Observations for Three Tactics Assignment…..

This package includes information on observational research Tactics

Observational Field Research The information contained in this section was written and organized by Laura Brown Comments: LAB19@Cornell.Edu http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/tutorial/Brown/lauratp.htm

Introduction This overview of Observation Field Research is designed as an introduction to the basic issues and design options in observational research within natural settings. Observational research techniques solely involve the researcher or researchers making observations. There are many positive aspects of the observational research approach. Namely, observations are usually flexible and do not necessarily need to be structured around a hypothesis (remember a hypothesis is a statement about what you expect to observe). For instance, before undertaking more structured research a researcher may conduct observations in order to form a research question. This is called descriptive research. In terms of validity, observational research findings are considered to be strong. Trochim states that validity is the best available approximation to the truth of a given proposition, inference, or conclusion. Observational research findings are considered strong in validity because the researcher is able to collect a depth of information about a particular behavior. However, there are negative aspects. There are problems with reliability and generalizability. Reliability refers the extent that observations can be replicated. Seeing behaviors occur over and over again may be a time consuming task. Generalizability, or external validity, is described by Trochim as the extent that the study's findings would also be true for other people, in other places, and at other times. In observational research, findings may only reflect a unique population and therefore cannot be generalized to others. There are also problems with researcher bias. Often it is assumed that the researcher may "see what they want to see." Bias, however, can often be overcome with training or electronically recording observations. Hence, overall, observations are a valuable tool for researchers. First this Overview of Observation Field Research will discuss the appropriate situations to use observational field research. Second, the various types of observations research methods are explained. Finally, observational variables are discussed. This Overview’s emphasis is on the collection rather the analysis of data

Goals: After reading this overview of Observation Field Research, you should be able to: 1. Understand the advantages and disadvantages of observational research compared to other

research methods. 2. Understand the strengths and weaknesses in the validity of observational research findings. 3. Know what Direct Observation is and some of the main concerns of using this method. 4. Know what Continuous Monitoring is and what types of research it is appropriate for. 5. Understand Time Allocation research and why you would want to use it. 6. Know why unobtrusive research is a sticky proposition. 7. Understand the validity issues when discussing unobtrusive observation. 8. Know what to do in a behavior trace study. 9. Consider when to conduct a disguised field experiment. 10. Know the observational variables.

Questions to consider: Should you or shouldn't you collect your data through observation? Is the topic sensitive?

Are people uncomfortable or unwilling to answer questions about a particular subject? For instance, many people are uncomfortable when asked about prejudice. Self-reports of prejudice often bring biased answers. Instead, a researcher may choose to observe black and white students interactions. In this case, observations are more likely to bring about more accurate data. Thus, sensitive social issues are better suited for observational research.

Can you observe the Phenomena? You must be able to observe what is relevant to your study. Let’s face it, you could observe and observe but if you never see what you are studying you’re wasting your time. Although you can observe behaviors and make inferences about attitudes, you can't see attitudes. Also, you can't be everywhere. There are certain things you can't observe. For example, questions regarding what people do in private are better left to a survey.

Do you have a lot of time? Many people don't realize that observational research may be time consuming. In order to obtain reliability, behaviors must be observed several times. In addition, there is also a concern that the observer's presence may change the behaviors being observed. As time goes on, however, the subjects are more likely to grow accustomed to your presence and act normally. It is in the researchers’ best interest to observe for a long period of time.

Are you not sure what you’re looking for? That's okay! Known as descriptive research, observations are a great way to start a research project. Let's say you are interested in male and female behavior in bars. You have no idea what theory to use or what behavior you are interested in looking for. So, you watch, and, wow, you see something. Like the amount of touching is related to alcohol consumption. So you run to the library, gather your research, and maybe decide to do more observations or supplement your study with surveys. Then, these observations turn into a theory once they are replicated (well, it's not quite that simple). So you see, observations are a good place to start.

Types of Observations Okay, so you've decided that you think observational research is for you. Now you only have to pick which kind of observation to do. Behavior Mapping: http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/sommerb/sommerdemo/mapping/behmap.htm

Behavioral mapping is a type of systematic observation research that tracks behavior over space and time. The tracking may focus on a particular place or be based on an individual's movements. We term these two techniques place-centered and person or individual-centered mapping.

Example Place-centered maps :

Observers noted customer locations at a moment in time on an hourly basis at a U.S. Post Office. The above figure shows the results accumulated over time. The map reveals the areas and services most heavily and least heavily used. It can be used to improve service and circulation. Underhill, P. (1999). Why we buy? The science of of shopping. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Another example of Place Centered Maps….

Social Life of Small Urban Spaces

This interdisciplinary team of social scientists and urban planners uses a combination of human observers and time-lapse photography to measure the use of parks, plazas, and other public spaces.

The data provide an objective record of how the spaces are actually being used, regardless of how they were planned. The findings have been used to improve the design of public spaces throughout the world.

A place-centered map documents behavior of all individuals within a specified place and time. For example, mapping auto or pedestrian traffic in a downtown area, or plotting the location of students in the library or on a campus plaza. A place-centered map can reveal how or when a particular space is being used, or not used.

Time considerations

Some of the more interesting information may arise when nothing is supposed to be happening. A researcher was mapping the use of outdoor play areas in a San Francisco apartment complex. She had decided to end the behavior mapping at 8 P.M., assuming that the

children would be indoors by then. Later observation revealed a heavier use of the play area at 10 P.M. by teenagers than in the mid afternoon by children. If the researcher had selected a different time frame for the study, her results would have differed significantly.

Individual-centered maps

Person or individual-centered maps involve tracking the individual's movement over time and space. This requires following the person (or animal), either visually or with a camera.

The map on the right was used by a New York City research firm that helps organizations and companies improve the efficiency of their customer service. Trackers followed shoppers and noted their shopping-related behaviors. See tracking instructions.

The technique has been used in research on animals by attaching a transmitter to the creature and recording patterns of movement.

Larson and colleagues attached radio signal transmitters to shopping carts in a supermarket in order to track customers. They found that contrary to marketing beliefs, shoppers do not weave up and down all aisles in a systematic pattern. Instead, they tended to travel the perimeter, taking short excursions in and out of aisles.(2)

Although superficial tracking may be done without an individual's knowledge, in most cases, in-depth person-centered mapping requires the cooperation of the individual being studied. People may detect that they are being tracked, especially over time.

What is recorded?

Behavioral mapping relies on characteristics that are readily observable, such as approximate age, sex, whether the individual is alone or in a group, and what he or she is doing. The record can be constructed using time-lapse photography, video, or with prepared diagrams on which an observer records individual's locations.

Whether collecting information directly or interpreting data from photographs or video, observers must be trained to record behavior in a systematic and reliable manner. This will require training, practice, feedback, more practice, and more feedback.

(1)Marcus, C. C. (1990). From the pragmatic to the spiritual. In I. Altman & K. Christensen (Eds.),

Environment and behavior studies: Emergence of intellectual traditions (pp. 111-40). New York: Plenum

Press.

(2) Larson, J. S., Bradlow, E., & Fader, P. (2005). An exploratory look at supermarket shopping

paths. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 22(4), 395-414.

Cognitive maps

Cognitive maps are mental representations of physical locations. Humans and animals use them to find their way and to help recall important features of the environment. The term was inroduced by psychologist E. C. Tolman (1) to explain how rats learned the locations of rewards in a maze. A cognitive map provided the rat wih a useful model of the environment. Irrelevant or unimportant information was excluded from the mental map. Thus, cognitive maps can be very different from an actual place. The differences between the mental representation and the physical characteristics of a location may reveal what humans and animals consider important. The cognitive map is likely to show where they go and the routes used.

Asking people to sketch a map of a location is a way to find out what its salient features are for them. A cognitive map can show what is important, and by omission, reveal what is less important. Sometimes a standarized outline showing major feature of an area is used, asking respondents to fill in the details. This procedure could be used by city planners or landscape architects who want to know more about how a space is seen or used.

Cognitive maps can be constructed for spaces a small as a rat's maze or as large as planet earth. They have been used to study how children's conception of space expands and becomes differentiated as they mature. The drawing on the right was produced by a 5-year old when asked to draw her family's 2-story apartment.

Cognitive maps can provide insight into the worlds of those with sensory deficits and physical handicaps. The maps of blind people make more use of sound and touch cues than do those of sighted people. People in wheelchairs emphasize physical barriers in their maps, obstacles that are missing from the maps of those able to move more freely.

Geographers use cognitive maps to supplement their knowledge about the physcial characteristics of places. Knowing how people view a location provides additional information about physical characteristics - do people notice a feature or not? Cognitive mapping is of practical use in many fields including community design, architecture, and recreational planning.

Factors that influence knowledge and recognizability of places include:

• Proximity: Nearby places tend to be more familiar to us than places that are distant. • Size: Large places tend to be better known than small places (NYC vs. Oshkosh). • Location: Places on the border are better known than places in the interior (New Orleans vs. St.

Louis). • Shape: Places with a distinctive shape are more easily recognized (e.g., the Eiffel Tower). • Social-cultural factors: Places with an important history or cultural distinction are better known

(Versailles, Valley Forge).

Behavior Trace studies:

Behavior trace studies involve findings things people leave behind and interpreting what they mean. This can be anything to vandalism to garbage. The University of Arizona Garbage Project is one of the most well-known trace studies. Anthropologists and students dug through household garbage to find out about such things as food preferences, waste behavior, and alcohol consumption. Again, remember, that in unobtrusive research individuals do not know they are being studied. How would you feel about someone going through your garbage? Surprisingly Tucson residents supported the research as long as their identities were kept confidential. As you might imagine, trace studies may yield enormous data. Another example of a study that used trace observation is a Museum study that noted wear on flooring in front of particular paintings as indications of viewership. Landscape architects often use paths worn in landscape to determine where to place sidewalks.

Disguised Field Observations: Okay, this gets a little sticky. In Disguised field analysis the researcher pretends to join or actually is a member of a group and records data about that group. The group does not know they are being observed for research purposes. Here, the observer may take on a number of roles. First, the observer may decide to become a complete-participant in which they are studying something they are already a member of. For instance, if you are a member of a sorority and study female conflict within sororities you would be considered a complete-participant observer. On the other hand you may decide to only participate casually in the group while collecting observations. In this case, any contact with group members is by acquaintance only. Here you would be considered an observer-participant. Finally, if you develop an identity with the group members but do not engage in important group activities consider yourself a participant-observer. An example would be joining a cult but not participating in any of their important rituals (such as sacrificing animals). You are however, considered a member of the cult and trusted by all of the members. Ethically, participant-observers have the most problems. Certainly there are degrees of deception at work. The sensitivity of the topic and the degree of confidentiality are important issues to consider. Watching classmates struggle with test-anxiety is a lot different than joining Alcoholics Anonymous. In all, disguised field experiments are likely to yield reliable data but the ethical dilemmas are a trade-off.

An Interesting Side Note:

The protection of human rights from unethical research practices was heightened as a consequence of the Nazi regime in Germany. The Nuremberg Code was adopted following the trials of the twenty-three Nazi physicians convicted of crimes against humanity. This Code provided a statement concerning the rights of human participants to be informed and freely choose to participate in research. The Nuremberg Code has since influenced policies of ethical research practices in several countries.

Federal Register (1991). Federal policy for the protection of human subjects; notices and rules, part II. /Federal register, 56,/ 28001-28032.

Observational Variables Before you start on a research project make sure you how you are going to interpret your observations. 1. Descriptive:

Descriptive observational variables require no inference making on the part of the researcher. You see something and write it down. You count the number of times people do something.

2. Inferential: Inferential observational variables require the researcher to make inferences about what is observed and the underlying emotion. For example, you may observe a girl banging on her keyboard. From this observation you may assume that she is frustrated with the computer.

3. Evaluative: Evaluative observational variables require the researcher to make an inference and a judgment from the behavior. For example, you may question whether computers and humans have a positive relationship. "Positive" is an evaluative judgment. You observe the girl banging on her keyboard and conclude that humans and computers do not have a positive relationship (you know you must replicate these findings!).

When writing field notes the researcher should include descriptive as well as inferential data. It is important to describe the setting and the mood in a detailed manner. All such things that may change behavior need to be noted. Especially reflect upon your presence. Do you think that you changed the behavior noticeably? Direct (Reactive) Observation

In direct observations, people know that you are watching them. The only danger is that they are /reacting / to you. As stated earlier, there is a concern that individuals will change their actions rather than showing you what they're REALLY like. This is not necessarily bad, however. For example, the contrived behavior may reveal aspects of social desirability, how they feel about sharing their feelings in front of others, or privacy in a relationship. Even the most contrived behavior is difficult to maintain over time. A long term observational study will often catch a glimpse of the natural behavior. Other problems concern the generalizability of findings. The sample of individuals may not be representative of the population or the behaviors observed are not representative of the individual (you caught the person on a bad day). Again, long-term observational studies will often overcome the problem of external validity. What about ethical problems you say? Ethically, people see you, they know you are watching them (sounds spooky, I know) and they can ask you to stop. Here are two commonly used types of direct observations: Time Allocation: Time Allocation (TA) involves a researcher randomly selecting a place and time and then recording what people are doing when they are first seen and before they see you. This may sound rather bizarre but it is a useful tool when you want to find out the percent of time people are doing things (i.e. playing with their kids, working, eating, etc.). There are several sampling problems with this approach. First, in order to make generalizations about how people are spending their time the researcher needs a large representative sample. Sneaking up on people all over town is tough way to spend your days. In addition, questions such as when, how often, and where should you observe are often a concern. Many researchers have overcome these problems by using nonrandom locations but randomly-visiting them at different times.

Review These were the goals stated at the beginning of the Overview. Use these to reflect upon your understanding of the general characteristics of Observational information gathering. 1. Understand the advantages and disadvantages of observational research compared to other research

methods. 2. Understand the strengths and weaknesses in the validity of observational research findings. 3. Know what Direct Observation is and some of the main concerns of using this method.

4. Know what Continuous Monitoring is and what types of research it is appropriate for. 5. Understand Time Allocation research and why you would want to use it. 6. Know why unobtrusive research is a sticky proposition. 7. Understand the validity issues when discussing unobtrusive observation. 8. Know what to do in a behavior trace study. 9. Consider when to conduct a disguised field experiment. 10. Know the observational variables. Good luck observing! ------------------------------------------------------------------------ References and Suggested Reading Babbie, E. (1992). /The practice of social research./ (6th ed.). Chapter 11. California: Wadsworth. Bernard, R. (1994). /Research methods in anthropology./ (2nd ed.) Chapters 14-15. California: AltaMira. Gall, M., Borg., & Gall, J. (1996). /Educational research./ (6th ed.). Chapter 9. New York: Longman. Montgomery, B. & Duck, S. (1991). /Studying interpersonal interaction./ Chapter 11. New York: Guilford. And HIGHLY RECOMMENDED is Trochim's Knowledge Base <http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/kbhome.htm> which is packed with information about validity and research design.

Observation of the Physical Setting Important for interior designers is the ability to conduct observational field studies of physical settings. This is particularly important when studying cases or benchmarking. Observational field studies of existing physical settings focus on the physical features of the setting rather than the behaviors in the setting. They focus heavily on documenting the physical features and are typically undertaken with a particular theoretical lens directing and focusing the work. For example, sustainable design issues may be one focus of observational field work or perhaps universal design, place attachment, homelikeness, crowding, territoriality, mystery, complexity, legibility, coherence, restorative setting, wayfinding etc.

Observational Variables Before you start on a research project make sure you think about how you are going to interpret your observations. Most interior design setting observations include all three of these. Remember when o 1. Descriptive:

As stated earlier, descriptive observational variables require no inference making on the part of the researcher. When observing the physical setting these types of variables or documenting the space through drawings, sketches, diagrams photographs etc..

2. Inferential: Inferential observational variables require the researcher to make inferences about what is observed and the underlying outcome. For example, you may observe that the flooring in an assisted living facility changes at major intersections and infer that this helps wayfinding by marking nodes within the circulation system.

3. Evaluative: Evaluative observational variables require the researcher to make an inference and a judgment from the behavior. For example, you may observe that the secretary has her back to the entrance and this may form a negative impression on visitors.

I have included some examples of observations of a physical setting here. In case study research for interior design we use different observational techniques. Some focus on behavior, but it is also always important to include an observational study of the physical setting as well.