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Published byV&A Conservation ISSN 096702273

Editorial BoardSandra SmithHead of Department

Graham MartinHead of Science

Charlotte HubbardHead of Sculpture Conservation

Mike WheelerSenior Paper Conservator

Fi JordanSenior Ceramics Conservator

Maria WalklinConservation Administrator

Designed by V&A Design

Photographs are credited individually

All enquiries to:-Conservation DepartmentVictoria and Albert MuseumLondon SW7 2RL, UKTelephone +44 (0)20 7942 2133Fax: +44 (0)20 7942 2092e-mail conservation.journal@vam.ac.uk

The V&A Conservation Journal is an informal publication and references in articles are discouraged. Readers may contact authors for further information via the e-mail address above

Contents V&A Conservation Journal No.44

1 EditorialSandra Smith, Head of Conservation Department

2 Sustainability and precaution: Part 2.How precautionary should we be?

Jonathan Ashley-Smith, Senior Research Fellow,Research Department

4 The Strand Palace HotelTrevor Grainger, Technical Services

6 How fast do polyester fabrics age in the museumenvironment?

Capucine Korenburg, Research Assistant, Science Section

9 Materials and their interaction with museumobjects

Boris Pretzel, Materials Scientist, Science Section.

14 Problems associated with the use of gloss house-hold paints By 20th century artists

Harriet Standeven, PhD student, RCA/V&A ConservationProgramme

17 Shooting yourself in the foot: The do’s and don’tsof working with weapons

Rachel Church, Assistant Curator, Department ofSculpture, Metalwork, Ceramics, Glass.

18 Understanding Conservation: An evening courseat the V&A

Ann Dooley, Course Organiser. Learning andInterpretation: Victoria Oakley, Head of Ceramics andGlass Conservation: Alison Richmond, Senior Tutor,RCA/V&A Conservation Course

19 New Staff

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2

The degree of caution exercised by conservators onbehalf of museum objects has often been criticised.This caution, usually interpreted as negativity, is saidto interfere with the plans of other museumprofessionals for the interpretation and display of the collections. Conservators also show a cautiousattitude by adopting the ethic of minimumintervention. The principles of precaution andsustainability have developed in the area of publichealth and ecological conservation and although they seem to be based on coherent rationalargument there is continuing disagreement aboutinterpretation. Fashion and inertia may allow thetransfer of these concepts into the realm of museumconservation where a similar vocabulary exists butwhere the problems may be entirely different.

The likelihood of this transfer of ideas is quite strong.The notion of conservation as the management ofchange has already been adopted by organisations,such as English Heritage and the National Trust, thathave responsibility for both natural and man-madeheritage. Nicholas Stanley-Price, the Director ofICCROM, recently suggested that his organisationshould develop closer links with the field of natureconservation. Supporting this mental link to theconservation of the living world are convenientanthropomorphic medical metaphors for theconservation of objects that have never been alive.

In this discussion a distinction will be drawn betweenordinary caution and the application of thePrecautionary Principle. Caution means being awarethat there are risks and then, considering the relativemagnitude of risk, managing one’s behaviour tominimise damage. As indicated in the first article inthis series1 the Precautionary Principle is incorporatedin the Maastricht Treaty and is thus a basis forEuropean law-making and regulation. In its mostprescriptive forms the Precautionary Principle impliesthat regulation of behaviour is mandatory merelybecause someone can conceive of a potential hazard.Behaviour must be regulated even though there is no certainty that this hazard constitutes a realthreat, even though there is no logical mechanism for realising the threat, even if the loss of benefitthrough regulation seems punitive. It is a requirement

of the most rigorous interpretation of the Principlethat the burden of proof does not lie with theregulator but with the person whose proposedbehaviour might cause exposure to the hazard.

The conservator already has the tools to formulaterelevant and acceptable interpretations of theseprinciples. In collections conservation, preventivemeasures were traditionally demanded wheneverthere was a suspicion of harm. But there was alwayssome sense of compromise. Even the most die-hardconservator would allow some light to fall on anobject so that it could be seen occasionally. Theecological extremists argue against compromise. Inobject conservation some sense of proportion can bearrived at through risk assessment. Yet this approachseems to have failed in environmental conservation:

“We believe existing environmental regulations andother decisions, particularly those based on riskassessment, have failed to protect adequately humanhealth and environment.”2

In environmental conservation the rights of futuregenerations have ferocious advocates:

“In risk analysis, the duty of care to prevent harms tothe interests of future cohorts of human beings….should outweigh any claims of benefits for currentcohorts.”3

Yet a large part of practical museum conservation is aimed at current access and interpretation,encouraged by a respect for current users. It seemscurious that the philosophical move away frominterventive conservation should coincide with theconservation profession’s realisation that thebusiness exists, to a large extent, for the presentgeneration of users. By actively promoting the use ofcollections, conservators stand a far better chance of achieving what they claim as their major purpose,the objects’ continuing preservation4. It is only bybeing less precautionary (which does not meanabandoning all caution), in both intervention andattempts at regulation, that conservators can be seen to be doing something of value and interestto contemporary stakeholders.

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Conservation Journal No.44

Sustainability and Precaution: Part 2How precautionary should we be?Jonathan Ashley-Smith, Senior Research Fellow, Research Department

1

I have now been in the post of Head of Conservationfor seven months and I am just beginning to feel asense of familiarity with the ConservationDepartment, its staff, and its belief systems.

Having worked in a national museum, I could relateto the wide, and often conflicting, demands onconservation time and understood the deepprofessional knowledge of conservation staff. ButI quickly realised that the roles and relationshipsbetween conservation and the other Museumdepartments and the RCA/V&A course give the V&A Conservation Department a unique identity. Ialso realised that the V&A is undergoing radical andrapid change. An ambitious future plan for the SouthKensington site, and comparable plans for theTheatre Museum and Bethnal Green Museum ofChildhood will significantly increase physical andintellectual access to the collections over the nextseven to ten years. The development of the onlinemuseum will increase virtual access to the collections.

The Department has an important role to play in thischange. Conservation can inform museum policiesand strategies by addressing the conflict betweenaccess and preservation. The articles by Boris Pretzeland Jonathan Ashley-Smith discuss some of theissues that will influence future directions. The‘Understanding Conservation’ course, reviewed in thisJournal, highlights public interest in preservationissues and we should be looking for opportunities toinvolve them with this debate. Developing strongerlinks with the Learning and Interpretation Division,Visitor Services, and increasing the conservationcontent of the web site are all opportunities to makethis link.

Meeting the changes within the Museum alsoinvolves exploring activities within the CollectionsServices Division and within the ConservationDepartment. The Strand Palace is one examplewhere combining the skills of conservation andtechnical services has enabled a complex project tobe delivered. In the process new relationships wereformed and plans to share communal workingfacilities are now been developed. The CollectionsServices Division, including the ConservationDepartment, is undergoing a strategic review to

determine the needs of the Museum for ourservices over the next five years or so. During thiswe are hoping to streamline and simplify processesand create more effective ways of working andcommunicating.

With a background predominantly in archaeologicaland historical collections, I find the articles onsynthetic materials, gloss paint and polyesterstimulating and also a little daunting. Archaeologicaland historical objects are formed from naturalproducts, albeit modified by man. Those whichsurvive, are either inherently stable or have beenpreserved by uniquely benign environments andoffer a wealth of information on natural ageing.Traditional, craft based techniques have evolved topreserve and restore them which in turn became thespring board from which ‘conservation’ developed.

Modern synthetic materials have no such historyand folk knowledge behind them. In this throwawaysociety, where we are encouraged to have thenewest and latest it will be the conservators whotake the leading role in developing preservationsystems. With such rapid developments in smartand techno fabrics alone it is sobering to contemplatehow we can keep up!

Finally, to end on a personal note, I have reallyenjoyed these first few months at the V&A. I amcontinually delighted by the enthusiasm, commitmentand professionalism of the staff. I have been madevery welcome and look forward to working withthem all in the future.

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Conservation Journal No.44

EditorialSandra SmithHead of Conservation

4

Designed by Oliver P. Bernard, in 1930, few Art Decobuildings were more glamorous than the luxuryhotel. In England, Claridges, the Savoy and the brandnew Dorchester all had sumptuous Art Deco interiors.But Oliver P. Bernard’s designs for the Strand Palacemade this one of the most celebrated hotel interiorsin London.

Bernard had worked as a set-designer in theatre andopera, in Britain and the USA. This experience clearlyinfluenced his work at the Strand Palace. The foyercombined traditional and new materials and madeinnovative use of glass and lighting. The walls wereclad with pale pink marble and the floor withlimestone. The balustrades, columns and doorsurrounds were made of translucent moulded glass,chromed steel and mirror glass. Bernard designedinteriors for other London hotels and cafés, includingthe Lyons Corner Houses. The foyer was removedfrom the Strand Palace Hotel in 1969 and, for the firsttime, was partially reconstructed for the recent ArtDeco exhibition.

When the Strand Palace Hotel entrance/foyer wasdismantled it was rescued by the V&A and sent toBattersea Store, where it remained for many yearslargely forgotten and ignored.

The decision for an exhibition and celebration of ArtDeco prompted the idea that the Strand Palace Hotelentrance would be one of the major features of theexhibit. At the store in Battersea Keith Marks andothers laid out the dismantled pieces in situ, like aflat jigsaw puzzle but nobody had any idea what itconsisted of, or if any parts were missing.

In a terrible state of disrepair and very badlydamaged, it looked like it had been taken to thestores and just ‘dumped’. There had been no provisionmade to store it correctly, as befits a beautiful andimportant work of art.

Lorries delivered the hundreds of pieces to theworkshops at the V&A. The pieces ranged in size fromthe smallest at one metre high, right up to the spindlefor the revolving door which was two metres high andweighed 108 kg. It took eight people to carry thespindle to the first floor workshop. It took about twoweeks for all the pieces to be delivered and unloaded,storing them wherever room could be found. It wasthen down to me to start the process of putting thejigsaw together. The first job was to clean the pieces.I started to clean the items but as time went on Keithand John Dowling helped me, joined by Albert Neherand the woodwork conservation team.

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Strand Palace HotelTrevor Grainger, Technical Services

3

The Precautionary Principle cannot really ever be astatement of principle. It is in fact a ‘vague andmalleable policy guideline’5, and as such has arecognisable similarity to the statements found incodes of ethics. To be useful such ‘rules’ are written inbroad and simple terms, but to give absolutedirection they have to be interpreted in the light oflocal and immediate circumstances. Theinterpretations will be governed by individualmotivations and vested interests. Thus, there is astrong divergence of opinion about how absolutelythe regulation of proposed new products andactivities should be implemented, given uncertaintyor the absence of evidence.

The most recent guidance for implementing thePrinciple within the regulatory framework of theEuropean Union6 recognises that there cannot be ablanket application of a single interpretation. Thereare numerous qualifications: the measures should beproportionate to the risk, must attempt to maximisenet benefit and must take into account the costs andrisks of alternatives (including doing nothing). Mostimportantly there is a need for continuing research toreduce uncertainties even after precautionarymeasures have been taken.

Over the past decade conservators and collectionsmanagers have been exposed to the idea that theiractions and decisions could be guided by systemsthat include risk assessment and cost-benefitcomparisons7. The risk assessment approach easilyleads to a proportional response. Most importantlythe conservation profession has continued researchinto hazard-harm relationships, and from time totime has attempted to relax precautionary guidelinesthat research has shown to be too restrictive. Forinstance, the attitudes of a large proportion of theconservation community to maximum light levelsand tolerable bands of humidity have become moreflexible.

However there is still cause for concern. The EuropeanUnion, while advocating the benefits of continuingresearch, has more or less abandoned funding anyresearch that would be useful in reducinguncertainties about the risks to cultural heritage. In

recent years it has only supported short term projectsaimed at producing commercial products rather thanlong term understanding. Another worry is thecontinuation in some areas of conservation of theALARA principle. This is the line followed in some ofthe more extreme environmental regulations in bothEurope and the US. What is ‘As Low As ReasonablyAchievable’ must be of necessity, the best, regardlessof need, cost or practicability.

The way in which other interpretations ofsustainability and authenticity alter the need forprecaution will be dealt with in the third and finalarticle in this series.

References1 J.Ashley-Smith. Sustainability and Precaution: Part 1.

V&A Conservation Journal. 40. Spring 2002. pp 4-6.

2 Peter Montague. The Precautionary Principle. Rachel’sEnvironment and Health Weekly (EnvironmentalResearch Foundation). 586. February 1998.

3 Perri6. The morality of managing risk: paternalism,prevention and precaution, and the limits ofproceduralism. Journal of Risk Research 3(2),2000, pp 35 -165.

4 Marie Berducou. Why involve the public in heritageconservation-restoration? Conservation at the End of the 20th Century. Ed David Grattan. ICOM-CC.1999, pp 15-18.

5 Quirino Balzano, Asher R Sheppard. The influence of theprecautionary principle on science-based decision-making. Journal of Risk research 5 (40, 2002 pp 351-369.

6 Communication from the Commission on thePrecautionary Principle. COM(2000)1 – C5-0143/2000–2000/2086(COS).http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/health_consumer/library/pub/pub07_en.pdf

7 Anything by Rob Waller, but most recently: A Risk Modelfor Collection Preservation. 13th Triennial Meeting Rio deJaneiro. ICOM-CC. 2002. pp 102-107.

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6

IntroductionAromatic polyesters were discovered in 1941 bychemists of Calico Printers Association (UK) and havebeen commercially available since 1953. Todaypolyester fibres are the most widely used man-madefibres. Increasingly, fabrics are given special finishesto have specific properties (e.g. aesthetic appearance,skin-moisturising effect or spill-repellent property);these fabrics are called “techno” fabrics 1.

Not surprisingly, polyester fabrics and techno fabricsare entering museum collections at a fast pace.Polyester fabrics appear to be stable but since theyhave been around for only approximately 50 years,this is still an open question. In particular, the effectsof techno pre-treatments, which represent a recentinnovation, on the durability of polyester fabrics areunknown.

“Smart and Techno Fabrics”, a collaborative projectbetween the Victoria & Albert Museum and theTextile Conservation Centre, University ofSouthampton, aims at investigating the deteriorationof polyester fabrics in the museum environment. Aplain polyester fabric and a techno polyester fabricwere subjected to accelerated light- and heat-ageingand the changes in their mechanical strength weremonitored using tensile tests.

ExperimentalFabric samplesThe plain white polyester fabric sample was boughtfrom the John Lewis department store, London. Thetechno polyester fabric, “spattering”, was a replicateof a museum object (T.118:24-1998) and was providedby Nuno Corporation, Japan. This fabric is made ofpolyester that has been calendered mirror-smoothand “sputter-plated” with three powdered metals(chromium, nickel and iron). This gives it a metallicshine (see Figure 1). Both fabrics were made in plainweave.

Mechanical testsThe tensile tests were conducted on an Instronmachine. 19 mm wide strips of fabric were tested at arate of displacement of 200 mm/minute with agauge length (i.e. the length of fabric between thegrips of the machine) of 75 mm. Three replicates cutalong the warp and weft directions were tested everytime. The load to failure and elongation to failurewere measured. The results for the fabrics as received(i.e. not subjected to accelerated ageing) are given inTable 1.

Light-ageing testsFor the accelerated light ageing tests, strips of fabricwere placed in a light box and six samples (three cutalong the warp direction and three cut along theweft direction) were removed from the light box atregular intervals. The illuminance inside the light boxwas approximately 9 klux and the temperature 23ºC.The ultraviolet radiation was filtered and cooling wasfan-assisted.

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How fast do polyester fabrics age in themuseum environment?Capucine Korenberg, Research Assistant, Science Section

Warp Weft

Plain 129±6 N; 33.8±1.5 % 96±2 N; 39.1±2.8 %

“Spattering” 125±3 N; 34.7±2.3 % 103±18 N; 26.7±4 %

Figure 1

5

The centrepiece of this exhibit are the revolvingdoors. The encasements for the revolving doors,which consist of two huge circular panels, had beenbadly stored. Instead of being circular they werecompletely flat. To restore them to their former glorywe had to erect them in the workshop. A woodencircle the size of the revolving door was bolted to thefloor. As the flat panels were erected around thewooden template, the metal pieces were clampedtogether, squeezed into the circular shape and boltedto the template. Although the majority of the piecesfor the foyer were there, I had to make some itemsthat were either broken or missing. The items thathad been erected in the workshop were thendismantled and all the pieces had to be taken, eitherby hand or on a trolley, to the exhibition area.

Once everything was at the exhibition site, we hadthe job of putting all the pieces together. AlbertNeher was in overall charge of the project. We hadphotos for reference and we had decided in theworkshop, where and how various pieces wenttogether. No-one however had seen it in its originalsetting in the Strand Palace Hotel. It was likecompiling a huge three dimensional jigsaw whichrequired a concerted, team effort. For some pieces,like the revolving door, it was obvious where theywent, but there were a number of passionate debatesas to the order of installing the various pieces. Wefound out that there was only one way to erect it,and if the pieces were not put in the correct order, itmeant that at a later stage the glass and mirrorswould not fit.

The delicate nature of the glass in the outer sectionsand the mirrors in the inner section proved to be verytime consuming and nerve wracking to put in place.Above the revolving doors, the mirrors are likewedges of cheese. Keith slid the wedges into place,Albert then inserted a screw and I tightened thesingle nut to hold them in place.

It took about four weeks to erect. As the work wasprogressing it became a focal point for the wholemuseum. Staff from all departments paid a visit tosee how it was progressing. A photographic recordwas kept of the work, and everyone working on itstarted to get very excited about the whole project.

From start to finish it was a team effort, everyonethat worked on the project felt immensely proudwhen it was completed.

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Conservation Journal No.44

8

Heat-ageing testsIncreasing the temperature of the environment isrecognised to accelerate the rate of deterioration inan object 3. After three months of heat-ageing at60ºC no change in the mechanical properties wasrecorded for either the plain polyester fabric or“spattering” and it was decided to increase thetemperature to 80ºC. However, after two months, thetensile strength for both fabrics was unchanged. Itwas concluded that the polyester fabrics underinvestigation were very stable.

ConclusionsPreliminary tests have shown that puttingpermanent heat-set pleats in polyester fabrics doesnot introduce a weakness zone in the fabric. Also, thestrength of polyester fabrics that had been soaked indeionised water was unaffected.

Samples of plain polyester and “spattering” received alight exposure equivalent to approximately 80 yearsin the museum environment. Samples were alsoheat-aged in an oven at 60ºC and then at 80ºC.Following these ageing tests, the strength of bothfabrics was found to be the same as for the unagedfabrics, which shows that polyester fabrics should bevery stable in the museum environment. Finally, thisstudy shows that the techno pre-treatmentemployed for the “spattering” fabric has nodetrimental effect on the durability of the fabric.

AcknowledgementsThe financial support of the Art and HumanitiesResearch Board for the “Smart and Techno FabricsProject” (project code AR13715) is gratefullyacknowledged.

Thanks are also due to Nuno Corporation forproviding samples of “spattering”, the CourtauldInstitute, the National Gallery and to Imperial Collegefor the use of their Instron machine.

Finally, I wish to thank Brenda Keneghan and GrahamMartin from the Science Section and Paul Wyethfrom the Textile Conservation Centre for their helpand support.

References

1. Braddock S.E. and O’Mahony M., Techno textiles. London:Thames and Hudson, 1998.

2. Thomson, G., The Museum Environment. Sutton UK:Butterworths, 1986.

3. Feller, R.L., Accelerated Ageing Photochemical & ThermalAspects. USA: The Getty Conservation Institute, 1994.

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7

It should be noted that museums tend to useincandescent lamps to light their exhibits. However,fluorescent lamps are used in light-ageing tests forpractical reasons: they are cheap, widely available andtend not to heat up the test samples much above30ºC, which is a problem with incandescent lamps.Fluorescent and incandescent lamps do not have thesame power distribution spectra: fluorescent lampshave a continuous power distribution spectrum withdiscrete peaks, whereas incandescent lamps have acontinuous spectrum. Thus, the deterioration of testsamples illuminated by fluorescent lamps may not bethe same as that of samples illuminated byincandescent lamps and the test results obtainedshould be interpreted with caution.

Heat-ageing testsThe polyester fabric samples were placed in an ovenat 60ºC in the dark.

Preliminary testsEffect of pleatingMany polyester fabrics have permanent heat-setpleats. For example, Nuno Corporation manufacturesa pleated scarf made of polyester, which folds backtogether when laid flat (“Origami” scarf, see Figure 2).It was decided to investigate whether pleatingintroduces a zone of weakness in the fabric. Pleatswere made in the middle of the strips across thelength of both the plain polyester and “spattering”samples using an iron heated to 130ºC. To seewhether the pleats were permanent, samples weresoaked in tap water and it was checked that thepleats were still present once they were dried (thesesamples were not subsequently tested). Pleatedsamples did not tend to fail along the pleats andtheir strength was similar to that of the non-pleatedfabrics. This suggests that permanent heat-set pleatsdo not have any detrimental effects on the strengthof polyester fabrics.

Effect of soakingTreatments performed by textile conservators ofteninvolve using deionised water to clean fabrics.Immersing a fabric in a liquid might swell the fibresand affect their mechanical properties. Samples ofplain polyester and “spattering” were soaked for tenminutes in deionised water and left to dry on atissue. Their strength was found to be unaffected bythis treatment. This suggests that cleaningtreatments using deionised water do not have adetrimental effect on the mechanical strength ofpolyester fabrics.

Ageing testsLight-ageing testsA textile on permanent display at the Museum isusually illuminated at 50 lux ten hours a day 2,meaning that it receives approximately 180 klux.h peryear. Samples of plain polyester and “spattering” (withthe metal-plated side facing upward) were placed inthe light box for 69 days, which is equivalent toapproximately 80 years in the museum. It wasobserved that the strength of both the plainpolyester and “spattering” did not vary significantlyduring the ageing tests. These results suggested that(i) the tensile strength of polyester fabrics would notbe affected after 80 years of illumination in themuseum environment and (ii) the techno pre-treatment on “spattering” did not have any adverseeffect on the durability of the polyester fabric.

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Conservation Journal No.44

Figure 2

10

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Conservation Journal No.44

Agent Commonsources

Metals Organicartefacts

Minerals and rocks

Ceramics and vitreous

materials

Rubbers Modernpolymers

Oxygen O2 All around us Isoprene (naturalrubber),chloroprene, andneoprene (artificialrubbers)

Polyurethanes(especially asfoam)

Ozone O3 Electrostaticdischarge (printers,photocopiers, andsome solid-statedevices, highenergy radiationinteractions withair or oxygen

Cellulosics(including paperand cotton)

Isoprene,chloroprene,neoprene

Polyurethanes(especially asfoam)

Nitrogen oxidesNOx

Combustionengines andindustrialemissions,decomposition ofurethane andcellulose nitratefilms

Cellulosics, silk,wool, linen, andtextiles in general

Stone buildingmaterials such assandstone andlimestone. NOx willgreatly acceleratereactions with SO2

Isoprene,chloroprene,neoprene

Cellulose nitrate.At high exposurealso for: celluloseacetate, andepoxies

Sulfur dioxide SO2 Combustion engineand industrialemissions

High sensitivity:cellulosics.Medium sensitivity:vegetable tannedleathers and wools

Stone buildingmaterials such assandstone andlimestone

Chloroprene,neoprene

Nylons and (athigh exposure)polypropylene

Peroxides ROOR’ Released duringoxidativepolymerisation offilms

Copper, iron, lead Cellulosics Isoprene,chloroprene,neoprene

At high exposurefor: epoxies, nylons,polypropylene,polystyrene andpolyurethanes

Hydrogen sulfideH2S, carbonylsulfide OCS

Biodegradation ofsulfur containingproteins,breakdown ofvulcanised rubberan d wool, bioeffluence (H2S);biochemical andgeochemicalprocesses,breakdown of wool(OCS)

High sensitivity:silver, copper.Medium sensitivity:brasses, aluminium

At high exposurefor: nylons andpolyurethanes

Aldehydes chieflymethanal(formaldehyde)H2CO, and ethanal(acetaldehyde)CH3CHO

Wood products,such as blockboards and MDF

High sensitivity:leads, brasses,bronzes. Mediumsensitivity:aluminium, copper,silver

Newsprint paper Glass at exposureto highconcentration

Chloroprene,neoprene

At high exposurefor: celluloseacetate, PVC, andpolystyrene

Carboxylic acids,R-COOH, chieflyethanoic (acetic)acid CH3COOHand mathanoic(formic) acidCHOOH

Wood products,such as blockboards and MDF,some siliconesealants, andproduced duringthe breakdown ofpolyvinyl acetatefilms

High sensitivity:lead and bronze.Medium sensitivity:copper, brass,cadmium, iron,aluminium,magnesium, andzinc

Cellulosics Shells, coral,limestone, etc.Bones are alsoaffected when thepollutant is presentin highconcentrations.

Ceramicscontaining solublesalts

Chloroprene,neoprene

Cellulose acetateand polyvinylacetate (emittingethanoic acid onbreakdown,accelerating thereaction). Reactionsare accelerated bysome metals(chiefly Fe and Zn).Medium sensitivity:acrylics, epoxies,nitriles, nylons,polyethylene,polystyrene, andpolyurethanes

Table 1 below, indicates specific hazards associated with a range of common potential pollutants.

Oxidative – reductive (redox)

Acid-base

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All objects are subject to deterioration from chemicalinteractions to some extent. The agents of chemicalinteractions might come from the materials fromwhich an object is made, from materials used to treatthe artefact, or from corrosive interactions withemissions from materials in close proximity. The resultsof some of the degradation processes are obviouswhile others are less visible bit, nonetheless,significant.

In order to protect objects within their care, museumsseek to minimize potential deleterious interactions bychoosing appropriate materials to use in the storageand display of objects. A summary of the types ofinteractions affecting different artefacts may suffer isgiven below. This is followed by a short list of indicativematerials that present minimal potential hazards. Listsof materials that have been tested for theircorrosiveness, either within the V&A or by otherorganisations, and have been found to be suitable foruse in short-term display or storage containers forartefacts, can further help selecting materialsappropriate for use with museums’ collections.

Object sensitivitiesSensitivities of objects to chemical degradation varywidely depending on the materials from which theyare made. General comments on common reaction fordifferent artefact types precede a table indicating theeffects of a range of common pollutants, below. Thecomments and table serve as an approximate guideonly and consultation with a knowledgeablepractitioner in this subject is highly recommended.

Metals. Metals and their alloys show a large range ofcorrosion reactions depending on the elementalcomposition of the alloys as well as the nature of thereactants. In general, metal corrosion is accelerated inthe presence of moisture and acidic environments.Sensitivity to further corrosion is usually increased inthe presence of existing corrosion patinas.

The large range in coloured corrosion products hasbeen a rich source of inorganic pigments through thecenturies and corrosion patinas on ancient artefactsare an important contribution to the aestheticqualities and value associated with these objects.Nevertheless, it is generally accepted that furthercorrosion of metal artefacts in a museum should beavoided!

Organic artefacts. Materials such as cotton, cellulose,wool, silk, and leather are affected by highly acidic oralkaline conditions that can cause acid or alkalinehydrolysis, and by oxidation or biodegradation.

Minerals and rocks (calciferous materials). Objectssuch as bones, shells, sandstone, limestone, and the likewill be dissolved in the presence of strong acids (and,to a lesser extent, in the prolonged presence of weakacids). Mineral hydrates are very sensitive to changes inwater vapour concentration and the reaction rates ofmany minerals increase significantly with watervapour concentration.

Ceramics and vitreous materials. The stability of glassobjects is very dependent on their composition.Vulnerable groups can be particularly unstable evenover short period (especially at high humidities and inacidic conditions). Ceramics tend to be stable but againthe stability will depend on a number of factorsincluding the nature of the body and the temperatureat which they are fired.

Rubbers. These materials include natural rubber(isoprene) and artificial rubbers (chloroprene andneoprene). Rubbers deteriorate by oxidativedegradation and would need to be stored in an oxygenfree environment or coated with protective films forlong-term preservation. They are particularly affectedby strong oxidants (ozone, oxygen, peroxides, nitrogenoxides). They are also affected by exposure to highlevels of acetates (natural rubbers) and (forchloroprene and neoprene) by a high levels of exposureto a range other pollutants including carboxylic acids,aldehydes, peroxides, phosphoric acid, sulfur dioxideand toluene. Vulcanised rubbers are a common sourceof sulfurous gases, released on their breakdown.

Modern polymers. Many plastics leach plasticizers tobecome brittle and discoloured as they age. Severalalso undergo chain scission (saponification in thepresence of moisture or oxidation / reduction in thepresence of strong redox agents, heat and light) andchemical breakdown, releasing monomeric units fromwhich they are composed. They are affected byexposure to a range of solvents (which can make themsoft or tacky) and exposure to toluene diisocyanate.Many are degraded by acids and these reactions areoften accelerated by the presence of metals (chieflyiron and zinc).

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Materials and their interaction withmuseum objectsBoris Pretzel, Materials Scientist, Science Section

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Mitigation Ideally, museum storage and display environmentsshould be free of all reactants that can interact withobjects. This ideal is not (usually) a realisticexpectation: many artefacts may be sources ofcorrosive agents that will interact with other objects.Anyway, increasing access to objects inevitablyincreases the rate of their degradation, if only byexposing them to radiation necessary for them to beseen and keeping them in climates that areappropriate for visitors.

Approaches to ensure that unacceptable rates ofchemical interactions are not encountered in thestorage and display of artefacts include:

• Use only inert materials in the construction ofcontainers (avoid the problem)

• Use protective films to contain any sources ofreactant species – by sealing materials that areknown to be a source of corrosive agents or toprovide a protective film around the artefactsthemselves (keep the problem out)

• Use sacrificial materials preferentially to reactwith the corrosive species.

LimitationsEach of these approaches has its own drawbacks andlimitations:

• The number of truly inert materials is limitedand they do not, on the whole, offer enoughflexibility fully to meet the design requirements.Restricting use to only such materials may alsoimpose a severe burden on resources

• Protective films on artefacts may significantlyreduce their aesthetic qualities (although the useof such films, for instance, for polyurethane orrubber artefacts, may be the only way ofpreserving the artefacts against rapid oxidativedecay). The performance of barrier films used onmaterials known to be a source of hazardouscorrosive emissions is dependent not only on thematerial from which they are made but also onthe quality of their application. Many materialsused as barrier films are themselves potentialsources of corrosive reactants. The performanceof any seal will deteriorate significantly if it ispunctured (for instance, by pinning objectsthrough it) and the effectiveness of anyprotective film may deteriorate with age andwear.

• The dynamics of interactions with sacrificialabsorbers or adsorbers will affect the successwith which these materials reduce theconcentrations of reactive species near artefacts– especially if they need to be placed in discretepositions so as not to interfere with the display.

Possible solutionsAcceptable strategies will balance the risk toartefacts with access to them, in keeping withavailable resources. This will normally involve acombination of approaches, such as:

• Restricting materials as far as possible to onesthat are inert

• Testing all materials not known to be inert toensure that they do not pose unacceptablehazards to the artefacts in their vicinity

• Appropriately sealing materials that have beenidentified as potential sources of corrosivespecies to which artefacts in their vicinity aresensitive

• Giving appropriate consideration to sealingartefacts themselves (for instance, lacqueringsilver objects or varnishing artefacts) if they aremade of materials particularly sensitive to decay

• Allowing sufficient time for any materials to dryand off-gas fully before installing artefacts (off-gassing times are dependent on the mechanismby which barrier films are produced and rangefrom one day – for powder coating baked on tometals – to four weeks or more for films on woodproduct substrates produced by solventevaporation, catalytic polymerisation, orcoalescence)

• Segregating display contents to avoidinteractions between artefacts

• Including general adsorbers (for instance,charcoal cloth or molecular sieves) in displaycases contain artefacts that may be emittingcorrosive chemicals

• Regularly inspecting the displayed artefacts sothat problems are detected at their onset andappropriate action can be taken.

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Mineral acids:hydrochloric acidHCl, phosphoricacid H3PO4,sulfuric acidH2SO4, nitric acidHNO3

Used as catalyst insome"formaldehyde free"wood products,potentially releasedduring thebreakdown ofchlorinatedadditives andchlorinated filmssuch as PVC,oxidation andhydration productsof SO2 and NOx

Aluminium, brass,copper, iron, nickel

Adversely affectmost organic andinorganic artefacts

Dissolve in strongacids

Chloroprene,neoprene

At high exposurefor: celluloseacetate, cellulosenitrate, nylons,PVC, and PVDC.Reactionsaccelerated bysome metals (Fe,Zn)

Nitrogencompounds,chiefly amines,RR’R’’N, andammonia, NH3

NH3 used in manycleaning systemsand emitted byconcretes duringsolidification

Aluminium,bronzes, copper,and iron

Ceramics (for NH3) PVC, poly(vinylidenechloride) PVDC,polystyrene, andpolyurethanes

Toluene C6H5CH3and other organicsolvents

Released fromsolvent basessystems (paints,coatings, etc).

Chloroprene,neoprene

At high exposurefor: acrylics, epoxies(particularlysensitive to CS2),PVC, polyethylene,polypropylene, andpolystyrene

Acetates,CH3COO-R

Released during thecuring of someprotective films

Mainly zinc butalso copper

At high exposurefor: acrylics,cellulose acetate,cellulose nitrate,epoxies(particularly toethyl acetate), PVC,polyethylene, andpolystyrene

Styrene(ethenylbenzene),C8H8

Often present assolvents inpolyesters

Lead (when presentin highconcentrations)

Suspected ofdiscolouring andstaining fabrics onprolonged exposure

Water, H2O Copper, iron, lead,bronze, brass, etc.Reactions greatlyaccelerated in thepresence of acids

Paper, cotton, etc. Mineral hydratesare very sensitive tochanges in vapourconcentrations.Reaction rates formany mineralsincrease withvapourconcentration

Ceramicscontaining solublesalts, corrodedglass

Cellulose nitrate,cellulose acetate(reactions greatlyaccelerated inacidic conditions)

Agent Commonsources

Metals Organicartefacts

Minerals and rocks

Ceramics and vitreous

materials

Rubbers Modernpolymers

Solvents

Table 1: common pollutants and their effect on differentclasses of artefact.

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Introduction.Artists in the 20th century have chosen to use glosshouse-hold paints in the place of artists’ qualitypaints for a number of reasons: perhaps for theunique handling properties and surfacecharacteristics they offer, for the social and culturalassociations they evoke in the viewer, or simplybecause they are less expensive than traditionalartists’ oils. Although artists have made intermittentuse of commercial house-paints since the 1920s, theiruse became widespread in the 1940s and 1950s.Partly responding to a desire to create textures andeffects that simply cannot be achieved usingtraditional artists’ oils, and partly due to a fascinationwith drawing everyday materials into the realm offine art, artists began increasingly to incorporatenon-traditional paints into their artworks. But thepresence of gloss paints on works of art can causeproblems for the object’s care and longevity, not leastbecause their glossy surface appearance is easilydisrupted by many of the solvents and cleaningagents routinely used in conservation (figures 1 and 2).1

In the field of painting conservation, little was knownabout the types of resin that have been used in glosspaint manufacture, when each was introduced ordiscontinued, or the extent of their use by artists – allof which is essential if one is to ensure that artworksare cared for appropriately and interpreted accurately.It was this gap in knowledge that the researchsought to address.

Key developments in gloss paint industry history: the1920s to the 1960s.The period of study begins in the 1920s, when artistsfirst began to experiment with commercial paints,and ends in the early 1960s, when all the majorchanges in formulation had been completed. Theearliest decorative gloss paints were typically basedon an oleo-resinous system such as linseed oil andcopal and remained so until the introduction of thefirst synthetic resins for these purposes in the 1930s.It is apparent that these traditionally bound paintscontinued to be manufactured alongside theirsynthetic counterparts for a number of years, andthey have been detected on works of art up until the1960s. R. H. Kienle of America’s General ElectricCompany was the first to patent a process for makingoil-modified alkyd resins in 1927, which wereintroduced as binding media for American decorativepaints shortly afterwards.

The first decorative paint to be made on an alkydsystem in Britain was ICI’s ‘Dulux’, introduced in 1932.It comprised phthalic anhydride, glycerol and linseedoil, and was formulated entirely from technologyprovided by the American company Du Pont.2 It isevident that this first paint was of questionablequality, and problems associated with poorapplication properties were reported.3 Production ofthis alkyd ceased during the Second World War, and itwas not re-introduced until the late 1940s whenimprovements to its formulation were made. It wasfound that the substitution of glycerol forpentaerythritol enabled a resin with a greater oillength to be formulated, which improved itsrheological properties significantly. A coincidentdevelopment of the solvent method of manufacturemeant that better quality, paler resins could be

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Problems associated with the use of glosshouse-hold paints by 20th century artists.Harriet Standeven, final year PhD student, Royal College of Art/V&A MuseumConservation Programme.

Figure 1 awaiting caption

Figure 2 awaiting caption13

Other mitigation strategies will involve the control ofclimates (for instance, most metals will not corrodeat relative humidity below 40%). Guidance onacceptable environments (climate and radiation) isoutside of the scope of this paper but forms a crucialaspect in providing the best care for artefacts in amuseum’s keep.

Materials for display casesThe materials listed below can be considered as inertin terms of their chemical interaction with museumobjects. They are safe for use in constructing tightlysealed environments providing good protectionagainst externally generated pollutants andvariations in external humidity.

• Glass and other vitreous systems

• Rigid plastic materials such as acrylics (Perspex™,Plexiglas™) and polycarbonates (Makrolon™).Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) structuresare also likely to be stable for the periods inquestion although there is a small risk of theemission of HCl over longer time periods

• Unbleached, undyed cotton

• Acid free paper and card (“archival quality”)

• Metals – but beware of the possible problemsdue to electrode potentials between differentmetals

• Powder coated metals (if appropriately baked)

• Alcoxy (non-corrosive, alcohol curing) silicones

• Silica gel

• Polyester films (Mylar™ D, Melinex™, etc)

• Polyethylene, polypropylene, and other “virgingrade” polymer films not containing plasticizersetc

• Carboxy methylcellulose adhesive.

Other materials should be tested for corrosivenessand pH before being used in the vicinity of delicateartefacts. However, it is unrealistic to expect eachexhibition to undertake a full materials testingprogram before commencing the fabrication ofdisplays, both because of the significant resourcessuch testing programs require and also because ofthe delay this would necessarily introduce to thecommissioning of an exhibition.

Many institutions now hold lists of materials thathave been tested in the past and some, like theBritish Museum, will sell lists of materials foundacceptable. Strictly speaking, the test results are onlyvalid for the batch of material as tested asdeterioration mechanisms involved in producingcorrosive agents are often complicated and notelucidated in detail. Manufacturers may changecomposition and formulation processes withoutnotification. Even very small modifications mightintroduce chemical components that will over timerelease corrosive agents, turning a material that hadbeen tested as safe in to a potential hazard forartefacts.

An acceptable balance between the reliability ofhistorical data from materials tests and the resourcesand time available for commissioning an exhibitionmight be to accept only results from test that havebeen performed in the last few years (minimizing therisk that the product formulation will have changed).If the evaluation of a materials is based on testresults that are more than, say, five years old,exhibition teams will need to get reassurance fromthe manufactures / suppliers that the formulationand processing of the materials in question haveremained unchanged since the testing wasundertaken.

A final word of caution is warranted. Materialdegradation processes are sometimes not linear inthat the evolution of pollutants may not be constantwith time. Manufactures frequently use adsorbentsand chemical modifiers that have a defined lifetimewhen in use. When these modifiers are exhaustedthere can often be a rapid increase in pollutionemission.

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When one considers alkyd gloss paints in theseterms, their fragility quickly becomes apparent. Theirsusceptibility to basic attack makes the commonlyused reagent ammonium hydroxide unsuitable forcleaning; their inferior water resistance means thatcare has to be taken if one is introducingconsolidants or cleaning agents via an aqueoussystem, whilst their brittle nature means that theyare more likely to crack and flake if applied to aninappropriately flexible support, or handled withoutdue care.

The appeal of gloss paints.Despite their potential problems, gloss paints possessa number of desirable properties that have appealedto artists. They are quick drying – traditional artists’oils take weeks to dry properly, whereas alkyds aretouch dry in a matter of hours. Their fluidity allowsunorthodox techniques such as dripping and pouringto be employed, enabling the creation of a range ofunusual effects that simply cannot be achieved usingtraditional artists’ oils (figure 3). They are considerablycheaper than artists’ oils – an important factor toconsider if artists are working on a large scale. Theirglossy appearance appeals to artists wishing toexploit the effects of juxtaposed matt and glossysurfaces. Finally, the fact they are everyday,commercial materials has appealed to artists wishingto disassociate themselves from the traditions andtechniques associated with ‘fine art’.

But the surface appearance of such paints is easilyaltered, most commonly manifested as loss of gloss.This may occur naturally as the paint ages, or may bea direct consequence of an inappropriateconservation treatment, but when one considers thatartists have often chosen to use such paints preciselybecause of the glossy surface they offer, theimplications of this become clear: if the appearanceof the painting has altered, it is no longer conveyingthe message that the artist intended.

Conclusion.Knowledge about the precise nature of the materialspresent on a work of art therefore fulfils a number ofimportant roles: it ensures that the artwork is caredfor appropriately, it allows predictions to be made asto how it might age and deteriorate, and also offersvaluable insights into artists’ working practices andintentions. A defining feature of 20th and 21stcentury art has been the emphasis on materials. Formany artists, the non-traditional materials theychoose are integral to the meaning of the piece, andour appreciation of the artwork as a social andcultural object is greatly enriched by anunderstanding of when and why artists have chosento use them.

References1 Harriet Standeven, ‘The conservation, scientific analysis

& art historical research of ‘Streaker’, an abstractpainting by Richard Kidd from 1974; with additionalresearch into the effects of selected solvents &cleaning agents on alkyd based house paints,’unpublished MA Dissertation (University ofNorthumbria, 2000).

2 Lilley, H. S. ‘Development of Post-War Dulux.’unpublished letter to C. I. Snow. July 10, 1959, SuffolkRecord Office, Ipswich.

3 Snow, C. I. ‘”Dulux” Finishes.’ Unpublished, sent undercovering letter to J. Ferguson, I. C. House, I. C. I. PaintsDivision, 1959. Suffolk Record Office, Ipswich.

4 Ken Arbuckle, personal interview, 13 Feb. 2002.

5 Nylen & Sutherland, Modern Surface Coatings, (London:Interscience Publishers) 1965.

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Figure 3 awaiting caption

15

produced, and by the early 1950s many Britishcompanies were manufacturing oil-modified alkydsbased on phthalic anhydride, pentaerythritol andlinseed oil. Despite its excellent drying properties,linseed oil’s tendency to yellow rendered it unsuitablefor pale coloured paints, prompting companies toexperiment with the paler semi-drying oils such assafflower, tobacco seed and soya bean. By the early1960s, most British pale coloured decorative topcoatswere based on phthalic anhydride, pentaerythritoland a semi-drying oil.

It is evident that materials such as dehydrated castoroil, maleic anhydride and rosin esters have also beenused for gloss paint manufacture, especially duringthe War years when raw materials were in shortsupply. Although popular for applications such asship’s paint, there are conflicting accounts as towhether phenol-formaldehyde resins have ever beenused as the binding media in decorative paints: somestate categorically that they would never have beenused due to their marked tendency to discolour,4

whilst others assert that they have; to date, they havenot been detected on works of art.

It is therefore apparent that there were a variety ofhousehold paints available in the mid-20th century,any of which could have been used by artists. Butwhy should the presence of such paints causeproblems on works of art, how do they differ fromtraditional artists’ oils, and why does extra care needto be taken when treating them?

Artists’ oil paints vs. gloss paints.Firstly, gloss paints, and particularly oil-modified alkydpaints, differ substantially in terms of bothappearance and chemical structure to artists’ oils andare easily disrupted by the polar solvents and alkalinecleaning reagents that form part of manyconservation treatments. The highest quality artists’oils are produced from cold pressed linseed oil, amanufacturing method that produces pale oils whichare relatively stable in colour. Commercial paintshowever, often include lower grade oils, which mayhave undergone a refining procedure that willultimately affect their colour stability. The resinous

component of traditionally bound house-paints canalso contribute to its discolouration on ageing. Adesirable property of household paint is the speed atwhich it dries, achieved by the addition of metalsoaps. But driers not only continue to have a siccativeeffect long after the film has thoroughly dried –ultimately contributing to its embrittlement andeventual breakdown – their solubility makes themsusceptible to attack from solvents and cleaningagents.

Whilst artists’ oils will tolerate the addition ofmediums to alter the gloss and consistency with littleill-effect, gloss paints have been formulated for aparticular application technique and use, and defectsquickly become apparent if they have not beenapplied as the manufacturer intended. Adulterationwith thinners or solvents, or even mixing with otherpaints can seriously compromise the properties ofthe binder, and unorthodox application techniquessuch as dripping and pouring frequently results indefects such as wrinkling.

Although the paint industry considers the durabilityof oil-modified alkyds to be far superior to that oftraditional oleo-resinous binders,5 in a conservationcontext, alkyds are far more susceptible to damage.When a paint formulator considers the durability of acoating, he or she is considering its resistance to UVlight, its behaviour when exposed to extreme cyclingof temperature and humidity, and the length of timefor which it offers a coherent, protective coating. But(one hopes) these are amongst the last conditions tobefall a work of art in a climatically controlledmuseum or gallery, and when conservators approachthe concept of durability, they do so using a verydifferent set of criteria. Durability of paint on a workof art relates more to resistance to the heat, moistureand solvents that form part of many conservationtreatments, to factors such as physical damagecaused by museum visitors – ranging from stickyfingerprints to cuts or blows to the surface – andperhaps most importantly for a painting that may betravelling to several overseas exhibitions each year, itsreaction to the vibrations and knocks caused bytravelling and handling.

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The work of the Conservation Department isgenerally a mystery to most people who visit theV&A. Almost all the work that conservators do, whichis ultimately for the benefit of the visitor, goesunnoticed. The course, which was developed as acollaboration between the Conservation Departmentand Learning and Interpretation, was a rare chancefor conservators to describe their work to a non-specialist audience. The aim was to provideindependent adult learners with an opportunity tofind out what happens to objects behind the scenesand consider the importance of conservation.

The course was spread over five Wednesday evenings.Each two hour session followed a theme, graduallybuilding to give a broad picture of the range ofdifferent aspects covered by conservation. Thequestion “What is conservation?” was asked on thefirst evening, with deterioration, specialist techniquesand preventive care covered in further sessions. Thecall for speakers was answered with enthusiasm; 16conservators delivered 17 presentations and othershosted studio visits. Course packs were provided forthe 42 participants, containing an abstract and notesfor each lecture, a list of unfamiliar words and areading list. There were four or five presentations oneach evening. Although the atmosphere wasintended to be informal to encourage questions fromthe audience, there was a general tendency forspeakers to become so absorbed in their subjectsthat they over-ran into the question time.

The subjects were wide-ranging: from a broadoverview of the preparation of objects for an entireexhibition (Art Deco) to the treatment of portraitminiatures on ivory, from the conservation andinstallation of textiles for the British Galleries to‘Teddy bears under intensive care’. The deteriorationof materials and preventive conservation werecovered in a number of talks given by V&A scientistswhilst two presentations on risk to collections andethics introduced the audience to some of thebroader issues of conservation.

For many of the participants the highlight of thecourse was the evening devoted to visits behind thescenes. A tour to the Stained Glass, Textiles, Books andSculpture Conservation studios allowed participantsto talk to conservators and see objects undergoingvarious stages of treatment.

The feedback from the audience was generally veryfavourable, with all agreeing that the course waspitched at the right level. Some commented that theywould have preferred fewer talks and moreopportunities for discussion, while one or two werecritical of the style of delivery of some of thepresentations. Overall, they said that they hadenjoyed the course enormously and found it veryengaging and highly informative. For theconservators, it was an opportunity to demonstratetheir professional expertise and to share withmembers of the public some of the extraordinarythings that happen to objects before they aredisplayed.

If you would like to know about the course in moredetail please e-mail a.dooley@vam.co.uk

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Understanding Conservation:An evening course at the V&A, 29 January – 26 February 2003Ann Dooley, Courses Organiser, Learning and InterpretationVictoria Oakley, Head of Ceramics and Glass ConservationAlison Richmond, Senior Tutor RCA/V&A Conservation.

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From its inception, the V&A has collected arms andarmour. They were collected as art; the Museumwanted to inspire visitors, viewing them as examplesof the best in ornamented design and metalworkingtechniques from the various time periods andcultures represented. However, although theseobjects are regarded as works of art, it is important toremember that arms and armour were made for war,personal defence and hunting, and so are potentiallydangerous or even lethal to handle.

Handling historic weapons is something which manymuseum workers find worrying, but an excellent talkand hands-on demonstration by Simon Metcalf, NeilCarleton and Donna Stevens allayed some fears. Theaim was to familiarise staff including curators,photographers, conservators, museum techniciansand members of Records and Collections with themain points to observe when working with weapons.Through a range of cautionary examples, participantswere alerted to problems which they mightencounter. These included objects with very looseparts, sharp points and blades, and unexpectedlyheavy weapons. Simon stressed the fact that somefirearms may still be loaded, and that it must beassumed that they are until proved otherwise. Neilput forward the example of poison-tipped arrows inthe Indian and South East Asian Collections whichhave retained their potency for hundreds of years.

Damage to the objects themselves was alsoconsidered. Armour may appear robust but yet beextremely thin and vulnerable. A single fingerprintcan ruin the surface of a polished sword blade.Handling the range of examples available from theCollections provided the opportunity to consolidatemany of the points covered in the talk. By the end ofthe session, all those involved felt confident of theirability to handle arms and armour safely, anddiscovered a new respect for the craft and beauty ofthese objects.

Here is a checklist of do’s and don’ts for handlingarms and armour, compiled by Simon Metcalf.

Firearms• Treat firearms as if they are loaded.• Never point a gun at anyone.

• Never cock or fire a gun mechanism. Apart fromthe obvious risk that it could go off, the springsinside the gun lock are vulnerable to snapping.Firing the hammer or cock of a gun without theflint in position can cause the cock to break off.

• Keep the muzzle pointing upwards and awayfrom colleagues/visitors when moving a firearm.

Swords and Bladed Weapons• Most blades are sharp. There is always the risk of

either being cut or stabbed.• Avoid handling the cutting edge and the surface

of the blade as much as possible.• Be aware of the danger of a blade cutting

through a scabbard. There is a real risk of a slicingor cutting injury when removing a blade from itsscabbard. If it gets stuck, stop, and contactconservation.

• Be aware that blades can drop out of scabbards.Daggers especially are often ill-fitting.

• Carry blades vertically or in a basket.• If using a basket take care with the pointed ends.• Never use corks to contain a point. Corks cause

corrosion.• Scabbards can be rigid OR very floppy once the

blade has been removed.

Armour• Armour is very articulated and can become very

floppy once removed from its mount.• Care needs to be taken not to pinch your hands

between the plates.• Armour often has fragile leather or textiles – care

must be taken not to squash these elements ormake them bear weight.

• Mail, and particularly butted mail, can snag andcatch on itself.

• Armour can often be very thin and fragile due towear and corrosion.

• Armour can be much lighter or heavier than itappears.

AfterwordAlthough these procedures may seem to err on theside of caution, it should be noted that six probablyloaded firearms have been discovered in theMuseum’s collections during a recent survey.

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Shooting yourself in the foot: the do’s anddon’ts of working with weaponsRachel Church, Assistant Curator, Department of Sculpture, Metalwork, Ceramics and Glass

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Bigna LudwigIntern in Textile ConservationAfter completing my Matura (A-Levels) in Luzern,Switzerland, I looked for a profession which wouldchallenge my intellectual capacities and let me carryout manual skills as well. I was lucky to meet thetextile conservator Karin von Lerber, who introducedme to this profession and allowed me to spend twomonths with her in her private studio. As a youngenthusiastic girl from “little” Switzerland I didn’thesitate to take the opportunity, when offered, of aninternship in “big” Munich at the Bavarian Castles’Administration. I spent a year of exciting work invarious castles under the supervision of BeateKneppel. I moved to Berlin for another year ofconservation and exhibition preparation work at theBerlin State Museums, mainly at the Museum ofApplied Art under the mentor-ship of WaltraudBerner-Laschinski, a textile conservator.

After two years in cities full of adventure I could notimagine returning to Switzerland to study. I wasoffered a place at the University of Applied Science,Cologne, studying textile conservation. As part of mystudies I am required to spend my 4th term gainingpractical experience. Acknowledging the V&A as acentre of excellence with one of with a renownedconservation department, I am delighted to havebeen given the opportunity of an internship in thisstudio.

I hope to graduate in 2005 and join the conservationprofession. My internships will ensure that I do so asa well educated textile conservator.

Beatrice VilleminIntern in Painting Conservation I am a 27 year old student at INP/IFROA Paris, PaintingDepartment. I am completing the third year of mycourse by undertaking this internship at the V&A.

As part of the four-year programme we are requiredto spend a three month internship abroad at the endof the third year; the fourth year is devoted tohistorical and scientific research and the conservationof a wall-painting. The project I will be working onwill be a 15th century wall painting from the Anjouregion which is now stored in the Louvre.

I was 16 years old when I realised I could combine myinterests in science and art history by training inconservation. After my Bac C in the sciences, I spent 4years at Dijon University studying a degree in arthistory and then acquired some practical experienceworking in a private studio. I also worked on somebeautiful 16th century frescos with a conservationteam in Sucevita Monastery (world-wide culturalheritage), which is located in the region of Bucovinain Romania.

All of these experiences confirmed I was on the “righttrack” and I began my conservation training atINP/IFROA in September 2000. I am really happy tohave the opportunity to work at the V&A and to beinvolved in, and able to contribute to the PaintingsGalleries project. I am grateful to my supervisorNicola Costaras for inviting me to work in thiswonderful studio. I really appreciate my colleagues inthe studio who trust me to carry out the practicalwork and are always ready to answer my questions.

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New Staff

Victor BorgesSculpture ConservatorI trained in one of the three official schools ofconservation existing in Spain, The Escola Superior de Conservación e Restauración de Bens Culturais de Galicia, where an enthusiastic team of teachersinfused me with all their knowledge to become aconservator specialising in sculpture.

After finishing my course I travelled to Madrid whereI joined the conservation department at the MuseoNacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía as a traineeworking on their collection of contemporarysculpture. Since then a few years of freelance worktook me travelling along the Iberian peninsulaworking on a variety of wooden and stonepolychrome sculptures as well as wall paintings atlocations like Salamanca Cathedral, Santiago deCompostela Cathedral…even Barcelona airport !!

After a long summer sabbatical in New England Iended up in London, where I joined the DecorativeArts Department of Plowden & Smith. Here, amongother interesting projects, I lead the team for theconservation of the ‘many’ mosaics from the HerefordScreen, now on display in the Metalwork Galleries ofthe V&A. After this I started freelancing acrossEngland, working mainly on wall paintings.

During my employment at the V&A I will be workingmainly on Italian terracotta and supporting thestudio in other duties of conservation and care of theSculpture Collection at this museum.

Sofia MarquesSculpture ConservatorI think my interest in conservation started with mytaste as a child for very crowded interiors filled withall sorts of objects and pieces of sculpture. Years later,I went on to study for a degree in Art History in thehope of understanding some of the magic emanatingfrom artistic forms. I don’t think I have gained asmuch as I could from that degree, partly because ofmy immaturity at the time and partly because thestructure of the course. The time spent at Universitywas not wasted however and it was during my thirdyear that I realised I could probably benefit morefrom my student status by taking a differentapproach to history.

I then started my search and looked for a workshopwhich would accept me as an apprentice with a viewto gaining a more intimate relationship with objectsand how they are made. This led to my acceptance bya restoration studio, where I spent most of my sparetime until I concluded my degree. From then on myinterest for conservation was confirmed. I hadmeanwhile been studying English in evening classesand I started investigating several conservationcourses in England. My acceptance on theconservation course at the City & Guilds of LondonArt School represented an important turning point inmy life which has given me great satisfaction.

My work experience began as a freelance conservatoron various sites in England, Portugal and Turkey. Ithen spent seventeen months at the British Museumworking on the King’s Library Project and mostrecently have been enjoying working for theSculpture Conservation section at the V&A! I don’tthink I can complain about anything…….