Basic Motivation Concepts

Chapter 6

What Is Motivation?PersistenceIntensity

Chapter 6

SelfEsteemSocialSafetyPhysiologicalMaslowsHierarchyof Needs

Chapter 6

Chapter 6

Herzbergs Two-Factor TheoryHygiene FactorsMotivational Factors Quality of supervision Rate of pay Company policies Working conditions Relations with others Job security Career Advancement Personal growth Recognition Responsibility AchievementHighHighJob DissatisfactionJob Satisfaction0

Chapter 6

Alderfers ERG TheoryExistenceGrowthRelatedness

Chapter 6

The Theoryof Needs

DavidMcClellandNeed forAchievement(nAch)Need forPower(nPow)Need forAffiliation(nAff)

Chapter 6

Cognitive Evaluation

Chapter 6

Goal-Setting TheorySpecificityChallengeFeedbackParticipationCommitmentSelf-efficacyCharacteristicsCulture

Chapter 6

Reinforcement TheoryConsequencesRewardsNo RewardsPunishmentBehavior

Chapter 6

Chapter 6

Research into Equity

Chapter 6

Expectancy TheoryIndividualEffortIndividualPerformancePersonalGoalsOrganizationalRewards123

Chapter 6

Performance DimensionsOpportunityMotivationAbilityPerformance

Chapter 6

An Integrative Model of MotivationPersonalGoalsIndividualPerformanceIndividualEffortGoals DirectBehaviorHighnAchAbilityOpportunityPerformanceAppraisal CriteriaPerformanceAppraisalSystemReinforcementDominantNeedsEquityComparisonO O IA IB OrganizationRewards

Chapter 6

Motivation is the process that accounts for an individuals intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward the attainment of a goal. Intensity is concerned with how hard a person tries. This is the element most of us focus on when we discuss the topic of motivation. However, unless effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization, high intensity is no guarantee of favorable job-performance outcomes. Quality of effort, therefore, is just as important as intensity of effort. Finally, persistence (how long a person can maintain effort) is important. A motivated person stays with a task long enough to achieve his or her goal. According to Abraham Maslow, within every human being, the following hierarchy of needs exists. The first three are deficiency needs because they must be satisfied if the individual is to be healthy and secure. The last two are growth needs because they are related to the development and achievement of ones potential. As each of these needs becomes substantially satisfied, the next higher need becomes dominant. 1.Physiological. Hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other survival needs.2.Safety. Security, stability, and protection from physical or emotional harm.3.Social. Social interaction, affection, companionship, and friendship.4.Esteem. Self-respect, autonomy, achievement, status, recognition, and attention.5.Self-actualization. Growth, self-fulfillment, and achieving ones potential.

Douglas McGregor said that managers hold one of two sets of assumptions about human nature: either Theory X or Theory Y. Seeing people as irresponsible and lazy, managers who follow Theory X assume the following:1.Employees inherently dislike work and will try to avoid it.2.Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened to achieve goals.3.Employees avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction, if possible.4.Most workers place security above all other work-related factors and will display little ambition.Since they see people as responsible and conscientious, managers who follow Theory Y assume the following:1.Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.2.When committed to their objectives, people will exercise self-direction and self-control3.The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility. 4.Many workers besides managers have innovative decision-making skills. No hard evidence confirms that either set of assumptions is universally true. It is more likely that the assumptions of Theory X or Theory Y may or may not be appropriate, depending on the situation at hand. Frederick Herzberg asked workers to describe situations in which they felt either good or bad about their jobs. His findings are called motivation-hygiene theory. Herzberg asserted that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction whereas extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction. So, he called company policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions, and salary hygiene factors. When these factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; however, they will not be satisfied either. He believed that achievement, recognition, the work itself, growth, and responsibility are motivational because people find them intrinsically rewarding.

David McClelland proposed that three learned needs motivate behavior. The need for achievement (nAch) is the need to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to succeed. The need for power (nPow) is the need to make others behave in ways in which they would not have behaved otherwise. The need for affiliation (nAff) is the desire for interpersonal relationships. He believed that these needs are acquired from the culture of a society.

Rather than taking a cognitive approach (as goal-setting theory), reinforcement theory is a behavioral approach which assumes that reinforcement conditions behavior and that behavior is environmentally caused. Reinforcement theory does not concern itself with what initiates behavior, so it is not a true theory of motivation. Even though it ignores feelings, attitudes, and expectations, all cognitive variables that are known to influence behavior, reinforcement theory has a wide following as a motivational device.

Workers compare their job inputs and outcomes with others. There are three possible perceptions: inequity due to being under-rewarded, equity, or inequity due to being over-rewarded. Equity theory proposes that inequity creates tension, and that this tension can cause an employee to seek fairness. There are four referents that an employee can use: (1) Self-inside: an employees experiences in a different position inside the organization. (2) Self-outside: an employees experiences in a position outside of the organization. (3) Other-inside: an employees perception of persons inside the organization. (4) Other-outside: an employees perception of persons outside of the organization.Workers who perceive an inequity will react in one of the six following ways: change inputs, change outcomes, distort perceptions of self, distort perceptions of others, choose a different referent, or leave the field. Equity theory establishes four propositions relating to inequitable pay. First, given payment by time, over-rewarded employees will produce more than those paid equitably. Second, given payment by quantity of production, over-rewarded employees will produce fewer, but higher quality units, than will equitably paid employees. Third, given payment by time, under-rewarded employees will produce less or poorer quality of output. Fourth, given payment by quantity of production, under-rewarded employees will produce a large number of low-quality units in comparison with equitably paid employees. Expectancy theory argues that an employee will be motivated to produce more when he or she believes that the effort will lead to a good performance appraisal; that a good appraisal will lead to organizational rewards; and that the rewards will satisfy the employees personal goals. This theory focuses on three relationships.1.The effort-performance relationship is the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.2.The performance-rewards relationship is the degree to which an individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. 3.The rewards-personal goals relationship is the degree to which the rewards of an organization satisfy an individuals personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those rewards.