OB 13e_6 Motivation Concepts

Robbins & Judge

Organizational Behavior13th Edition

Motivation ConceptsMotivation Concepts

6-1

Defining MotivationDefining Motivation

Three key elements:

1) Intensity – How hard a person tries

2) Direction – Efforts channeled toward organizational goals

3) Persistence – How long a person can maintain effort

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Defining MotivationDefining Motivation

The result of the interaction between the individual and the situation.

The processes that explain an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal.

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8–5

Motivation– The willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach

organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need

Need– An internal state that makes certain outcomes appear

attractive

Motivation and Individual NeedsMotivation and Individual Needs

http://reebok.com.edgesuite.net/lastexit_terrys_world_dsl.wmv

Early Theories of MotivationEarly Theories of Motivation

These early theories may not be valid, but they do form the basis for modern theories and are still used by practicing managers.

1) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

2) Alderfer’s ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth)

3) McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

4) Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

5) McClelland’s Theory of Needs

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8–7

Early Theories Of MotivationEarly Theories Of Motivation

Hierarchy of needs theory (Maslow) There is a hierarchy of five human needs; as each need

becomes satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

1. Physiological: food, drink, shelter, sex (Wages)

2. Safety: physical safety (Benefits/Pension)

3. Social: affiliation with others, affection, friendship (Friendly Co-Workers)

4. Esteem or Ego: achievement, status, and attention (Promotions, Recognition, and Rewards)

5. Self-actualization: personal growth and fulfillment (Meaningful work)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

Assumptions– Individuals cannot

move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied

– Must move in hierarchical order

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Lower OrderExternal

Higher OrderInternal

8–9

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG Theory

A reworking of Maslow to fit empirical research.

Three groups of core needs:

1. Existence (Maslow: physiological and safety)

2. Relatedness (Maslow: social and status)

3. Growth (Maslow: esteem and self-actualization)

Removed the hierarchical assumption

– Can be motivated by all three at oncePopular, but not accurate, theory

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ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

Core Needs

Existence: provision of basic material requirements.

Relatedness: desire for relationships.

Growth: desire for personal development.

Core Needs

Existence: provision of basic material requirements.

Relatedness: desire for relationships.

Growth: desire for personal development.

Concepts:

More than one need can be operative at the same time.

If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.

Concepts:

More than one need can be operative at the same time.

If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.

ERG Theory

There are three groups of core needs:

• Existence, Relatedness, and Growth.

Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

Theory X

Assumes that employees dislike work, lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be directed and coerced to perform.

Theory Y

Assumes that employees like work, seek responsibility, are capable of making decisions, and exercise self-direction and self-control when committed to a goal.

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory YMcGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X (basically negative) and Theory Y (positive).

– Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view

– The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees

No empirical evidence to support this theory.

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Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

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• Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites but separate constructs

Extrinsic and Related to Dissatisfaction

Intrinsic and Related to Satisfaction

Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)

Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory

Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction.

Hygiene Factors

Factors—such as company policy and administration, supervision, and salary—that, when adequate in a job, placate workers. When factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied.

Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers

Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers

Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job dissatisfaction

Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job satisfaction

Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees? by Frederick Herzberg, September–October 1987. Copyright © 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved.

Criticisms of Two-Factor TheoryCriticisms of Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg says that hygiene factors must be met to remove dissatisfaction. If motivators are given, then satisfaction can occur.

Herzberg is limited by his procedure

• Participants had self-serving bias

Reliability of raters questioned

• Bias or errors of observation

No overall measure of satisfaction was used

Herzberg assumed, but didn’t research, a strong relationship between satisfaction and productivity

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David McClelland’s Theory of NeedsDavid McClelland’s Theory of Needs

nAch

nPow

nAff

Need for Achievement

The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.

Need for Affiliation

The desire for friendly and close personal relationships.

Need for Power

The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.

McClelland’s Three Needs TheoryMcClelland’s Three Needs Theory

Need for Achievement (nAch) The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of

standards, to strive to succeed

Need for Power (nPow) The need to make others behave in a way that they

would not have behaved otherwise

Need for Affiliation (nAff) The desire for friendly and close interpersonal

relationships People have varying levels of each of the three

needs. Hard to measure

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McClelland’s Three Needs TheoryMcClelland’s Three Needs Theory

Need for Achievement (nAch):– The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of

standards, to strive to succeed.

– High Achievers (10-20% of U.S. Population)

Want to do things better

Desire rapid and unambiguous feedback

Desire personal responsibility

Intrinsically motivated

Believe in a 50/50 chance for success

Avoid what they perceive to be very easy or very difficult tasks (intermediate degrees of risk)

Not good supervisors

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Performance Predictions for High nAchPerformance Predictions for High nAch

People with a high need for achievement are likely to:– Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success,

avoiding very low- or high-risk situations

– Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk

– Not necessarily make good managers – too personal a focus.

– Most good general managers do NOT have a high nAch

– Need high level of nPow and low nAff for managerial success

Good research support, but it is not a very practical theory

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1. Cognitive Evaluation Theory

2. Goal-Setting Theory

Management by Objectives (MBO)

3. Self-Efficacy Theory

Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Theory

4. Reinforcement Theory

5. Equity Theory

6. Expectancy Theory

Modern Theories of MotivationModern Theories of Motivation

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Cognitive Evaluation TheoryCognitive Evaluation Theory

Cognitive Evaluation Theory•Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation.

•The theory may only be relevant to jobs that are neither extremely dull nor extremely interesting.

Cognitive Evaluation TheoryCognitive Evaluation Theory

Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivationMajor Implications for work rewards

– Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent

– Extrinsic rewards decrease intrinsic rewards

– Pay should be non-contingent on performance

– Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation; tangible rewards reduce it

Self-concordance

• When the personal reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with personal interests and core values (intrinsic motivation), people are happier and more successful

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Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

Goal-Setting Theory

The theory that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance.

Self-EfficacyThe individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.

Factors influencing the goals–performance relationship:

Goal commitment, adequate self-efficacy, task characteristics, and national culture.

Locke’s Goal-Setting TheoryLocke’s Goal-Setting Theory

Basic Premise: • That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback,

lead to higher performance

Difficult Goals:• Focus and direct attention

• Energize the person to work harder

• Difficulty increases persistence

• Force people to be more effective and efficient

Relationship between goals and performance depends on: • Goal commitment (the more public the better!)

• Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)

• Culture (best match is in North America)

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© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

7–27

Emphasizes converting overall

organizational objectives into

specific objectives for individual

units and members that are

tangible, verifiable, and

measurable

ManagementManagement

by Objectives (MBO)by Objectives (MBO)


7–28

Overallorganizational

objectives

Overallorganizational

objectives

Divisionalobjectives

Divisionalobjectives

Departmentalobjectives

Departmentalobjectives

Individualobjectives

Individualobjectives

Cascading of ObjectivesCascading of Objectives


7–29

Management by ObjectivesManagement by Objectives

Four ingredients common to MBO programs:

1. Goal specificity

2. Participative decision making

3. Explicit time period

4. Performance feedback


7–30

Organizational objectives translated to specific objectives for each level (division, department, individual)

Lower-level managers participate in setting their own goals

Results in hierarchy of objectives that links one level to the next

If all individuals achieve goals, organizational objectives will be attained



7–31

Key Elements

1. Goal specificity


3. An explicit time period


Key Elements

1. Goal specificity


3. An explicit time period


Management by Objectives (MBO)

•A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress.


7–32

Cascading of ObjectivesCascading of Objectives

7–33

Linking MBO and Goal-Setting TheoryLinking MBO and Goal-Setting Theory

MBO Goal-Setting Theory

Goal Specificity Yes Yes

Goal Difficulty Yes Yes

Feedback Yes Yes

Participation Yes No(qualified)


7–34

Why MBO’s FailWhy MBO’s Fail

Unrealistic expectations about MBO results

Lack of commitment by top management

Failure to allocate reward properly

Cultural incompatibilities

Adams’ Equity TheoryAdams’ Equity Theory

Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of relevant others.

– When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – there is no tension as the situation is considered fair

– When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness

– Under-rewarded states cause anger

– Over-rewarded states cause guilt

– Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into equity

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8–36

Equity theory (Adams)

– Employees perceive what they get from a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put into it (inputs) and then compare their input-outcome ratio with the input-outcome ratios of relevant others.

• Inputsa) Effortb) Experiencec) Educationd) Competence

• Outcomesa) Salary levelsb) Raisesc) Recognition

Adams’ Equity TheoryAdams’ Equity Theory

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Employee’sAssessment

*Person A is the employee, and Person B is a relevant other or referent.

Perceived Ratio Comparison

Equity Theory RelationshipEquity Theory Relationship

Equity TheoryEquity Theory

Referent Comparisons:

1) Self-inside

2) Self-outside

3) Other-inside

4) Other-outside

Referent Comparisons:

1) Self-inside

2) Self-outside

3) Other-inside

4) Other-outside

Equity Theory

Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.

Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)


Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)

2. Change outcomes (increase output)

3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others

5. Choose a different referent person

6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)

2. Change outcomes (increase output)

3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others

5. Choose a different referent person

6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Propositions relating to inequitable pay:

1. Over-rewarded hourly employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.

2. Over-rewarded piece-work employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work

3. Under-rewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work.

4. Under-rewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees


1. Over-rewarded hourly employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.

2. Over-rewarded piece-work employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work

3. Under-rewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work.

4. Under-rewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees


Reactions to InequityReactions to Inequity


– Paid by time:

– Over-rewarded employees produce more

– Under-rewarded employees produce less with low quality

– Paid by quality:

– Over-rewarded employees give higher quality

– Under-rewarded employees make more of low quality

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Distributive Justice

Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals.

Procedural Justice

The perceived fairness of the process to determine the distribution of rewards.


Can be four different situations:

– Self-Inside• The person’s experience in a different job in the same

organization

– Self-Outside• The person’s experience in a different job in a different

organization

– Other-Inside• Another individual or group within the organization

– Other-Outside• Another individual or group outside of the organization

Equity Theory’s “Relevant Others”Equity Theory’s “Relevant Others”

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Justice and Equity TheoryJustice and Equity Theory

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Overall perception of

what is fair in the workplace.

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Expectancy Theory (Vroom)Expectancy Theory (Vroom)

Expectancy Theory (Vroom)– A theory of motivation that an individual tends to act in a

certain way (effort), in the expectation that the act will be followed by given outcome (performance-reward), and according to the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

– Effort-performance• The perceived probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead

to performance

– Performance-reward• The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment

of a desired outcome

– Attractiveness• The importance placed on the potential outcome or reward that can be

achieved on the job.

Vroom’s Expectancy TheoryVroom’s Expectancy Theory

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.

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See E X H I B I T 6-9See E X H I B I T 6-9

Expectancy of performance

success

Instrumentality of success in

getting reward

Valuation of the reward in

employee’s eyes

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

E X H I B I T 6–8E X H I B I T 6–8

Expectancy Theory RelationshipsExpectancy Theory Relationships

Effort–Performance Relationship

• The probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.

Performance–Reward Relationship

• The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.

Rewards–Personal Goals Relationship

• The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s goals or needs and the attractiveness of potential rewards for the individual.

Global ImplicationsGlobal Implications

Motivation theories are often culture-bound.– Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

• Order of needs is not universal

– McClelland’s Three Needs Theory• nAch presupposes a willingness to accept risk and

performance concerns – not universal traits

– Adams’ Equity Theory• A desire for equity is not universal

• “Each according to his need” – socialist/former communists

Desire for interesting work seems to be universal.– There is some evidence that the intrinsic factors of

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory may be universal

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Summary and Managerial ImplicationsSummary and Managerial Implications

Need Theories (Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland, Herzberg)

• Well known, but not very good predictors of behavior

Goal-Setting Theory

• While limited in scope, good predictor

Reinforcement Theory

• Powerful predictor in many work areas

Equity Theory

• Best known for research in organizational justice

Expectancy Theory

• Good predictor of performance variables but shares many of the assumptions as rational decision making

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OB 13e_6 Motivation Concepts

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