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By Sir Mark B. Samson
¡ Is the sum of all the interactions between an organism and the food it consumes.
¡ Nutrients are organic and inorganic substances found in foods that are required for the body functioning
¡ Macronutrients – nutrients needed in large amount. Such as CHO, CHON, fats, minerals, vitamins
¡ Micronutrients –are vitamins and minerals required in small amounts
§ Natural sources –GOOD § Processed CHO –BAD
¡ Types: § Sugars § Starches: polysaccharides § Fiber:
¡ Digestions § Ptyalin (salivary amylase) § Pancreatic amylase § Disaccharidases: maltase, sucrase and lactase
¡ Monosaccharide
¡ Small intestine
¡ Metabolism § Glucose § Circulates in BLOOD
§ Energy (INSULIN)
§ Stored
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¡ Storage and Conversion § Glycogen: mostly stored in the liver and skeletal muscles
§ Fat
¡ Amino acids § Essential Amino Acids: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, threonine, valine and arginine
§ Nonessential Amino Acids: alanine, aspartic acid, cystine, glutamic acid, glycine, hydroxyproline, proline, serine and tyrosine
¡ Complete proteins –contains all of the essential amino acids plus many nonessential ones. Found animal protein
¡ Incomplete proteins –lacks one or more essential amino acids usually derived in vegetables
¡ Digestions § Mouth: Pepsin § Small Intestine (amino peptidase and dipeptidase) with Pancreas (proteolytic enzymes trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase)
¡ Storage § Liver (synthesizes proteins: albumin, globulin, fibrinogen)
§ Plasma proteins § Tissue
¡ Metabolism § ANABOLISM: building up of tissue § CATABOLISM: breakdown in the liver § Nitrogen Balance: measure of the degree of protein anabolism and catabolism; net result of intake and loss of Nitrogen
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¡ Fats ¡ Oils ¡ Fatty acids
§ Saturated § Unsaturated § Monounsaturated § Polyunsaturated
¡ Glycerides ¡ Triglycerides ¡ Cholesterol
¡ Digestions § Starts in stomach but digested mainly in… § Small intestine: bile, pancreatic lipase, and enteric lipase
§ Breaks down into: glycerol, fatty acids, and cholesterol
§ Transported in the form of lipoprotein (liver)
¡ Metabolism § Lipase glycerol
fatty acids
¡ Vitamin § Water-‐soluble: C, B-‐Complex vitamins ▪ Cannot be stored ▪ Must have daily supplements
§ Fat-‐soluble: A, D, E and K ¡ Minerals
§ Macrominerals: calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, magnesium, chloride and sulfur
§ Microminerals: iron, zinc, manganese, iodine, flouride, copper, cobalt, chromium and selenium
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¡ Is the relationship between the energy derived from food and the energy used by the body
¡ Comparing energy intake with energy output
¡ Energy Intake § Caloric Value: amount of energy that nutrients and food supply to the body
§ Small Calorie (c, cal) is the amount of heat required to raise the temp of 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius
§ Large Calorie (Calorie, kilocalorie) is the amount of heat required to raise the temp of 1 gram of water to 15-‐16 degrees Celsius
• Kilojoule is the amount of energy required when a force of 1 newton (N) moves 1 kg of weight 1 meter distance
¡ 1 Calorie (Kcal) = 4.18 kilojoule
¡ Metabolism refers to all biochemical and physiological processes which the body grows and maintains itself
¡ Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) –the rate which the body metabolizes food to maintain energy requirement
¡ Resting Energy Expenditure –is the amount of energy required to maintain basic functions
¡ Ideal Body Weight –is the optimal weigh recommended for optimal health.
¡ Body Mass Index –is an indicator of changes on the body fat stores and whether a person’s weight is appropriate for height
¡ BMI 1. Measures the person’s height in meters (1
meter=3.3 ft or 39.6 inches) 2. Measure the weight in kg (1kg=2.2 pounds) 3. Use the formula:
BMI= weight in kilograms (height in meters)2
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¡ Other ways to measure percent of body fat: underwater weighing and dual-‐energy x-‐ray absorptiometry (DEXA)
¡ Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA)
¡ Development ¡ Sex ¡ Ethnicity and Culture ¡ Beliefs in Food (Fad) ¡ Personal Preferences ¡ Religious Practice ¡ Lifestyle
¡ Economics ¡ Medication Therapy ¡ Health ¡ Alcohol Consumption ¡ Advertising ¡ Physiological Factors
¡ Neonate to 1 year § Breast milk or formula § Higher fluid needs § NR: 80-‐100 ml of milk/kg § Feeding every 2.5-‐4 hours § Demand feeding § Burping every after feeding § Regurgitation § Solids starts at 6 months (cereals, fruits, vegetables, and strained meat
§ Food are introduced one at a time (every 5 days) § Eruption of teeth (7-‐9 months), chewing starts § IDA § Bottle mouth syndrome
¡ Toddler § May start feeding themselves
§ By age 3 may eat adult table food
§ Meals should be short § Food refusal § NR: 900-‐1,800 Kcal per day
§ Iron, calcium, and vit C and A
¡ Preschooler § Eats adult food § Requires snacks between meals § Should be guided and taught to use utensils
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¡ School-‐Age Child § NR: 2,400 Kcal/day § Protein-‐rich food especially during breakfast
§ Independence in feeding may lead to malnutrition
§ Obesity may develop
¡ Adolescent § Needs: protein, calcium, vit D, iron and vit B complex
§ Obesity § Anorexia nervosa § Bulimia
¡ Young Adults § Female: maintain adequate iron intake
§ Calcium, vit. D and sum exposure (15min, 3x/week) to prevent osteoporosis
§ Obesity and Hypertension are
common ¡ Middle-‐Aged Adult
§ Limit cholesterol and caloric intake § 2-‐3 liters of fluids § Post menopausal women: calcium, vit D to reduce osteoporosis also antioxidants (vit A, C, E) to prevent heart disease
¡ Older Adults § Fewer calories are needed
§ More fiber § Decreased saliva and gastric juice may affect nutrition
§ Psychological, Emotional and Physical factors may change eating habits
¡ Malnutrition § Overnutrition –caloric intake in excess of daily energy requirements, resulting in storage of energy in the form of adipose tissue.
§ Undernutrition –an intake of nutrients insufficient to meet daily energy requirements because of inadequate food intake or improper digestion and absorption of food
§ Protein-‐Calorie Malnutrition –depressed visceral protein
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¡ Assessing § Nutritional Screening –routine nursing history and physical examination
§ Patient-‐Generated Subjective Global Assessment (PG-‐SGA) –is a method of classifying clients either ▪ Well-‐nourished ▪ Moderately malnourished ▪ Severely malnourished
¡ Assessing con’t § Nutrition Screening Initiative (NSI) –promotes nutrition screening and improved nutritional care for older adults
¡ Assessing con’t § Nursing History
ü Age, sex, and activity level ü Difficulty eating ü Condition of the mouth, teeth, and presence of dentures ü Change in appetite ü Change in weight ü Physical disabilities that affect purchasing, preparing and eating food
ü Cultural and religious beliefs ü Living arrangement and economic status ü General health status and medical condition ü Medication history
¡ Assessing con’t (Physical Assessment) § Anthropometric Measurement ▪ Triceps Skinfold ▪ Mid-‐arm Circumference (MAC) –measures fat, muscles, and skeleton
▪ Mid-‐arm Muscle Area (MAMA) –estimate lean body mass or skeletal muscle reserves
¡ Assessing con’t § Biochemical (Laboratory) Data ▪ Serum Protein
ü Albumin (half-‐life of 18-‐20 days) ü Transferrin (8-‐9 days) ü Prealbumin
§ Urinary Tests ü Urea ü Creatinine
§ Total Lymphocyte Count
¡ Assessing con’t § Clinical Data (Physical Data) ▪ Review table 47-‐10 p.1275
§ Calculating Percentage Weight Loss ▪ Current Body Weight (CBW) ▪ Usual Body Weight (UBW) ▪ Weight Loss Percentage Calculation:
Usual Weight – Current Weight x 100 Usual Weight
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¡ Assessing con’t § Dietary Data ▪ 24-‐hour food recall ▪ F00d frequency record ▪ Food diary (3-‐7 days) ▪ Diet history
¡ Diagnosing § Imbalanced Nutrition: More Than Body Requirements
§ Imbalanced Nutrition: Less Than Body Requirements
§ Readiness for Enhance Nutrition § Risk for Imbalanced Nutritions
¡ Planning § Maintain or restore optimal nutrition § Promote healthy nutritional practices § Prevent complications associated with malnutrition
§ Decrease weight § Regain specified weight
¡ Implementing § Assisting with Special Diets ▪ Diets maybe modified through: texture, kilocalories, specific nutrients, seasonings, or consistency
▪ Clear Liquid Diet (short term: 24-‐36 hours) ▪ Full Liquid Diet ▪ Soft Diet ▪ Diet as Tolerated ▪ Modification for Disease
¡ Clear Liquid Diet § Indication: After surgeries or in acute stages of infection
§ Short term diet (24 of 36 hours) § Supplies fluids and carbs but very low on protein, fat, vitamins and minerals
§ Relieves thirst, prevent dehydration, and minimize stimulation of GIT
¡ Full Liquid Diet § Indication: For client with GI disturbances or cannot tolerate solid/semi-‐solid foods
§ Contains more on milk § Monotonous § Low in iron, protein and calories
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¡ Soft Diet § Indication: For clients with difficulty chewing and swallowing
§ Low-‐residue diet containing very few uncooked foods
§ Pureed diet (modification type)
¡ Diet as Tolerated § Indication: For clients with appetite, ability to eat, and tolerance for certain foods are changing
¡ Modification for Disease § Indication: For clients with special needs regarding their sickness
¡ Purposes 1. To restore or maintain nutritional status 2. To administer medication
¡ Assessment § Clinical signs of malnutrition or dehydration § Allergies on food § Presence of bowel sounds § Problems that suggest lack of tolerance on
previous feedings
¡ Planning: Before commencing a tube feeding determine the type, amount, and frequency of feedings and tolerance of previous feedings.
¡ Equipment 1. Correct type and amount of feeding solution 2. 60 ml catheter tip syringe 3. Emesis basin 4. Clean gloves 5. pH strip 6. Large syringe with calibration 7. Measuring containers 8. Water 60ml
¡ Performance: 1. Introduce. Explain. 2. Perform hand hygiene and observe other other
appropriate infection control procedures 3. Provide for client privacy 4. Assess tube placement ▪ Apply gloves ▪ Attach syringe. Aspirate. Check for pH
5. Assess residual feeding contents
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6. Administer feeding ▪ Check the expiration date of the feeding. ▪ Warm the feeding to room temperature
§ (Open Feeding-‐Syringe) Remove the plunger from the syringe and connect the syringe to a pinched tube or clamped NGT.
§ Add the feeding to the syringe barrel § Permit the feeding to flow in slowly at the
prescribed rate. Raise or lower the syringe to adjust the flow needed.
§ Pinch or clamp the tubing to stop the flow for a minute if the client experience discomfort.
7. Flush the feeding tube before all of the formula has run through the tubing.
8. Clamp the feeding tube before all the water is instilled
9. Ensure clients comfort and safety. ▪ Secure the tubing on client’s gown ▪ Maintain the client on Fowler’s position for about
30min ▪ Note agency’s policy in changing NGTs
10. Dispose of equipment appropriately 11. Document all relevant information 12. Monitor the client for possible problems
¡ Evaluation: Reassess the ff: § Tolerance to feeding § Bowels sounds § Regurgitation and feelings of fullness § Weight gain/loss § Fecal elimination pattern § Skin turgor § Urine output and specific gravity § Glucose and acetone in urine
¡ Assessment § Presence of bowel sounds § Absence of nausea and vomiting when tube is clamped
¡ Planning: Equipment § Disposable pad/towel § Tissues § Clean gloves § 50 ml syringe § Plastic trash bag
¡ Implementation § Preparation ▪ Check order ▪ Assist the client in sitting position ▪ Place towel or disposable pad on client’s chest ▪ Provide tissues for cleaning up after removal
§ Performance 1. Introduce. Explain. 2. Perform hand hygiene and done clean gloves 3. Provide privacy 4. Detach the tube 5. Remove the NGT 1. Instill 50 ml of air to clear the tubes 2. Ask the client to take a deep breath and hold it 3. Pinch the tube with gloved hand 4. Smoothly withdraw the tube 5. Place in plastic bag. Observe tube for intactness
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6. Ensure client’s comfort 7. Dispose equipment appropriately 8. Document relevant information
¡ Evaluation: Reassess § Presence of bowel sounds § Absence of nausea and vomiting § Intactness of tissue of nares