.18 91.38 86.57 82.56 78.55

Total Hardness(mg/l)

394 390 382 396 410 418 494 524 520 506 488 408

DissolvedOxygen (mg/l)

6.0 6.4 6.0 4.0 4.0 4.4 4.2 4.0 3.8 5.6 5.8 6.0

BiologicalOxygen Demand(mg/l)

26.6 25.2 24.4 27.2 33.8 37.2 41.6 43.8 42.6 38.4 34.6 30.8

ChemicalOxygen Demand(mg/l)

96.4 90.2 89.2 95.4 122.8 148.2 166.4 178.4 180.6 134.8 110.4 102.4


216 202 206 228 252 282 298 322 296 290 262 238

Total Coliform(X 103 CFU /100ml)

426 402 390 410 478 590 712 768 690 622 598 512

Water QualityIndex

24 25 25 24 22 20 18 17 18 19 20 22




organic waste, primarily of animal origin. However,

the permissible limits for chloride is <250 mg/lit, and

Kshipra river system was found to be near permissible

limits for chloride concentration. Ramghat shows

comparatively higher concentration (209.97 mg/lit) due

to sewage accumulation and activities like mass baths,

cloths washing and performance of different worship

rituals. Urination by humans and animals in river water

also tend to increase the chloride content of the water

body. Chloride has been reported by several workers in

different concentration in water bodies in India and

abroad. Semwal and Akolkar (2006) reported chloride

ranged between 8.8 - 20.0mg/lit from a sacred river of

Uttrakhand. Singh et al. (2010) reported chloride

within range of 20.66 - 142.66 mg/lit from Manipur

river system, they also reported higher chloride concen-

tration in summer and least in winter. Bhor et al.

(2013) observed chloride ranged between 172.0 - 903.3

mg/lit from Godavari river U.P. and reported maximum

chloride concentration in June. Krishna et al. (2012)

reported lower chloride range from Kaveri river in

Tamil Nadu. Ochuko (2014) recorded higher values of

chloride in the months of May and June (7.30 mg/lit)

from river Ash Nigeria. Through, chloride concentration

Table – 4. Physico-chemical and Microbiological parameters during November 2013 to October 2014 Mangalnathstudy site of Kshipra river

Parameters Nov.2013

Dec.2013

Jan.2014

Feb.2014

Mar.2014

Apr.2014

May.2014

Jun.2014

Jul.2014

Aug.2014

Sep.2014

Oct.2014


20.4 9.0 12.6 21.2 26.4 33.7 38.1 39.2 30.8 27.9 27.1 23.6


18.3 10.9 13.9 18.2 24.6 28.9 31.6 31.9 26.4 22.8 21.6 19.8

Transparency (cm) 68.2 72.4 83.3 65.2 50.4 46.2 41.3 38.2 34.3 34.1 40.6 46.7Turbidity (NTU) 23 20 20 25 27 29 32 38 37 40 37 29pH 7.8 8.0 7.8 8.1 8.5 8.7 8.8 8.8 8.7 8.7 8.5 8.2Carbonate (mg/l) 13 12 11 13 19 26 28 30 28 25 22 16Bicarbonate (mg/l) 244 240 264 290 320 328 340 350 348 318 285 256Total Alkalinity(mg/l)

257 252 275 303 339 354 368 380 376 343 307 272


282 256 294 320 390 410 480 518 514 504 484 342


6.0 6.2 6.2 5.8 4.8 5.6 4.2 4.2 4.6 5.4 5.8 6.0


25.4 24.6 23.2 26.8 31.4 36.8 40.8 41.4 41.2 36.6 30.4 29.2


78.6 74.2 72.8 80.2 96.2 118.2 126.2 138.2 112.6 88.2 82.6 80.08

Faecal Coliform (X103 CFU/100ml)

189 182 185 194 210 266 274 298 270 226 207 197

Total Coliform (X103 CFU/100ml)

364 358 362 388 448 506 678 694 614 538 446 390

Water quality index 26 25 27 24 21 20 19 18 19 19 20 22




in Kshipra river was high, it was reported to be near to

the permissible limit.

[[CalciumCalcium is a major constituent of various types

of rocks and is present abundantly in natural water.

Calcium is leached from rocks and is responsible for

contaminating water. Disposal of sewage and industrial

waste are an important source of calcium. In the present

study higher values of calcium were registered with a

minimum (50.73 mg/lit) and maximum (92.18 mg/lit)

in water of the Kshipra river at Kshipra village in the

month of January and Ramghat in the month of June.

Irenosen et al. (2012) reported low calcium level

from Owena dam Nigeria. 2.52 - 15.90 mg/lit. Bhor

et al. (2013) reported calcium ranged between 2-14.6

mg/lit from Godavari river Nasik. Singh et al. (2010)

reported calcium concentration range between 6.01-

17.63 mg/lit from the Manipur river system. Higher

concentration was reported during the summer and

minimum during rainy season. However, among Indian

rivers Kshipra shows highest value of Calcium. This

variation is attributed to geographical differences

and soil composition of the river bed and the degree

of weathering of terrains through this river.

Table – 5. Physico-chemical and Microbiological parameters during November 2013 to October 2014 at Mahidpurstudy site of Kshipra river

ParametersNov.2013

Dec.2013

Jan.2014

Feb.2014

Mar.2014

Apr.2014

May.2014

Jun.2014

Jul.2014

Aug.2014

Sep.2014

Oct.2014


24.2 21.0 13.0 20.0 32.0 34.0 36.2 37.5 30.5 31.0 25.8 25.2

WaterTemperature (ºC)

19.6 17.9 16.8 19.2 25.2 27.6 28.3 30.2 28.2 27.6 28 23.1

Transparency (cm) 76.0 84.0 82.0 71.0 52.0 52.0 46.0 42.0 40.0 39.0 54.0 67.0Turbidity (NTU) 17 16 14 15 19 24 36 33 24 25 33 24pH 8.0 8.1 8.0 8.1 8.3 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.6 8.4 8.3 8.2Carbonate (mg/l) 10 9 8 10 15 16 24 26 24 20 18 17Bicarbonate (mg/l) 184 180 166 170 184 190 194 196 194 194 190 188Total Alkalinity(mg/l)

194 189 174 180 199 206 218 222 218 214 208 205

Chloride (mg/l) 6o.93 56.94 53.94 55.94 61.93 71.92 73.92 75.92 74.92 71.92 71.92 70.92Calcium (mg/l) 64.12 63.32 61.72 65.73 70.54 73.74 79.35 81.76 80.16 78.55 73.14 67.33Total Hardness(mg/l)

156 142 144 146 150 158 172 190 188 184 178 166


7.2 7.4 8.0 7.8 7.2 6.8 6.0 5.8 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.8


15.2 14.4 14.2 16.2 16.8 17.4 19.6 20.4 19.8 19.2 17.8 17.2


48.2 45.8 45.4 46.2 58.4 52.6 86.4 88.6 86.2 74.6 62.4 54.8


98 92 89 95 103 106 108 112 104 102 101 98


168 160 158 164 186 194 198 212 210 198 194 186

Water QualityIndex

29 28 29 28 26 23 21 21 22 23 24 25




Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Biological oxygen demand values indicate

organic enrichment and show the decay of plants

and animal matter in a water body. It is an important

parameter to assess pollution of surface and ground

water, where contamination accused due to disposal

of domestic and industrial effluents. The BOD

recorded from all five sites range between 13.6 - 43.8

mg/lit. Highest BOD value was observed at Ramghat

in summer, and lowest in winter at Kshipra village.

In summer BOD value increases due to increased

biological activities at elevated temperature, high

input of organic pollutants and reduced flow of

water. Lower BOD values in winter indicate reduction

of biological activities of microorganisms at lower

temperature. Similar trends were recorded by

Raghuvanshi et al. (2014) observed high BOD (7 - 12.6

mg/lit) during summer season at Ganga river Allahabad.

Sharma et al. (2010) 11.6 - 23.7 mg/lit from Noyyal

river Perur at Tamil Nadu, India. Behmanesh and

Feizabadi (2013) 0.4 - 3 mg/lit from Babolrood river

Bangladesh, Zeb et al. (2011) 0.92 - 23.98 mg/lit from

Siran river Pakistan, Ochuka et al. (2014) 3.5 - 12.8

mg/lit from river Ase Nigeria. In the present study

values of BOD were always recorded much above

from permissible limits indicating the presence of

decomposable organic matter in the river.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is the amount

of oxygen required by the organic substances in the

waste to oxidise them by strong chemical oxidant. In

the present study, COD values, ranged between

34.4 mg/lit to 180.6 mg/lit. Minimum COD values were

obtained at Kshipra village in the month of January

while maximum at Ramghat in the month of June.

Higher values of COD were observed during summer

season due to reduction in water volume, enrichment

of organic substances and nutrients. Comparatively,

higher COD was observed at Ramghat due to perfor-

mance of worship rituals and abundance of anthro-

pogenic activities, whereas, lowest was reported at

Kshipra village due to less pollution load. Chaurasia

and Rajkiran (2014) reported COD within range of 12 -

48mg/lit on Mandakini river, Semwal and Akolkar

(2006) reported COD ranged between 11-18.33 mg/lit

in Ganga river. Zeb et al. (2011) reported COD 20.7-

28.2 mg/lit in Siran river Pakistan, Singh et al. (2013)

registered COD ranged between 37.6-60.8 mg/lit in

Gomti river U.P., Kumar et al. (2011) observed COD

between 13.6-14.0 mg/lit in Yamuna river. Krishna et

al. (2012) observed COD range between 16.0 - 35.0

mg/lit on the Kaveri river at Tamil Nadu. Irenosen et al.

(2012) registered COD between 13.4 - 14.4 mg/lit from

Owena dam Nigeria. In the present study COD values

wer comparatively higher than other Indian rivers,

which denotes more organic pollution in the river.

Faecal and Total Coliform

The biological character sticks of water and

wastewater are of fundamental importance to human

health, in controlling diseases caused by pathogenic

microbes of human origin and because of the role

they played in decomposition of waste (Metcaff and

Eddy, 2003). Faecal coliform (FC) is associated with

bacteria in the gut, because of their large number and

long survival in water they are easily detected. They

are also considered as an evidence of the presence

of interstitial pathogenic bacteria in water. FC has

shown to be an indicator of recent microbial pollution.

They represent 93-99% of coliform bacteria in faeces

from human, poultry, cats, dogs and rodents and total

coloform are also general indicators of contaminated

water which becomes contaminated from nature or

faeces. Monthly changes in FC and TC count were

registered where highest count was reported at

Ramghat (FC: 290x103 CFU/100ml, TC: 600x103 CFU




/100ml) in the month of June and lowest in the month

of December at Kshipra village study site (FC:72x103

CFU/100ml, TC: 138 x 103 CFU/100ml). Higher counts

in summer may be attributed to the fact that during

summer suitable environmental conditions prevail for

bacterial growth. Indiscriminate defecation along the

river banks by both humans and other animals that

graze along the river banks are major reasons for the

increased bacterial count and because of these facts

Ramghat shows maximum FC and TC counts

respectively. Shrivastava et al. (2011) reported higher

FC count during the monsoon season from Gomti

river. Shawky et al., (2007) observed FC count within

range of 21 - 7500 CFU/100 ml and TC count ranged

between 240-1,60,000 CFU /100 ml from Nile river

Egypt where highest count was reported during the

summer. Chaurasia and Raj Kiran (2014) registered FC

count ranged between 842 - 4834 CFU/100 ml from

Mandakini river U.P. Sati et al. (2011) reported FC

count ranged between 5 - 170 CFU/100 ml and TC

count within the range of 25 - 250 CFU/100 ml from

Alaknanda and Bhagirati rivers. Warqa et al. (2014)

recorded FC count between 100-2400 CFU/100 ml and

TC count 200-1700 CFU/100 ml from the Tigris river

Bagdad city. However, in present study river Kshipra

shows higher count then other rivers which certifies

contamination of the river water by faecal matter and

the presence of pathogenic organisms.

Water Quality Index (WQI)

WQI ranged from 20 - 30 throughout the study

period where highest value was registered at Kshipra

village and lowest at Ramghat indicating high pollution

load. According to Brain Oram online calculator water

quality index legend range between 90 - 100 indicates

excellent water quality, 70 - 90 indicates good water

quality, 60-70 indicates medium water quality, 25 - 50

refers bad water quality and 0 - 25 certifies very bad

water quality (Oram, 2007). The water quality index

was reported in the order as Ramghat> Mangalnath>

Triveni> Mahidpur> Kshipra village. Sharma et al.

(2014) recorded WQI values 32 - 42 in Hindon river

U.P. and categorized all locations of Hindon river to

have bad water quality. The study indicates positive

correlation between temperature, turbidity, total

alkalinity, total hardness, BOD,COD, FC and TC,

whereas DO and transparency showed negative

correlation with pH, total hardness, BOD, COD, FC

and TC. Similar findings were reported by Bhor et al.

(2013) in Godavari river at Maharastra and stated that

continuously pollution of water sources by human

activities may lead to some health problems to humans.

Ramghat is one of the most polluted sites on

Kshipra river. Presence of brick making activity was

observed between Triveni and Ramghat about 100

brick kilns have damaged the flood plains. These

pollutants were found to enter the river which

contribute to an increased pollution load at Ramghat.

In developing countries, the main source of river

pollution is mainly via faecal contamination, discharge

of untreated waste and sewage in the water body,

lack of proper sanitation facilities and agricultural

runoff. In developed countries, industrial effluents,

agricultural runoff and mixing of pesticides and

fertilizes with the river or tap water contributes as a

major source of water contamination. In such

industrialised countries, the success of applied control

strategies is confirmed a by small number of water-

born outbreak caused by various water born microbes.

In a resource constrained country like India, surface

water is used for drinking, bathing, recreational and

holy activities. However, factors like sewage and waste

discharge, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff

contribute to increase the level of pollution in Indian

river, but another factor which is a very important

reason for pollution of Indian river system is the

occurrence of religious festivals conducted on the




banks of major Indian holy rivers like Ganga, Yamuna,

Godavari, Kshipra, etc. The river water gets flooded

with many worship rituals and this water if used

without proper treatment can lead to various health

hazards. River Kshipra hosts the Mahakumbh mela

which is a religious festival organized in every twelve

years, attracting millions of tourists and devotees

from all around the world to take bath in this sacred

river, this gives rise to massive mass baths further

depleting water quality. Apart from washing with

detergents, piligrim offer milk, curd, ghee, flowers,

coconuts, coins, ashes and other religious material in

water. This material is brought in polythene bags which

are dumped by the devotees in the river . These are

non-biodegradable so they disturb the aquatic flora

and fauna (Bhasin et al. 2015). River Kshipra enjoys

the status of Goddess in Hindu mythology, so dumping

of body ashes and statues of Lord Ganesha, Durga

and other is an evident act observed at the banks of

this river. These activities certify that in holy rivers

of India mode and nature of pollution is different

from water bodies across the world. However, CPCB

(1995) recommended that total coliform should be less

than 500 in bathing water. DO of 5mg/lit. or more and

BOD 3mg/lit. or less. The water of Kshipra river does

not fit in the above mentioned criteria and was found to

be in D class of water with respect to CPCB

classification criteria.

ConclusionThe maintenance of aquatic life depends on

the interactions between physicochemical, biological

and microbiological parameters. Due, to increased

pollution levels river water is found to be in highly

stressed conditions. The study would help water quality

monitoring and management in order to improve the

quality of water with minimum sustaining manage-

ment. The present study shows high values of pollution

indicator parameters such as transparency, turbidity,

pH, total alkalinity, total hardness, DO, BOD,COD

chloride and calcium which confirms the extensive

pollution load on the river. Lower values of water

quality index indicate very bad state of the river

water. In order to save this holy river from further

deterioration effective pollution control measures must

be taken in near future. For this purpose, stringent

precautions should be formulated for this river system

so that anthropogenic activities in and around the river

may not exceed the tolerable limit. The disposal of city

sewage, industrial effluents and worship material

like coconut, flower and body ashes dumping should

be strictly prohibited in and around the river. Certain

other steps like maintenance of water volume and

minimum flow rates, preventing addition of factory,

industrial effluents and domestic waste discharge,

providing river water use for irrigation, industrial

and religious purpose, construction of research and

development wing, creation of river protection force

and conduction of regular water monitoring programs

should be undertaken, which would help to maintain

water quality status of this ancient, religious and holy

river.

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Corresponding Author : Shivi Bhasin, School of Studies in Zoology and Biotechnology, Vikram University, Ujjain (M.P.),India, Email : [email protected] © 2015, IJALS. All Rights Reserved.

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