Nucleotides: Synthesis and Degradation. Roles of Nucleotides Precursors to nucleic acids (genetic...
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Transcript of Nucleotides: Synthesis and Degradation. Roles of Nucleotides Precursors to nucleic acids (genetic...
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NucleotidesNucleotides:: Synthesis and Synthesis and DegradationDegradation
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Roles of Nucleotides
•Precursors to nucleic acids (genetic material and non-protein enzymes).
•Currency in energy metabolism (eg. ATP, GTP).
•Carriers of activated metabolites for biosynthesis (eg. CDP, UDP).
•Structural moieties of coenzymes (eg. NAD, CoA).
•Metabolic regulators and signal molecules (eg. cAMP, cGMP, ppGpp).
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Biosynthetic routes: De novo and salvage pathways
De novo pathwaysAlmost all cell types have the ability to synthesize purine and pyrimidine nucleotides from low molecular weight precursors in amounts sufficient for their own needs.
The de novo pathways are almost identical in all organisms.
Salvage pathwaysMost organisms have the ability to synthesize nucleotides from nucleosides or bases that become available through the diet or from degredation of nucleic acids.
In animals, the extracellular hydrolysis of ingested nucleic acids represents the major route by which bases become available.
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Reutilization and catabolism of purine and pyrimidine bases
blue-catabolismred-salvage pathways
endonucleases:pancreatic RNAsepancreatic DNAse
phosphodiesterases:usually non-specific
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PRPP: a central metabolite in de novo and salvage pathways
Roles of PRPP: his and trp biosynthesis, nucleobase salvage pathways, de novo synthesis of nucleotides
PRPP synthetase
Enzyme inhinited by AMP, ADP, and GDP. In E. coli, expression is repressedby PurR repressor bound to either guanine or hypoxanthine.
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Purine Nucleotide Synthesis
OH
H
H
CH2
OH OH
H HO
O2-O3P
-D-Ribose-5-Phosphate (R5P)
O
H
H
CH2
OH OH
H HO
O2-O3P
5-Phosphoribosyl--pyrophosphate (PRPP)
P
O
O
O P
O
O
O
ATP
AMP
RibosePhosphatePyrophosphokinase
H
NH2
H
CH2
OH OH
H HO
O2-O3P
-5-Phosphoribosylamine (PRA)
AmidophosphoribosylTransferase
Glutamine + H2O
Glutamate + PPi
H
NH
H
CH2
OH OH
H HO
O2-O3P
CO
H2C NH2
Glycinamide Ribotide (GAR)
GAR Synthetase
Glycine + ATP
ADP+ Pi
H2C
CNH
O
CH
HN
O
Ribose-5-Phosphate
Formylglycinamide ribotide (FGAR)
H2C
CNH
O
CH
HN
HN
Ribose-5-Phosphate
Formylglycinamidine ribotide (FGAM)
THFN10-Formyl-THF
GAR Transformylase
ATP +Glutamine +H2O
ADP +Glutamate + Pi
FGAM Synthetase
HC
CN
CH
N
H2N
Ribose-5-Phosphate
4
5
5-Aminoimidazole Ribotide (AIR)
ATP
ADP + Pi
AIR Synthetase
C
CN
CH
N
H2N
OOC
Ribose-5-Phosphate
4
5
Carboxyamidoimidazole Ribotide (CAIR)
ATP+HCO3
ADP + PiAIR Car boxylase
Aspartate+ ATP
ADP+ Pi
SAICAR Synthetase
AdenylosuccinateLyase
Fumarate
C
CN
CH
N
NH
Ribose-5-Phosphate
4
5
5-Formaminoimidazole-4-carboxamideribotide (FAICAR)
CH2N
O
CH
O
C
CN
CH
N
H2N
Ribose-5-Phosphate
4
5
5-Aminoimidazole-4-carboxamideribotide (AICAR)
CH2N
O
C
CN
CH
N
H2N
CNH
O
HC
COO
CH2
COO
Ribose-5-Phosphate
4
5
5-Aminoimidazole-4-(N-succinylocarboxamide)ribotide (SAICAR)
THF
AICAR Transformylase
N10-Formyl-
THF
Inosine Monophosphate (IMP)
HN
HCN
C
CC
N
CH
N
O
4
5
HH
CH2
OH OH
H HOO2-O3P
IMPCyclohydrolase
H2O
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Example of a salvage pathway: guanine phosphoribosyl transferase
In vivo, the reaction is driven to the right by the action of pyrophosphatase
Shown: HGPRT, cells also have a APRT.
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De novo biosynthesis of purines: low molecular weight precursors of the purine ring atoms
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Synthesis of IMP
The base in IMP is called hypoxanthine
Note: purine ring built up atnucleotide level.
precursors: glutamine (twice)glycineN10-formyl-THF (twice)HCO3
aspartate
In vertebrates, 2,3,5 catalyzedby trifunctional enzyme,6,7 catalyzed by bifunctional enzyme.
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Pathways from IMP to AMP and GMP
G-1: IMP dehydrogenaseG-2: XMP aminaseA-1: adenylosuccinate synthetaseA-2: adenylosuccinate lyase
Note: GTP used to make AMP, ATP used to make GMP.Also, feedback inhibition byAMP and GMP.
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Pathways from AMP and GMP to ATP and GTP
Conversion to diphosphate involves specific kinases:
GMP + ATP <-------> GDP + ADP Guanylate kinase
AMP + ATP <-------> 2 ADP Adenylate kinase
Conversion to triphosphate by Nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDK):
GDP + ATP <------> GTP + ADP G0’= 0
ping pong reaction mechanism with phospho-his intermediate.
NDK also works with pyrimidine nucleotides and is driven by mass action.
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Allosteric regulation of purine de novo synthesis
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Purine degredation
AMP deamination in muscle, hydrolysis in other tissues.Xanthine oxidase:contains FAD, molybdenum, and non-heme iron.
In primates, uric acid is the end product, which is excreted.
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Purine degredation in other animals
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Clinical disorders of purine metabolism
Excessive accumulation of uric acid: Gout
The three defects shown each result in elevated de novo purine biosynthesis
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Common treatment for gout: allopurinol
Allopurinol is an analogue of hypoxanthine that strongly inhibits xanthine oxidase. Xanthine and hypoxanthine, which are soluble, are accumulated and excreted.
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Diseases of purine metabolism (continued)
Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome: Severe HGPRT deficiencyIn addition to symptoms of gout, patients display severe behavioral disorders, learning disorder, aggressiveness and hostility, including self-directed. Patients must be restrained to prevent self-mutilation. Reason for the behavioral disorder is unknown.
X-linked trait (HGPRT gene is on X chromosome).
Severe combined immune deficiency (SCID): lack of adenosine deaminase (ADA).
Lack of ADA causes accumulation of deoxyadenosine. Immune cells, which have potent salvage pathways, accumulate dATP, which blocks production of other dNTPs by its action on ribonucleotide reductase. Immune cells can’t replicate their DNA, and thus can’t mount an immune response.
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De novo pyrimidine biosynthesis
Pyrimidine ring is assembled as the free base, orotic acid, which is them converted to the nucleotide orotidine monophosphate (OMP).
The pathway is unbranched. UTP is a substrate for formation of CTP.
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2 ATP + HCO3- + Glutamine + H2O
CO
O PO3-2
NH2
Carbamoyl Phosphate
NH2
CNH
CH
CH2
C
COOO
HO
O
Carbamoyl Aspartate
HN
CNH
CH
CH2
C
COOO
O
Dihydroorotate
HN
CNH
C
CHC
COOO
O
Orotate
HN
CN
C
CHC
COOO
O
HH
CH2
OH OH
H HO
O2-O3P
Orotidine-5'-monophosphate(OMP)
HN
CN
CH
CHC
O
O
HH
CH2
OH OH
H HO
O2-O3P
Uridine Monophosphate(UMP)
2 ADP +Glutamate + Pi
CarbamoylPhosphateSynthetase II
AspartateTranscarbamoylase(ATCase)
Aspartate
Pi
H2O
Dihydroorotase
Quinone
ReducedQuinone
DihydroorotateDehydrogenase
PRPP PPi
Orotate PhosphoribosylTransferase
CO2
OMP Decarboxylase
Pyrimidine Synthesis
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De novo synthesis of pyrimidines
1: carbamyl phosphate synthase2: aspartate transcarbamylase3: dihydroorotase4: dihydroorotate DH5: orotate phosphoribosyl tranferase6: orotidylate decarboxylase7: UMP kinase8: NDK9: CTP synthetase
CAD=1,2,35 +6=single protein
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Regulation of pyrimidine de novo synthesis
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Catabolism of pyrimidines
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Overview of dNTP biosynthesis
One enzyme, ribonucleotide reductase,reduces all four ribonucleotides to theirdeoxyribo derivitives.
A free radical mechanism is involvedin the ribonucleotide reductasereaction.
There are three classes of ribonucleotidereductase enzymes in nature:Class I: tyrosine radical, uses NDPClass II: adenosylcobalamin. uses NTPs
(cyanobacteria, some bacteria,Euglena).
Class III: SAM and Fe-S to generateradical, uses NTPs.(anaerobes and fac. anaerobes).
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Structure of rNDP reductase (E. coli, ClassI)
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Proposed mechanism for rNDP reductase
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Proposed reaction mechanism for ribonucleotide reductase
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Sources of reducing power for rNDP reductase
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Biological activities of thioredoxin
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Regulation of activities of mammalian rNDP reductase
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Salvage and de novo pathways to thymine nucleotides
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Substrate recvognition by dUTPase
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Relationship between thymidylate synthase and enzymes of tetrahydrofolate metabolism
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Catalytic mechanism of thymidylate synthase
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Regeneration of N5, N10-methylenetetrahydrofolate
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Biosynthesis of NAD+ and NADP+
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Biosynthesis of CoA from pantothenate
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Proposed reaction mechanism for FGAM synthetase
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The transformylation reactions are catalyzed by a multiprotein complex
components of the complex:GAR transformylase (3)AICAR transformylase (9)serine hydroxymethyl transferase, trifunctional formylmethenyl-methylene-THF synthase (activities shown with asterisk)
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Proposed catalytic mechanism for OMP decarboxylase
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Reactions catalyzed by eukaryotic dihydroorotate dehydrogenase
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Nitrogenous BasesNitrogenous Bases
Planar, aromatic, and heterocyclicPlanar, aromatic, and heterocyclicDerived from Derived from purinepurine or or pyrimidinepyrimidineNumbering of bases is “unprimedNumbering of bases is “unprimed””
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Nitrogenous BasesNitrogenous BasesPurines
Pyrimidines
N1: Aspartate AmineC2, C8: FormateN3, N9: GlutamineC4, C5, N7: GlycineC6: Bicarbonate Ion
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Nucleotide MetabolismNucleotide MetabolismPURINE RIBONUCLEOTIDES: formed PURINE RIBONUCLEOTIDES: formed de novode novo
i.e., purines are i.e., purines are notnot initially synthesized as free bases initially synthesized as free basesFirst purine derivative formed is Inosine Mono-First purine derivative formed is Inosine Mono-
phosphate (IMP)phosphate (IMP)The purine base is The purine base is hypoxanthinehypoxanthineAMP and GMP are formed from IMPAMP and GMP are formed from IMP
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Purine NucleotidesPurine Nucleotides
Get broken down into Uric Acid (a Get broken down into Uric Acid (a purine)purine)
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Purine Nucleotide Purine Nucleotide SynthesisSynthesis
ATP is involved in 6 steps and an additional ATP is ATP is involved in 6 steps and an additional ATP is needed to form the first molecule (R5P)needed to form the first molecule (R5P)
PRPP in the first step of Purine synthesis is also a PRPP in the first step of Purine synthesis is also a precursor for Pyrimidine Synthesis, His and Trp synthesisprecursor for Pyrimidine Synthesis, His and Trp synthesis
Role of ATP in first step is unique– group transfer rather Role of ATP in first step is unique– group transfer rather than couplingthan coupling
In second step, CIn second step, C11 notation changes from notation changes from to to (anomers (anomers specifying OH positioning on Cspecifying OH positioning on C11 with respect to C with respect to C44 group) group)
In step 3, PPIn step 3, PPii is hydrolyzed to 2P is hydrolyzed to 2Pii (irreversible, (irreversible, “committing” step)“committing” step)
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Hydrolyzing a phosphate from ATP is relatively easyHydrolyzing a phosphate from ATP is relatively easy G°’= -30.5 kJ/molG°’= -30.5 kJ/mol
If endergonic reaction released energy into cell as heat If endergonic reaction released energy into cell as heat energy, wouldn’t be usefulenergy, wouldn’t be useful
Must be coupled to an exergonic reactionMust be coupled to an exergonic reactionWhen ATP is a reactantWhen ATP is a reactant::
Part of the ATP can be transferred to an acceptor: PPart of the ATP can be transferred to an acceptor: Pii, PP, PPii, , adenyl, adenyl, or adenosinyl group in or adenosinyl group in transferasetransferase reaction reaction
ORORATP hydrolysis can drive an otherwise unfavorable reactionATP hydrolysis can drive an otherwise unfavorable reaction
((synthetase; “energasesynthetase; “energase)”)”
Coupling of ReactionsCoupling of Reactions
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Purine Biosynthetic Purine Biosynthetic PathwayPathway
Coupling of some reactions on pathway organizes and Coupling of some reactions on pathway organizes and controls processing of substrates to products in each controls processing of substrates to products in each
stepstepIncreases overall rate of pathway and protects Increases overall rate of pathway and protects
intermediates from degradationintermediates from degradationIn animals, IMP synthesis pathway is coupledIn animals, IMP synthesis pathway is coupled::
Reactions 3, 4, 6Reactions 3, 4, 6Reactions 7, 8Reactions 7, 8Reactions 10, 11Reactions 10, 11
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IMP Conversion to AMPIMP Conversion to AMP
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IMP Conversion to GMPIMP Conversion to GMP
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Regulatory Control of Purine Regulatory Control of Purine Nucleotide BiosynthesisNucleotide Biosynthesis
GTP is involved in AMP synthesis and ATP is GTP is involved in AMP synthesis and ATP is involved in GMP synthesis (reciprocal control of involved in GMP synthesis (reciprocal control of
production)production)PRPP is a biosynthetically “central” molecule PRPP is a biosynthetically “central” molecule
(why?)(why?)ADP/GDP levels – negative feedback on Ribose Phosphate ADP/GDP levels – negative feedback on Ribose Phosphate
PyrophosphokinasePyrophosphokinase Amidophosphoribosyl transferase is activated by PRPP Amidophosphoribosyl transferase is activated by PRPP
levelslevelsAPRT activity has negative feedback at two sitesAPRT activity has negative feedback at two sites
ATP, ADP, AMP bound at one siteATP, ADP, AMP bound at one siteGTP,GDP AND GMP bound at the other siteGTP,GDP AND GMP bound at the other site
Rate of AMP production increases with increasing Rate of AMP production increases with increasing concentrations of GTP; rate of GMP production concentrations of GTP; rate of GMP production
increases with increasing concentrations of ATPincreases with increasing concentrations of ATP
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Regulatory Control of Purine Regulatory Control of Purine BiosynthesisBiosynthesis
At level of IMP productionAt level of IMP production::Independent controlIndependent controlSynergistic controlSynergistic controlFeedforward activation by PRPPFeedforward activation by PRPP
Below level of IMP productionBelow level of IMP productionReciprocal controlReciprocal control
Total amounts of purine nucleotides Total amounts of purine nucleotides controlledcontrolled
Relative amounts of ATP, GTP controlledRelative amounts of ATP, GTP controlled
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Purine Catabolism and Purine Catabolism and SalvageSalvage
All purine degradation in animals leads to All purine degradation in animals leads to uric aciduric acidIngested nucleic acids are degraded by pancreatic Ingested nucleic acids are degraded by pancreatic
nucleases, and intestinal phosphodiesterases in the nucleases, and intestinal phosphodiesterases in the intestineintestine
Group-specific nucleotidases and non-specific Group-specific nucleotidases and non-specific phosphatases degrade nucleotides into nucleosidesphosphatases degrade nucleotides into nucleosides
Direct absorption of nucleosidesDirect absorption of nucleosides Further degradationFurther degradation
Nucleoside + HNucleoside + H22O O base + ribose (nucleosidase) base + ribose (nucleosidase)
Nucleoside + PNucleoside + Pii base + r-1-phosphate (n. phosphorylase) base + r-1-phosphate (n. phosphorylase)
NOTE: MOST INGESTED NUCLEIC ACIDS ARE DEGRADED NOTE: MOST INGESTED NUCLEIC ACIDS ARE DEGRADED AND EXCRETEDAND EXCRETED..
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Intracellular Purine Intracellular Purine CatabolismCatabolism
Nucleotides broken into nucleosides by Nucleotides broken into nucleosides by action of 5’-nucleotidase (hydrolysis action of 5’-nucleotidase (hydrolysis
reactions)reactions)Purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP)Purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP)
Inosine Inosine Hypoxanthine HypoxanthineXanthosine Xanthosine Xanthine XanthineGuanosine Guanosine Guanine GuanineRibose-1-phosphate splits offRibose-1-phosphate splits off
Can be isomerized to ribose-5-phosphateCan be isomerized to ribose-5-phosphate
Adenosine is deaminated to Inosine (ADA)Adenosine is deaminated to Inosine (ADA)
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Intracellular Purine Intracellular Purine CatabolismCatabolism
Xanthine is the point of convergence for Xanthine is the point of convergence for the metabolism of the purine basesthe metabolism of the purine bases
Xanthine Xanthine Uric acid Uric acidXanthine oxidase catalyzes two reactionsXanthine oxidase catalyzes two reactions
Purine ribonucleotide degradation Purine ribonucleotide degradation pathway is same for purine pathway is same for purine
deoxyribonucleotidesdeoxyribonucleotides
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Adenosine DegradationAdenosine Degradation
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Xanthosine DegradationXanthosine Degradation
• Ribose sugar gets recycled )Ribose-1-Phosphate R-5-P ( – can be incorporated into PRPP )efficiency(• Hypoxanthine is converted to Xanthine by Xanthine Oxidase• Guanine is converted to Xanthine by Guanine Deaminase• Xanthine gets converted to Uric Acid by Xanthine Oxidase
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Xanthine OxidaseXanthine Oxidase
A homodimeric proteinA homodimeric proteinContains electron transfer proteinsContains electron transfer proteins
FADFADMo-pterin complex in +4 or +6 stateMo-pterin complex in +4 or +6 state Two 2Fe-2S clustersTwo 2Fe-2S clusters
Transfers electrons to OTransfers electrons to O22 H H22OO22
HH22OO22 is toxic is toxic Disproportionated to HDisproportionated to H22O and OO and O22 by catalase by catalase
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AMP + HAMP + H22O O IMP + NH IMP + NH44++ (AMP Deaminase)(AMP Deaminase)
IMP + Aspartate + GTP IMP + Aspartate + GTP AMP + Fumarate + GDP AMP + Fumarate + GDP + P+ Pii (Adenylosuccinate Synthetase)(Adenylosuccinate Synthetase)
COMBINE THE TWO REACTIONSCOMBINE THE TWO REACTIONS::
Aspartate + HAspartate + H22O + GTP O + GTP Fumarate + GDP + P Fumarate + GDP + Pii + + NHNH44
++
The overall result of combining reactions is deamination of The overall result of combining reactions is deamination of Aspartate to Aspartate to Fumarate at the expense of a GTPFumarate at the expense of a GTP
THE PURINE NUCLEOTIDE THE PURINE NUCLEOTIDE CYCLECYCLE
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Purine Nucleotide CyclePurine Nucleotide Cycle
In-Class Question: Why is the purine In-Class Question: Why is the purine nucleotide cycle important in muscle nucleotide cycle important in muscle metabolism during a burst of activitymetabolism during a burst of activity??
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Adenosine DeaminaseAdenosine Deaminase
CHIME Exercise: 2ADACHIME Exercise: 2ADAEnzyme catalyzing deamination of Adenosine to Enzyme catalyzing deamination of Adenosine to
InosineInosine // barrel domain structure barrel domain structure
““TIM Barrel” – central barrel structure with 8 TIM Barrel” – central barrel structure with 8 twisted parallel twisted parallel -strands connected by 8 -strands connected by 8 --
helical loopshelical loopsActive site is at bottom of funnel-shaped pocket Active site is at bottom of funnel-shaped pocket
formed by loopsformed by loopsFound in all glycolytic enzymesFound in all glycolytic enzymesFound in proteins that bind and transport Found in proteins that bind and transport
metabolitesmetabolites
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Uric Acid ExcretionUric Acid Excretion
Humans – excreted into urine as Humans – excreted into urine as insoluble crystalsinsoluble crystals
Birds, terrestrial reptiles, some Birds, terrestrial reptiles, some insects – excrete isoluble crystals in insects – excrete isoluble crystals in
paste form (conserve water)paste form (conserve water)Others – further modificationOthers – further modification: :
Uric Acid Uric Acid Allantoin Allantoin Allantoic Acid Allantoic Acid Urea Urea AmmoniaAmmonia
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Purine Purine SalvageSalvage
Adenine phosphoribosyl transferase (APRT)Adenine phosphoribosyl transferase (APRT)Adenine + PRPP Adenine + PRPP AMP + PP AMP + PPii
Hypoxanthine-Guanine phosphoribosyl Hypoxanthine-Guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRT)transferase (HGPRT)
Hypoxanthine + PRPP Hypoxanthine + PRPP IMP + PP IMP + PPii
Guanine + PRPP Guanine + PRPP GMP + PP GMP + PPii
((NOTE: THESE ARE ALL NOTE: THESE ARE ALL REVERSIBLEREVERSIBLE REACTIONS REACTIONS))
AMP,IMP,GMP do not need to be AMP,IMP,GMP do not need to be resynthesized resynthesized de novode novo! !
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A CASE STUDY : GOUTA CASE STUDY : GOUTA 45 YEAR OLD MAN AWOKE FROM SLEEP WITH A A 45 YEAR OLD MAN AWOKE FROM SLEEP WITH A
PAINFUL AND SWOLLEN RIGHT GREAT TOE. ON THE PAINFUL AND SWOLLEN RIGHT GREAT TOE. ON THE PREVIOUS NIGHT HE HAD EATEN A MEAL OF FRIED PREVIOUS NIGHT HE HAD EATEN A MEAL OF FRIED
LIVER AND ONIONS, AFTER WHICH HE MET WITH HIS LIVER AND ONIONS, AFTER WHICH HE MET WITH HIS POKER GROUP AND DRANK A NUMBER OF BEERSPOKER GROUP AND DRANK A NUMBER OF BEERS..
HE SAW HIS DOCTOR THAT MORNING, “GOUTY HE SAW HIS DOCTOR THAT MORNING, “GOUTY ARTHRITIS” WAS DIAGNOSED, AND SOME TESTS ARTHRITIS” WAS DIAGNOSED, AND SOME TESTS
WERE ORDERED. HIS SERUM URIC ACID LEVEL WAS WERE ORDERED. HIS SERUM URIC ACID LEVEL WAS ELEVATED AT 8.0 mg/dL (NL < 7.0 mg/dL)ELEVATED AT 8.0 mg/dL (NL < 7.0 mg/dL)..
THE MAN RECALLED THAT HIS FATHER AND HIS THE MAN RECALLED THAT HIS FATHER AND HIS GRANDFATHER, BOTH OF WHOM WERE ALCOHOLICS, GRANDFATHER, BOTH OF WHOM WERE ALCOHOLICS,
OFTEN COMPLAINED OF JOINT PAIN AND SWELLING OFTEN COMPLAINED OF JOINT PAIN AND SWELLING IN THEIR FEETIN THEIR FEET..
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A CASE STUDY : GOUTA CASE STUDY : GOUTTHE DOCTOR RECOMMENDED THAT THE THE DOCTOR RECOMMENDED THAT THE
MAN USE NSAIDS FOR PAIN AND SWELLING, MAN USE NSAIDS FOR PAIN AND SWELLING, INCREASE HIS FLUID INTAKE (BUT NOT WITH INCREASE HIS FLUID INTAKE (BUT NOT WITH
ALCOHOL) AND REST AND ELEVATE HIS ALCOHOL) AND REST AND ELEVATE HIS FOOT. HE ALSO PRESCRIBED ALLOPURINOLFOOT. HE ALSO PRESCRIBED ALLOPURINOL . .
A FEW DAYS LATER THE CONDITION HAD A FEW DAYS LATER THE CONDITION HAD RESOLVED AND ALLOPURINOL HAD BEEN RESOLVED AND ALLOPURINOL HAD BEEN
STOPPED. A REPEAT URIC ACID LEVEL WAS STOPPED. A REPEAT URIC ACID LEVEL WAS OBTAINED (7.1 mg/dL). THE DOCTOR GAVE OBTAINED (7.1 mg/dL). THE DOCTOR GAVE THE MAN SOME ADVICE REGARDING LIFE THE MAN SOME ADVICE REGARDING LIFE
STYLE CHANGESSTYLE CHANGES..
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GoutGoutImpaired excretion or overproduction Impaired excretion or overproduction
of uric acidof uric acidUric acid crystals precipitate into Uric acid crystals precipitate into
joints (Gouty Arthritis), kidneys, joints (Gouty Arthritis), kidneys, ureters (stones)ureters (stones)
Lead impairs uric acid excretion – lead Lead impairs uric acid excretion – lead poisoning from pewter drinking poisoning from pewter drinking
gobletsgobletsFall of Roman EmpireFall of Roman Empire??
Xanthine oxidase inhibitors inhibit Xanthine oxidase inhibitors inhibit production of uric acid, and treat goutproduction of uric acid, and treat gout
Allopurinol treatment – hypoxanthine Allopurinol treatment – hypoxanthine analog that binds to Xanthine Oxidase analog that binds to Xanthine Oxidase
to decrease uric acid productionto decrease uric acid production
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ALLOPURINOL IS A XANTHINE ALLOPURINOL IS A XANTHINE OXIDASE INHIBITOROXIDASE INHIBITOR
A SUBSTRATE ANALOG IS CONVERTED TO A SUBSTRATE ANALOG IS CONVERTED TO AN INHIBITOR, IN THIS CASE A “SUICIDE-AN INHIBITOR, IN THIS CASE A “SUICIDE-
INHIBITORINHIBITOR””
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Lesch-Nyhan SyndromeLesch-Nyhan SyndromeA defect in production or activity ofA defect in production or activity of
HGPRTHGPRT Causes increased level of Hypoxanthine Causes increased level of Hypoxanthine
and Guanine (and Guanine ( in degradation to uric in degradation to uric acid)acid)
Also,PRPP accumulatesAlso,PRPP accumulates stimulates production of purine stimulates production of purine
nucleotides (and thereby increases their nucleotides (and thereby increases their degradation)degradation)
Causes gout-like symptoms, but also Causes gout-like symptoms, but also neurological symptoms neurological symptoms spasticity, spasticity,
aggressiveness, self-mutilationaggressiveness, self-mutilationFirst neuropsychiatric abnormality that First neuropsychiatric abnormality that
was attributed to a single enzymewas attributed to a single enzyme
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Purine AutismPurine Autism25%25% of autistic patients may of autistic patients may
overproduce purinesoverproduce purinesTo diagnose, must test urine To diagnose, must test urine
over 24 hoursover 24 hoursBiochemical findings from this Biochemical findings from this
test disappear in adolescencetest disappear in adolescenceMust obtain urine specimen in Must obtain urine specimen in
infancy, but it’s difficult to doinfancy, but it’s difficult to do!!Pink urine due to uric acid crystals Pink urine due to uric acid crystals
may be seen in diapersmay be seen in diapers
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Pyrimidine Ribonucleotide Pyrimidine Ribonucleotide SynthesisSynthesis
Uridine Monophosphate (UMP) is Uridine Monophosphate (UMP) is synthesized firstsynthesized first
CTP is synthesized from UMPCTP is synthesized from UMPPyrimidine ring synthesis completed Pyrimidine ring synthesis completed
first; then attached to ribose-5-first; then attached to ribose-5-phosphatephosphate
N1, C4, C5, C6 : AspartateC2 : HCO3
-
N3 : Glutamine amide Nitrogen
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UMP Synthesis OverviewUMP Synthesis Overview22 ATPs needed: both used in first stepATPs needed: both used in first step
One transfers phosphate, the other is hydrolyzed to One transfers phosphate, the other is hydrolyzed to ADP and PiADP and Pi
22 condensation rxns: form carbamoyl aspartate condensation rxns: form carbamoyl aspartate and dihydroorotate (intramolecular)and dihydroorotate (intramolecular)
Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase is an Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase is an intra-intra-mitochondrial mitochondrial enzyme; oxidizing power comes enzyme; oxidizing power comes
from quinone reductionfrom quinone reductionAttachment of base to ribose ring is catalyzed by Attachment of base to ribose ring is catalyzed by
OPRT; OPRT; PRPP provides ribose-5-PPRPP provides ribose-5-PPPPPii splits off PRPP – irreversible splits off PRPP – irreversible
Channeling: enzymes 1, 2, and 3 on same chain; Channeling: enzymes 1, 2, and 3 on same chain; 5 and 6 on same chain5 and 6 on same chain
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2 ATP + HCO3- + Glutamine + H2O
CO
O PO3-2
NH2
Carbamoyl Phosphate
NH2
CNH
CH
CH2
C
COOO
HO
O
Carbamoyl Aspartate
HN
CNH
CH
CH2
C
COOO
O
Dihydroorotate
HN
CNH
C
CHC
COOO
O
Orotate
HN
CN
C
CHC
COOO
O
HH
CH2
OH OH
H HO
O2-O3P
Orotidine-5'-monophosphate(OMP)
HN
CN
CH
CHC
O
O
HH
CH2
OH OH
H HO
O2-O3P
Uridine Monophosphate(UMP)
2 ADP +Glutamate + Pi
CarbamoylPhosphateSynthetase II
AspartateTranscarbamoylase(ATCase)
Aspartate
Pi
H2O
Dihydroorotase
Quinone
ReducedQuinone
DihydroorotateDehydrogenase
PRPP PPi
Orotate PhosphoribosylTransferase
CO2
OMP Decarboxylase
Pyrimidine Synthesis
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UMP UMP UTP and CTP UTP and CTP
Nucleoside monophosphate kinase Nucleoside monophosphate kinase catalyzes transfer of Pcatalyzes transfer of Pii to UMP to form to UMP to form
UDP; nucleoside diphosphate kinase UDP; nucleoside diphosphate kinase catalyzes transfer of Pcatalyzes transfer of Pii from ATP to UDP from ATP to UDP
to form UTPto form UTP
CTP formed from UTP via CTP formed from UTP via CTP SynthetaseCTP Synthetase driven by ATP hydrolysisdriven by ATP hydrolysis
Glutamine provides amide nitrogen for Glutamine provides amide nitrogen for CC44
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OMP DECARBOXYLASE : THE OMP DECARBOXYLASE : THE MOST CATALYTICALLY MOST CATALYTICALLY PROFICIENT ENZYMEPROFICIENT ENZYME
FINAL REACTION OF PYRIMIDINE PATHWAYFINAL REACTION OF PYRIMIDINE PATHWAYANOTHER MECHANISM FOR ANOTHER MECHANISM FOR
DECARBOXYLATIONDECARBOXYLATIONA CARBANION INTERMEDIATE (UNSTABLE)A CARBANION INTERMEDIATE (UNSTABLE)
MUST BE STABILIZEDMUST BE STABILIZEDBUT NO COFACTORS ARE NEEDEDBUT NO COFACTORS ARE NEEDED!!
SOME OF THE BINDING ENERGY BETWEEN SOME OF THE BINDING ENERGY BETWEEN OMP AND THE ACTIVE SITE IS USED TO OMP AND THE ACTIVE SITE IS USED TO
STABILIZE THE TRANSITION STATESTABILIZE THE TRANSITION STATE““PREFERENTIAL TRANSITION STATE BINDINGPREFERENTIAL TRANSITION STATE BINDING””
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Regulatory Control of Regulatory Control of Pyrimidine SynthesisPyrimidine Synthesis
Differs between bacteria and animalsDiffers between bacteria and animalsBacteria – regulation at ATCase rxnBacteria – regulation at ATCase rxn
AnimalsAnimals – regulation at carbamoyl phosphate – regulation at carbamoyl phosphate synthetase IIsynthetase II
UDP and UTP inhibit enzyme; ATP and PRPP activate UDP and UTP inhibit enzyme; ATP and PRPP activate itit
UMP and CMP competitively inhibit OMP UMP and CMP competitively inhibit OMP DecarboxylaseDecarboxylase
**Purine synthesis inhibited by ADP and GDP at Purine synthesis inhibited by ADP and GDP at ribose phosphate pyrophosphokinase step, ribose phosphate pyrophosphokinase step, controlling level of PRPP controlling level of PRPP also regulates also regulates
pyrimidinespyrimidines
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Orotic AciduriaOrotic AciduriaCaused by defect in protein chain with Caused by defect in protein chain with
enzyme activities of last two steps of enzyme activities of last two steps of pyrimidine synthesispyrimidine synthesis
Increased excretion of orotic acid in Increased excretion of orotic acid in urineurine
Symptoms: retarded growth; severe Symptoms: retarded growth; severe anemiaanemia
Only known inherited defect in this Only known inherited defect in this pathway pathway (all others would be lethal to (all others would be lethal to
fetus)fetus)Treat with uridine/cytidineTreat with uridine/cytidine IN-CLASS QUESTION: HOW DOES URIDINE IN-CLASS QUESTION: HOW DOES URIDINE
AND CYTIDINE ADMINISTRATION WORK TO AND CYTIDINE ADMINISTRATION WORK TO TREAT OROTICACIDURIATREAT OROTICACIDURIA??
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Degradation of Degradation of PyrimidinesPyrimidines
CMP and UMP degraded to bases CMP and UMP degraded to bases similarly to purinessimilarly to purines
DephosphorylationDephosphorylationDeaminationDeaminationGlycosidic bond cleavageGlycosidic bond cleavage
Uracil reduced in liver, forming Uracil reduced in liver, forming --alaninealanine
Converted to malonyl-CoA Converted to malonyl-CoA fatty acid fatty acid synthesis for energy metabolismsynthesis for energy metabolism
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Deoxyribonucleotide Deoxyribonucleotide FormationFormation
Purine/Pyrimidine degradation are the Purine/Pyrimidine degradation are the same for ribonucleotides and same for ribonucleotides and
deoxyribonucleotidesdeoxyribonucleotides
Biosynthetic pathways are only for Biosynthetic pathways are only for ribonucleotidesribonucleotides
Deoxyribonucleotides are synthesized Deoxyribonucleotides are synthesized from corresponding ribonucleotidesfrom corresponding ribonucleotides
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DNA vs. RNA: REVIEWDNA vs. RNA: REVIEW
DNA composed of deoxyribonucleotidesDNA composed of deoxyribonucleotides
Ribose sugar in DNA lacks hydroxyl group Ribose sugar in DNA lacks hydroxyl group at 2’ Carbonat 2’ Carbon
Uracil doesn’t (normally) appear in DNAUracil doesn’t (normally) appear in DNAThymine (5-methyluracil) appears insteadThymine (5-methyluracil) appears instead
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Formation of Formation of DeoxyribonucleotidesDeoxyribonucleotides
Reduction of 2’ carbon done via a Reduction of 2’ carbon done via a free free radical mechanismradical mechanism catalyzed by catalyzed by
“Ribonucleotide Reductases“Ribonucleotide Reductases ” ”
E. coli E. coli RNR reduces ribonucleoside RNR reduces ribonucleoside diphosphates (NDPs) to deoxyribonucleoside diphosphates (NDPs) to deoxyribonucleoside
diphosphates (dNDPs)diphosphates (dNDPs)Two subunits: R1 and R2Two subunits: R1 and R2
A Heterotetramer: (R1)A Heterotetramer: (R1)22 and (R2) and (R2)2 2 in vitroin vitro
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RIBONUCLEOTIDE REDUCTASERIBONUCLEOTIDE REDUCTASE
R1 SUBUNITR1 SUBUNITSpecificity SiteSpecificity SiteHexamerization siteHexamerization siteActivity SiteActivity SiteFive redox-active –SH groups from cysteinesFive redox-active –SH groups from cysteines
R2 SUBUNITR2 SUBUNITTyr 122 radicalTyr 122 radicalBinuclear Fe(III) complexBinuclear Fe(III) complex
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Chime ExerciseChime Exercise
E. coli E. coli Ribonucleotide Ribonucleotide ReductaseReductase::
3R1R and 4R1R: R1 subunit3R1R and 4R1R: R1 subunit
1RIB and 1AV8: R2 subunit1RIB and 1AV8: R2 subunit
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Ribonucleotide Reductase Ribonucleotide Reductase R2 SubunitR2 Subunit
Fe prosthetic group– binuclear, with each Fe prosthetic group– binuclear, with each Fe Fe octahedrallyoctahedrally coordinated coordinated
Fe’s are bridged by OFe’s are bridged by O-2-2 and carboxyl gp of Glu and carboxyl gp of Glu 115115
Tyr 122 is close to the Fe(III) complex Tyr 122 is close to the Fe(III) complex stabilization of a tyrosyl free-radicalstabilization of a tyrosyl free-radical
During the overall process, a pair of –SH During the overall process, a pair of –SH groups provide the reducing equivalentsgroups provide the reducing equivalents
A protein disulfide group is formedA protein disulfide group is formedGets reduced by two other sulfhydryl gps of Gets reduced by two other sulfhydryl gps of
Cys residues in R1Cys residues in R1
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Mechanism of Ribonucleotide Mechanism of Ribonucleotide Reductase ReactionReductase Reaction
Free RadicalFree RadicalInvolvement of multiple –SH groupsInvolvement of multiple –SH groupsRR is left with a disulfide group that RR is left with a disulfide group that
must be reduced to return to the must be reduced to return to the original enzymeoriginal enzyme
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RIBONUCLEOTIDE REDUCTASERIBONUCLEOTIDE REDUCTASE
ACTIVITY IS RESPONSIVE TO LEVEL OF ACTIVITY IS RESPONSIVE TO LEVEL OF CELLULAR NUCLEOTIDESCELLULAR NUCLEOTIDES::
ATP ACTIVATES REDUCTION OFATP ACTIVATES REDUCTION OFCDPCDPUDPUDP
dTTPdTTP INDUCES GDP REDUCTIONINDUCES GDP REDUCTIONINHIBITS REDUCTION OF CDP. UDPINHIBITS REDUCTION OF CDP. UDP
dATP INHIBITS REDUCTION OF ALL NUCLEOTIDESdATP INHIBITS REDUCTION OF ALL NUCLEOTIDESdGTPdGTP
STIMULATES ADP REDUCTIONSTIMULATES ADP REDUCTIONINHIBITS CDP,UDP,GDP REDUCTIONINHIBITS CDP,UDP,GDP REDUCTION
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RIBONUCLEOTIDE REDUCTASERIBONUCLEOTIDE REDUCTASE
CATALYTIC ACTIVITY VARIES WITH STATE OF CATALYTIC ACTIVITY VARIES WITH STATE OF OLIGOMERIZATIONOLIGOMERIZATION::
WHEN ATP, dATP, dGTP, dTTP BIND TO SPECIFICITY WHEN ATP, dATP, dGTP, dTTP BIND TO SPECIFICITY SITE OF R1 (CATALYTICALLY INACTIVE MONOMER)SITE OF R1 (CATALYTICALLY INACTIVE MONOMER)
CATALYTICALLY ACTIVE (R1)CATALYTICALLY ACTIVE (R1)22
WHEN dATP OR ATP BIND TO ACTIVITY SITE OF WHEN dATP OR ATP BIND TO ACTIVITY SITE OF DIMERSDIMERS
TETRAMER FORMATIONTETRAMER FORMATION((R1R1))4a4a (ACTIVE STATE) == (R1) (ACTIVE STATE) == (R1)4b4b (INACTIVE) (INACTIVE)
WHEN ATP BINDS TO HEXAMERIZATION SITEWHEN ATP BINDS TO HEXAMERIZATION SITE CATALYTICALLY ACTIVE HEXAMERS (R1)CATALYTICALLY ACTIVE HEXAMERS (R1)66
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ThioredoxinThioredoxinPhysiologic reducing agent of RNRPhysiologic reducing agent of RNRCys pair can swap H atoms with disulfide Cys pair can swap H atoms with disulfide
formed formed regenerate original enzymeregenerate original enzymeThioredoxin gets oxidized to disulfideThioredoxin gets oxidized to disulfide
Oxidized Thioredoxin gets reduced by thioredoxin reductase mediatedby NADPH (final electron acceptor)
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Thymine FormationThymine Formation
Formed by methylating deoxyuridine Formed by methylating deoxyuridine monophosphate (dUMP)monophosphate (dUMP)
UTP needed for RNA production, but UTP needed for RNA production, but dUTP not needed for DNAdUTP not needed for DNA
If dUTP produced excessively, would cause If dUTP produced excessively, would cause substitution errors (dUTP for dTTP)substitution errors (dUTP for dTTP)
dUTP hydrolyzed by dUTP dUTP hydrolyzed by dUTP diphosphohydrolase to dUMP diphosphohydrolase to dUMP
methylated at C5 to form dTMPmethylated at C5 to form dTMP rephosphorylate to form dTTPrephosphorylate to form dTTP
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Chime ExerciseChime Exercise
1DUD: dUTPase1DUD: dUTPase
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Tetrahydrofolate (THF)Tetrahydrofolate (THF)
Methylation of dUMP catalyzed by Methylation of dUMP catalyzed by thymidylate synthasethymidylate synthase
Cofactor: NCofactor: N55,N,N1010-methylene THF-methylene THFOxidized to dihydrofolateOxidized to dihydrofolate
Only known rxn where net oxidation Only known rxn where net oxidation state of THF changesstate of THF changes
THF RegenerationTHF Regeneration::DHF + NADPH + HDHF + NADPH + H++ THF + NADP THF + NADP++ (enzyme: dihydrofolate (enzyme: dihydrofolate
reductase)reductase)
THF + Serine THF + Serine N N55,N,N1010-methylene-THF + Glycine-methylene-THF + Glycine ((enzyme: serine hydroxymethyl transferaseenzyme: serine hydroxymethyl transferase))
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Anti-Folate DrugsAnti-Folate Drugs
Cancer cells consume dTMP quickly for Cancer cells consume dTMP quickly for DNA replicationDNA replication
Interfere with thymidylate synthase rxn to Interfere with thymidylate synthase rxn to decrease dTMP productiondecrease dTMP production
((fluorodeoxyuridylate – irreversible inhibitorfluorodeoxyuridylate – irreversible inhibitor – ) – )also also affects rapidly growing normal cells (hair follicles, affects rapidly growing normal cells (hair follicles, bone marrow, immune system, intestinal mucosa)bone marrow, immune system, intestinal mucosa)
Dihydrofolate reductase step can be Dihydrofolate reductase step can be stopped competitively (DHF analogs)stopped competitively (DHF analogs)
Anti-Folates: Aminopterin, methotrexate, Anti-Folates: Aminopterin, methotrexate, trimethoprimtrimethoprim
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IN-CLASS QUESTIONIN-CLASS QUESTION
IN von GIERKE’S DISEASE, OVERPRO- IN von GIERKE’S DISEASE, OVERPRO- DUCTION OF URIC ACID OCCURS. THIS DUCTION OF URIC ACID OCCURS. THIS
DISEASE IS CAUSED BY A DEFICIENCY DISEASE IS CAUSED BY A DEFICIENCY OF GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATASEOF GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATASE..
EXPLAIN THE BIOCHEMICAL EVENTS THAT EXPLAIN THE BIOCHEMICAL EVENTS THAT LEAD TO INCREASED URIC ACID LEAD TO INCREASED URIC ACID
PRODUCTIONPRODUCTION??WHY DOES HYPOGLYCEMIA OCCUR IN THIS WHY DOES HYPOGLYCEMIA OCCUR IN THIS
DISEASEDISEASE??WHY IS THE LIVER ENLARGEDWHY IS THE LIVER ENLARGED??
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ADENOSINE DEAMINASE ADENOSINE DEAMINASE DEFICIENCYDEFICIENCY
IN PURINE DEGRADATION, ADENOSINE IN PURINE DEGRADATION, ADENOSINE INOSINEINOSINE
ENZYME IS ADAENZYME IS ADAADA DEFICIENCY RESULTS IN SCIDADA DEFICIENCY RESULTS IN SCID
““SEVERE COMBINED IMMUNODEFICIENCYSEVERE COMBINED IMMUNODEFICIENCY””
SELECTIVELY KILLS LYMPHOCYTESSELECTIVELY KILLS LYMPHOCYTESBOTH B- AND T-CELLSBOTH B- AND T-CELLSMEDIATE MUCH OF IMMUNE RESPONSEMEDIATE MUCH OF IMMUNE RESPONSE
ALL KNOWN ADA MUTANTS STRUCTURALLY ALL KNOWN ADA MUTANTS STRUCTURALLY PERTURB ACTIVE SITEPERTURB ACTIVE SITE
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ADA DEFICIENCYADA DEFICIENCY
IN-CLASS QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE IN-CLASS QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE BIOCHEMISTRY THAT RESULTS WHEN A BIOCHEMISTRY THAT RESULTS WHEN A
PERSON HAS ADA DEFICIENCYPERSON HAS ADA DEFICIENCY
((HINT: LYMPHOID TISSUE IS VERY ACTIVE IN HINT: LYMPHOID TISSUE IS VERY ACTIVE IN DEOXYADENOSINE PHOSPHORYLATIONDEOXYADENOSINE PHOSPHORYLATION))
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ADA DEFICIENCYADA DEFICIENCYONE OF FIRST DISEASES TO BE TREATED ONE OF FIRST DISEASES TO BE TREATED
WITH GENE THERAPYWITH GENE THERAPY
ADA GENE INSERTED INTO LYMPHOCYTES; ADA GENE INSERTED INTO LYMPHOCYTES; THEN LYMPHOCYTES RETURNED TO PATIENTTHEN LYMPHOCYTES RETURNED TO PATIENT
PEG-ADA TREATMENTSPEG-ADA TREATMENTSACTIVITY LASTS 1-2 WEEKSACTIVITY LASTS 1-2 WEEKS
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SugarsSugars
Pentoses (5-C sugars)Pentoses (5-C sugars)Numbering of sugars is “primedNumbering of sugars is “primed””
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SugarsSugars
D-Ribose and 2’-DeoxyriboseD-Ribose and 2’-Deoxyribose
*Lacks a 2’-OH group
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NucleosidesNucleosides
Result from linking one of the sugars Result from linking one of the sugars with a purine or pyrimidine base with a purine or pyrimidine base through an N-glycosidic linkagethrough an N-glycosidic linkage
Purines bond to the C1’ carbon of the Purines bond to the C1’ carbon of the sugar at their N9 atomssugar at their N9 atoms
Pyrimidines bond to the C1’ carbon of Pyrimidines bond to the C1’ carbon of the sugar at their N1 atomsthe sugar at their N1 atoms
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NucleosidesNucleosides
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Phosphate GroupsPhosphate Groups
Mono-, di- or triphosphatesMono-, di- or triphosphates
Phosphates can be bonded to either Phosphates can be bonded to either C3 or C5 atoms of the sugarC3 or C5 atoms of the sugar
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NucleotidesNucleotides
Result from linking one or more Result from linking one or more phosphates with a nucleoside onto the 5’ phosphates with a nucleoside onto the 5’
end of the molecule through esterificationend of the molecule through esterification
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NucleotidesNucleotides
RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a polymer of RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a polymer of ribonucleotidesribonucleotides
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a polymer of deoxyribonucleotidespolymer of deoxyribonucleotides
Both deoxy- and ribonucleotides Both deoxy- and ribonucleotides contain Adenine, Guanine and contain Adenine, Guanine and
CytosineCytosineRibonucleotides contain UracilRibonucleotides contain UracilDeoxyribonucleotides contain ThymineDeoxyribonucleotides contain Thymine
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NucleotidesNucleotides
Monomers for nucleic acid polymersMonomers for nucleic acid polymersNucleoside Triphosphates are Nucleoside Triphosphates are
important energy carriers (ATP, important energy carriers (ATP, GTP)GTP)
Important components of coenzymesImportant components of coenzymesFAD, NADFAD, NAD++ and Coenzyme A and Coenzyme A
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Naming ConventionsNaming Conventions
NucleosidesNucleosides::Purine nucleosides end in “-sinePurine nucleosides end in “-sine ” ”
Adenosine, CytosineAdenosine, CytosinePyrimidine nucleosides end in “-dinePyrimidine nucleosides end in “-dine””
Thymidine, GuanidineThymidine, GuanidineNucleotidesNucleotides::
Start with the nucleoside name from Start with the nucleoside name from above and add “mono-”, “di-”, or above and add “mono-”, “di-”, or
“triphosphate“triphosphate””Adenosine Monophosphate, Guanidine Adenosine Monophosphate, Guanidine
Triphosphate, Deoxythymidine DiphosphateTriphosphate, Deoxythymidine Diphosphate
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In-Class ActivitiesIn-Class Activities
Look at theLook at the Nucleotide StructuresNucleotide Structures
Take theTake the Nucleotide Identification QuizNucleotide Identification Quiz
Be prepared to identify some of these Be prepared to identify some of these structures on an exam. Learn some structures on an exam. Learn some “tricks” that help you to distinguish “tricks” that help you to distinguish
among the different structuresamong the different structures