Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer Cancer Background A.Definition 1.Family of complex diseases...
-
Upload
cody-parker -
Category
Documents
-
view
225 -
download
1
Transcript of Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer Cancer Background A.Definition 1.Family of complex diseases...
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Cancer BackgroundA.Definition 1. Family of complex diseases 2. Affect different organs and organ systems 3. Normal cells mutate into abnormal cells that
take over tissue 4. Eventually harm and destroy host 5. Historically, cancer is a dreaded disease
B.Oncology 1. Study of cancers 2. Oncology nurses specialize in the care,
treatment of clients with cancer
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Incidence and Prevalence1. Cancer accounts for about 25% of
death on yearly basis2. Males: 3 most common types of
cancer are prostate, lung and bronchial, colorectal
3. Females: 3 most common types of cancer are breast, lung and bronchial, and colorectal
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer Risk factors for cancer: (some are controllable; some are not) 1. Heredity: 5 – 10% of cancers; documented with some breast
and colon cancers 2. Age: 70% of all cancers occur in persons > 65 3. Lower socio-economic status 4. Stress
a. Leads to greater wear and tear on body in general5 Diet: certain preservatives in pickled, salted foods; fried foods; high-fat, low fiber foods; charred foods, high fat foods, diet high in red meat
6. Occupational risk: exposure to know carcinogens, radiation, high stress
7. Infections, especially specific organisms and organ (e.g. papillomavirus causing genital warts and leading to cervical cancer)
8. Tobacco Use: Lung, oral and laryngeal, esophageal, gastric, pancreatic, bladder cancers
9. Alcohol Use: also tied with smoking 10. Sun Exposure (radiation) e.g. skin cancer
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Nursing role includes health promotion to lower the controllable risks
1. Routine medical check up and screenings2. Client awareness to act if symptoms of cancer occur 3. Screening examination recommendations by American
Cancer Society; specifics are made according to age and frequencies
a. Breast Cancer: self-breast exam, breast examination by health care professionals, screening mammogram
b. Colon and Rectal Cancer: fecal occult blood, flexible sigmoidoscopy, colonoscopy
c. Cervical, Uterine Cancer: Papanicolaou (Pap) test d. Prostate Cancer: digital rectal exam, Prostate-
specific antigen (PSA) test
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Physiology of Cancer
A. Background
1. Normal Cell Growth includes two events
a. Replication of cellular DNA b. Mitosis (cell division)
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
2. Cell cycle is under control of cyclins, and suppresor gene products which control process by working with enzymes;
cyclins promote cell division suppresor gene products limit cell
division 3. Forms the basis of how some
chemotherapeutic agents work against cancers
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Theories of Carcinogenesis (what causes cancer to occur)
1. Cellular Mutation a. Cells begin to mutate (change the DNA to unnatural
cell reproduction) 2. Oncogenes/Tumor Suppressor Genes Abnormalities a. Oncogenes are genes that promote cell
proliferation and can trigger cancer b. Tumor suppressor genes normally suppress
oncogenes but are damaged3. Exposure to Known Carcinogens a. Act by directly altering the cellular DNA (genotoxic) b. Act by affecting the immune system (promotional)
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
4. Viruses viruses break the DNA chain and mutates
the normal cells DNAEpstein-Barr virusHuman papilloma virusHepatitis virus
5. Drugs and Hormones a. Sex hormones often affect cancers of the
reproductive systems (estrogen in some breast cancers; testosterone in prostate cancer)
b. Glucocorticoids and steroids alter immune system
6. Chemical Agents a. Industrial and chemical b. Can initiate and promote cancer b. Examples: hydrocarbons in soot ; arsenic in
pesticides; chemicals in tobacco7. Physical Agents a. Exposure to radiation
Ionizing radiation found in x-rays, radium, uranium UV radiation
Sun, tanning beds
8. Immune function1. Protects the body from cancerous cells2. Increased rate of cancer in immunocompromised pts
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Neoplasms: also called tumors (mass of new tissue that grows independently of surrounding organs
1. Types of neoplasmsa. Benign 1. Localized growths respond to body’s homeostatic
controls 2. Encapsulated 3. Stop growing when they meet a boundary of another
tissue 4. Can be destructive b. Malignant 1. Have aggressive growth, rapid cell division outside the
normal cell cycle 2. Not under body’s homeostatic controls 3. Cut through surrounding tissues causing bleeding,
inflammation, necrosis (death) of tissue
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Malignant tumors can metastasizea. Tumor cells travel through blood or lymph
circulation to other body areas and invade tissues and organs there.
1. Primary tumor: the original site of the malignancy
2. Secondary tumor (sites): areas where malignancy has spread i.e. metastasis (metastatic tumor)
3. Common sites of metastasis are lymph nodes, liver, lungs, bones, brain
4. 50 – 60 % of tumors have metastasized by time primary tumor identified
b. Cancerous cells must avoid detection by immune system
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
C. Malignant neoplasms can recur after surgical removal of primary and secondary tumors and other treatments
D.Malignant neoplasms vary in differentiation. a. Highly differentiated are more like the originating
tissue b. Undifferentiated neoplasms consist of immature
cells with no resemblance to parent tissue and have no useful function
E. Malignant cells progress in deviation with each generation and do no stop growing and die, as do normal cells
F. Malignant cells are irreversible, i.e. do not revert to normal
G.Malignant cells promote their own survival by hormone production, cause vascular permeability; angiogenesis; divert nutrition from host cells
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Effects of Cancer 1. Disturbed or loss of physiologic functioning, from pressure or
obstruction a. Anoxia and necrosis of organs b. Loss of function: bowel or bladder obstruction c. Increased intracranial pressure d. Interrupted vascular/venous blockage e. Ascites f. Disturbed liver functioning G. Motor and sensory deficits
Cancer invades bone, brain or compresses nervesh. Respiratory difficulties
a. Airway obstructionb. Decreased lung capacity
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
2. Hematologic Alterations: Impaired function of blood cells1. Secondary to any cancer that invades the bone marrow (leukemia)2. May also be caused by the treatment
a. Abnormal wbc’s: impaired immunity b. Diminished rbc’s and platelets: anemia and clotting
disorders3. Infections: fistula development and tumors may become
necrotic; erode skin surface4. Hemorrhage: tumor erosion, bleeding, severe anemia5. Anorexia-Cachexia Syndrome: wasting away of client a. Unexplained rapid weight loss, anorexia with altered
smell and taste b. Catabolic state: use of body’s tissues and muscle
proteins to support cancer cell growth
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
6. Paraneoplastic Syndromes: ectopic sites with excess hormone production
a. Parathyroid hormone (hypercalcemia) b. Ectopic secretion of insulin (hypoglycemia) c. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH: fluid retention) d. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)7. Pain: major concern of clients and families a. Types of cancer pain 1. Acute: symptom that led to diagnosis 2. Chronic: may be related to treatment or to progression
of diseaseb. Causes of pain 1. Direct tumor involvement including metastatic pain 2. Nerve compression 3. Involvement of visceral organs
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
8. Physical Stress: body tries to respond and destroy neoplasm
a. Fatigue b. Weight loss c. Anemia d. Dehydration e. Electrolyte imbalances9. Psychological Stress a. Cancer equals death sentence b. Guilt from poor health habits c. Fear of pain, suffering, death d. Stigmatized
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Collaborative CareA. Diagnostic Tests: used to diagnose cancer1. Determine location of cancer a. Xrays b. Computed tomography c. Ultrasounds d. Magnetic resonance imaging e. Nuclear imaging f. Angiography2. Diagnosis of cellular type of can be done through tissue
samples from biopsies, shedded cells (e.g. Papanicolaou smear) washings
a. Cytologic Examination: tissue examined under microscope
b. Identification System of Tumors: Classification – Grading -- Staging
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
1.Classification: according to the tissue or cell of origin, e.g. sarcoma, from supportive
2.Grading: a. Evaluates degree of differentiation and
rate of growth b. Grade 1 (least aggressive) to Grade 4
(most aggressive)3.Staging a. Relative tumor size and extent of
disease b. TNM (Tumor size; Nodes: lymph node
involvement; Metastases)
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
3. Tumor markers: specific proteins which indicate malignancy
a. PSA (Prostatic-specific antigen): prostate cancer b. CEA (Carcinoembryonic antigen): colon cancer c. Alkaline Phosphatase: bone metastasis4 Direct Visualization a. Sigmoidoscopy b. Cystoscopy c. Endoscopy d. Bronchoscopy e. Exploratory surgery; lymph node biopsies to
determine metastases
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Other non-specific testsa. CBC, Differentialb. Electrolytesc. Blood Chemistries: (liver enzymes:
alanine aminotransferase (ALT); aspartate aminotransferase (AST) lactic dehydrogenase (LDH)
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Treatment Goals: depending on type and stage of cancerA.Cure 1. Recover from specific cancer with treatment 2. Alert for reoccurrence 3. May involve rehabilitation with physical and
occupational therapyB.Control: of symptoms and progression of cancer 1. Continued surveillance 2. Treatment when indicated (e.g. some bladder
cancer, prostate cancer)C.Palliation of symptoms: may involve terminal care if
client’s cancer is not responding to treatment
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Treatment Options (depend on type of cancer) alone or with combination
A. Chemotherapy 1. Effects are systemic and kills the
metastatic cells 2. Often combinations of drugs in specific
protocols over varying time periods Much more effective then a single agent
Consider the timing of the nadir of each drug• The time when the bone marrow activity and WBC counts
are at their lowest levels after chemo• Different times for different drugs
3. Cell-kill hypothesis: with each cell cycle a percentage of cancerous cells are killed but some remain; repeating chemo kills more cells until those left can be handled by body’s immune system
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
B. Classes of Chemotherapy Drugs1. Alkylating agents 1. Action: create defects in tumor DNA 2. Examples: Nitrogen Mustard, Cisplatin2. Antimetabolites 1. Action: similar to metabolites needed for vital cell
processes Counterfeit metabolites interfere with cell division
2. Examples: Methotrexate; 5 fluorouracil 3. Toxic Effects: nausea, vomiting, stomatitis, diarrhea,
alopecia, leukopenia3. Antitumor Antibiotics 1. Action: interfere with DNA 2. Examples: Actinomycin D, Bleomycin 3. Toxic Effect: damage to cardiac muscle
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
4.Antimiotic agents 1. Action: Prevent cell division 2. Examples: Vincristine, Vinblastine 3. Toxic Effects: affects neurotransmission,
alopecia, bone marrow depression
5.Hormone agonist 1. Action: large amounts of hormones upset the
balance and alter the uptake of other hormones necessary for cell division
2. Example: estrogen, progestin, androgen
6.Hormone Antagonist 1. Action: block hormones on hormone-
binding tumors (breast, prostate, endometrium; cause tumor regression Decreasing the amount of hormones can decrease
the cancer growth rate Does not cure, but increases survival rates
2. Examples: Tamoxifen (breast); Flutamide (prostate)
3. Toxic Effects: altered secondary sex characteristics
7. Hormone inhibitors Aromatase inhibitors (Arimidex, Aromasin)
Prevents production of aromatase which is needed for estrogen production
Used in post menopausal women Side effects
• Masculinizing effects in women• Fluid retention
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Effects of Chemotherapy a. Tissues (fast growing) frequently affected b. Examples: mucous membranes, hair cells, bone
marrow, specific organs with specific agents, reproductive organs (all fetal toxic, impair ability to reproduce).
Administration of chemotherapeutic agentsa. Trained and certified personnel, according to established
guidelinesb. Preparation 1. Protect personnel from toxic effects
Drugs absorbed through skin and mucous membranes Protective clothing and extreme care
2. Extreme care for correct dosage; double check with physician orders, pharmacist’s preparation
c. Proper management clients’ excrement
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
d. Routes 1. Oral 2. Body cavity (intraperitoneal or
intrapleural) 3. Intravenous
a. Use of vascular access devices because of threat of extravasation (leakage into tissues) and long-term therapy
a. If the drug is a vessicant it may result in pain, infection and tissue loss
e.Types of vascular access devices1. PICC lines (peripherally inserted
central catheters)2. Tunnelled catheters (Hickman,
Groshong)3. Surgically implanted ports
(accessed with 90o angle needle
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Managing side effects of chemotherapyA. Nausea and vomiting
80% of patients will develop it Antiemetics such as Zofran, Tigan,
Compazine as well as Ativan to control the symptoms
Monitor for dehydration and need for IV fluids
B. Bone marrow suppression Decreased number of RBC
Leads to hypoxia, fatigue Hgb 9.5-10 gm/dl require oral iron supplements Hgb below 8 gm/dl require transfusion May use Epogen to stimulate RBC production
Decrease number of WBC (normal 4,500-11,000 mm3) especially neutrophils (normal 3,000-7,000 cells/cc) Neutropenia-count below 2000 Pt at extreme risk for infection May order granulocyte colony stimulating factor (leukine) to
stimulate bone marrow to increase WBC count
Neutropenic precautions Private room Good handwashing Monitor temp q 4 hours, monitor for chills, UTI, pneumonia Limit visitors to healthy adults No flowers or plants Monitor neutrophil count
Thrombocytopenia Drop in platlet count (normal 150,000-400,000/mm3)
below 100,000 Test pt for bleeding in stool and urine Avoid punctures for IV or IM Handle pt gently Use electric razor Avoid placing foley or rectal thermometers Avoid oral trauma with soft bristle brushes, avoid
flossing, avoid hard candy Watch for ALOC, pupil changes that might indicate
intracranial bleeds Stool softeners to avoid straining
C. Mucocitis Inflammation and ulceration of mucous
membranes and entire GI tract Rinse mouth with ½ normal saline and ½
peroxide every 12 hours Topical analgesic medication Avoid mouthwashes with alcohol Avoid spicy or hard food Watch nutritional status
D. Alopecia Hair loss 2-3 weeks after treatment is started Affects all the hair, including eyebrows,
eyelashes Within 4-8 weeks after treatment hair begins
to grow back Before hair loss, have the pt pick out a wig
that is similar to hair color
E. Peripheral neuropathy Numbness and tingling to fingers and toes
in a glove and sock pattern May cause gait and possible fall problems
F. Provide emotional and spiritual support to patient and families
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Surgery 1. Diagnosis, staging, and sometimes treatment of cancer 2. May be prophylaxis or removal of at risk tissue or organ
prior to development of cancer (breast cancer) 3. Involves removal of body part, organ, sometimes with
altered functioning (e.g. colostomy) 4. Debulking (decrease size of) tumors in advanced cases 5. Reconstruction and rehabilitation (e.g. breast implant
post mastectomy) 6. Palliative surgery to improve the quality of life
Removal of tumor tissue that is causing pain or obstruction 5. Psychological support to deal with surgery as well as
cancer diagnosis
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Radiation Therapy1. Treatment of choice for some tumors to kill or reduce tumor, relieve pain or obstruction
Destroy cancer cells with minimal exposure to normal cells Cells die or are unable to divide
2. Delivery a. Teletherapy (external): radiation delivered in
uniform dose to tumor Beam radiation
b. Brachytherapy: delivers high dose to tumor and less to other tissues; radiation source is placed in tumor or next to it in the form of seeds
Radiation source within the patient so pt emits radiation for a period of time and is a hazard to others
c. Combination
3.Goals a. Maximum tumor control with minimal
damage to normal tissues b. Caregivers must protect selves by
using shields, distancing and limiting time with client, following safety protocols Private room Caution sign on the door for radioactive material Dosimeter film badge by staff No pregnant staff Limit visitors to ½ hour per day and keep them at
least 6 ft from the source
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
4. Treatment Schedules a. Planned according to radiosensitivity of
tumor, tolerance of client b. Monitor blood cell counts5. Side Effects a. Skin (external radiation): blanching, erythema,
sloughing, breakdown Use mild soak Dry skin with a patting motion, not rubbing Don’t use powders or lotions unless prescribed by
radiologist Wear soft clothing over the site Avoid the sun and heat
b. Ulcerated mucous membranes: pain, lack of saliva (xerostoma)
c. Gastrointestinal: nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, bleeding, sometimes fistula formation
d. Radiation pneumonitis 1-3 months after treatment Cough, SOB, fever Treated with steroids to decrease inflammation
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Monoclonal antibodies (inoculate animal with tumor antigen and retrieve antibodies against tumor for human) Antibodies target specific substances
needed by the cancer cell for growth (Herceptin for breast cancer)
Gene therapyexperimentalMay insert gene into the tumor cells to
make them more susceptible to being killed by antiviral agents
May insert genes for cytokines that increase their effectiveness in killing cancer cells
Angiogenesis inhibitor drugs prevent new blood vessels from
forming and delivering blood to the tissue
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
F. Bone Marrow Transplantation and Peripheral Blood Stem Cell Transplantation
1. Stimulation of nonfunctioning marrow or replace bone marrow 2. Common treatment for leukemiasG. Pain Control 1. Includes pain directly from cancer, treatment, or
unrelated 2. Necessary for continuing function or comfort in
terminally ill clients 3. Goal is maximum relief with minimal side effects 4. Multiple combinations of analgesics (narcotic and non-
narcotic) and adjuvants such as steroids or antidepressants; includes around the clock (ATC) schedule with additional medications for break-through pain
5. Multiple routes of medications 6. May involve injections of anesthetics into nerve, surgical
severing of nerves radiation 7. May need to progress to stronger pain medications as
pain increases and client develops tolerance to pain medication
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer Nursing Diagnoses for Clients with CancerA. Anxiety 1. Therapeutic interactions with client and family; community
resources such as American Cancer Society, “I Can Cope” 2. Availability of community resources for terminally ill (Hospice
care in-patient, home care)B. Disturbed Body Image 1. Includes loss of body parts (e.g. amputations); appearance
changes (skin, hair); altered functions (e.g. colostomy); cachexic appearance, loss of energy, ability to be productive
2. Fear of rejection, stigmaC. Anticipatory Grieving 1. Facing death and making preparations for death: will be
consideration 2. Offer realistic hope that cancer treatment may be successful
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
D. Risk for InfectionE. Risk for Injury 1. Organ obstruction 2. Pathological fracturesF. Altered Nutrition: less than body requirements 1. Consultation with dietician, lab evaluation of nutritional
status 2. Managing problems with eating: anorexia, nausea and
vomiting 3. May involve use of parenteral nutritionG. Impaired Tissue Integrity 1. Oral, pharyngeal, esophageal tissues (due to chemotherapy,
bleeding due to low platelet counts, fungal infections such as thrush)
2. Teach inspection, frequent oral hygiene, specific non-irritating products, thrush control
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
Oncologic Emergencies
A. Pericaridal Effusion and Neoplastic Cardiac Tamponade
1. Concern: compression of heart by fluid in pericardial sac, compromised cardiac output
2. Treatment: pericardiocentesis
B. Superior Vena Cava Syndrome 1. obstruction of venous system with
increased venous pressure and stasis; facial and neck edema with slow progression to respiration distress Late signs are cyanosis, decreased cardiac output
and hypotension
2. Treatment: respiratory support; decrease tumor size with radiation or chemotherapy
C. Sepsis and Septic Shock 1. Early recognition of infection
Patients at risk secondary to low WBC and impaired immune system
2. Treatment: prompt intervention with antibiotics and vasopressors
D. DIC disseminated intravascular coagulation Triggered by severe illness, usually sepsis
in cancer patients Abnormal clotting uses up existing clotting
factors and platelets quickly then the pt hemorrhages
Mortality rate is 70% Prevention of sepsis is key
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
E. Spinal Cord Compression 1. Pressure from expanding tumor or
vertebral collapse can cause irreversible paraplegia
2. Back pain initial symptom with progressive paresthesia and paralysis Paralysis is usually permanent
3. Treatment: early detection High dose corticosteroid to decrease the swelling radiation or surgical decompression
F. Obstructive Uropathy1. Concern: blockage of urine flow;
undiagnosed can result in renal failure2. Treatment: restore urine flow
G. Hypercalcemia 1. High calcium (normal 9-10.5) usually from bone metastases 2. May also come from cancer of the lung, head, neck, kidney
and lymph nodes that secrete parathyroid hormone that causes the bone to release calcium
2. Symptoms include fatigue, muscle weakness, polyuria, constipation, progressing to coma, seizures
3. Treatment restore fluids with intravenous saline which also increases the
excretion of calcium loop diuretics increase calcium excretion Calcium chelators such as mithracin Inhibit calcium resorption from the bone with calcitonin,
diphosphonate
H. Tumor Lysis Syndrome 1. Occurs with rapid necrosis of tumor cells
with chemotherapy When tumor cells die they release potassium and
purines Potassium (norm 3.5-5.5) elevation causes cardiac
arrhthymias, muscle weakness, twitching, cramps Purines convert to uric acid which causes renal
failure, flank pain, gout when elevated above 10 mg/dl
Hyperphosphatemia with secondary to hypocalcemia causes heart block, HTN, renal failure
Treatment Hydration Instruct pt to increase fluid intake before
and after chemo May need IV hydration Diuretics to increase urine flow Allopurinol to increase uric acid excretion May need dialysis
Nursing Care of the Client with Cancer
I. SIADH (Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion)
1. Ectopic ADH production from tumor leads to excessive hyponatremia
2. holds onto too much fluid which decreases sodium level (normal 135-145)
3. Symptoms Weakness, muscle cramps, fatigue, ALOC, headache, seizures
2. Treatment: restore sodium level Fluid restriction Increase sodium Antibiotic demeclocycline works in opposition to ADH
Limits ADH effect on distal renal tubules so they can excrete water