Nuclear Nonproliferation

Michael Whitaker, ManagerInternational Safeguards ProgramOak Ridge National Laboratory

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Early Nonproliferation Attempts

United Nations Atomic Energy Commission (UNAEC)– Created on 24 January 1946

– Established within the UN

– Countries represented on Security Council

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UNAEC: The Baruch Plan (June 1946)

• “International Atomic Development Authority” (IADA)• Debates until 1948• First atomic test by USSR, September 1949• UNAEC: Dissolved in 1952

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Atoms for Peace Speech

• U. S. President Eisenhower on December 8, 1953 at the United Nations General Assembly– International recognition of the danger of

nuclear weapons– Realization of the danger of proliferation of

this technology– Promoted development of an international

atomic energy agency– Advanced discussions to limit the use of

nuclear weapons– Promoted peaceful use of nuclear

technology

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Development of the IAEA• Negotiation of the IAEA Statute from 1954 – 1956• Approved by 81 nations in October 1956• In force July 29, 1957

– Establishment of the IAEA is achieved

• Amended in 1963, 1973 and 1989• Available at http://www.iaea.org/About/statute.html

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The Statute• Article II - objective is to ensure that special

nuclear materials are only used for peaceful purposes

• Article III – Functions:– Assistance with research and development of

nuclear energy• Technical exchange and collaboration• Training of scientists and engineers• Establish and administer safeguards of special

nuclear materials• Safety standards for peaceful atomic purposes

• Article XII – Agency safeguards– Establishes the rights and responsibilities for the

Agency to apply safeguards in various states– Basis for inspections and responsibilities for

inspectors

The First IAEA Safeguards Systems

• The Agency’s Safeguards System of January 1961: INFCIRC/26

• The first extensive Agency’s Safeguards System of February 1965: INFCIRC/66

• INFCIRC/66 Rev 1 and 2 (1966 and 1968)Still applied for certain facilities in India, Israel and Pakistan

• 1962: First Safeguards Inspection (verification of design of a 3 MW(th) reactor in Norway)

The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)• Foundation of the nuclear

nonproliferation regime

• Background– Missile crisis in Cuba (1962)

– France and China joined the ‘Nuclear Club” (1960 and 1964)

– Limited Test Ban Treaty (U.S. + USSR, 1963)

• Opened for signature on1 July 1968, at ceremonies taking place in London, Moscow, and Washington, D.C

• 59 States would become signatories to the NPT that day

• Treaty entered into force in 1970, following ratification by 40 States Party

• Most widely accepted arms control agreement with nearly 190 parties today

Britain´s Foreign Secretary Michael Stewart (second from right, seated) signs the NPT on 1 July 1968 at Lancaster House, London, witnessed by United States Ambassador David Bruce (far right, seated) and Soviet Ambassador to Mikhail N. Smirnovsky (second from left, seated).

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The Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT)

• Adopted June 12, 1968 and entered into force on March 5, 1970

• Objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to foster the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of disarmament

• Establishes a safeguards system under the responsibility of the IAEA, which also plays a central role under the Treaty in areas of technology transfer for peaceful purposes– Article I – prohibits NWS from transferring weapons material and

technology to NNWS– Article II – prohibits NNWS from receiving such materials and

support– Article III – acceptance of safeguards negotiated with each member

state (Comprehensive Safeguards Agreement or CSA)

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The NPT (cont’d)– Article IV – State rights for developing peaceful nuclear programs– Article V – shared benefits from peaceful use of nuclear explosive

devices with NNWS– Article VI – nuclear weapons disarmament– Article VII – regional treaties for nuclear weapons free zones– Article VIII – amendment procedures– Article IX – membership/signatory procedures– Article X – signatory withdrawal in the case of extraordinary

events that relative to the Treaty that jeopardize the supreme interests of the country

– Article XI – deposition procedures

The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)

• NPT's main objectives:– To stop the further spread of nuclear weapons,

– To provide security for non-nuclear weapon states which have given up the nuclear option,

– To encourage international co-operation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and

– To pursue negotiations in good faith towards nuclear disarmament leading to the eventual elimination of nuclear weapons.

The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)

• Nuclear Weapon States (NWS):– Five states which had detonated a nuclear explosive device before 1

January 1967 [China, France, the USSR, the United Kingdom and the United States]

– Not to transfer nuclear weapons, other nuclear explosive devices, or their technology to any non-nuclear weapon state

– To pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control (Article VI)

• Non-Nuclear-Weapon States (NNWS):– Undertake not to acquire or produce nuclear weapons or nuclear explosive

devices (Article II)

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CSA Structure and Content• Information Circular 153 (corrected),

June 1972– Part I

• Defines the general structure and content of agreements for safeguards implementation in individual States

• Defines the roles and responsibilities of the State and the IAEA relative to safeguards implementation within the State and nuclear materials under safeguards

• Requires that the State shall establish and maintain a system of accounting for and control of nuclear material subject to safeguards under the Agreement

• Addresses implementation and termination of safeguards

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INFCIRC 153 (cont’d.)• Part II

– Safeguards objective: timely detection of diversion of significant quantities of nuclear material from peaceful nuclear activities to the manufacture of nuclear weapons or of other nuclear explosive devices or for purposes unknown, and deterrence of such diversion by the risk of early detection.• Nuclear material accountancy is primary tool• Containment and surveillance are complementary tools

– Means to verify the CORRECTNESS of a States declaration

Verification - NDA Accountancy - DA Continuity of Knowledge – C&S

International Safeguards • Article III of the NPT

“Each non-nuclear weapon State Party to the Treaty undertakes to accept safeguards, as set forth in an agreement to be negotiated and concluded with the International Atomic Energy Agency in accordance with the Statute of the IAEA and the Agency’s safeguards system, for the exclusive purpose of verification of the fulfillment of its obligations assumed under this Treaty with a view to preventing diversion of nuclear energy from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. (…)”

International SafeguardsInternational Safeguards are:

• Arrangements to account for and control the use of nuclear materials

• Verification is a key element in the international system to ensure that uranium in particular is used only for peaceful purposes

• Nuclear safeguards are a means of reassurance whereby non-nuclear weapons states demonstrate to others that they are abiding by their peaceful commitments

• Specific objective is to verify whether declared nuclear material remains within the civil nuclear fuel cycle and whether or not it is being used solely for peaceful purposes

International Safeguards• Safeguards inspections

require that: – Operators of nuclear facilities

maintain and declare detailed accounting records of all movements and transactions involving nuclear material

– Records and the actual nuclear material are audited

– Inspections by the IAEA are complemented by other measures such as surveillance cameras and instrumentation

International SafeguardsProblems 1980-90s

• Iraq, Iran and North Korea illustrate both the strengths and weaknesses of international safeguards.

• While accepting safeguards at declared facilities, Iraq and Iran had set up elaborate equipment elsewhere in an attempt to enrich uranium to weapons grade.

• North Korea attempted to use research reactors (not commercial electricity-generating reactors) and a reprocessing plant to produce some weapons-grade plutonium.

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The Additional Protocol (INFCIRC/540)• Addresses weakness in traditional safeguards

– Iraq’s clandestine program discovery in 1991– Issues with verification of State declarations in the DPRK– Strengthens the effectiveness and improves the efficiency of the

safeguards system

• Expands the State’s obligation for providing information on all nuclear related activities

• Complementary and managed access to verify information• Strengthened analysis techniques

– Wide area environmental sampling

• Multi-entry visas for Agency inspectors to conduct unannounced inspections

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INFCIRC/540 (cont’d)• Agency responsibilities to protect sensitive information

– National security– Commercially sensitive

• Amendments to existing subsidiary arrangements and facility attachments

• Annex I defines activities covered under the AP• Annex II defines equipment subject to the AP• Means for verifying the COMPLETENESS of a State’s

declaration

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Other Nonproliferation Efforts• Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material

– Protects against unauthorized removal of nuclear material and sabotage

• Nuclear Suppliers Group– Guidelines for nuclear exports and nuclear related exports

– 46 participants

– Success dependent upon State level rules and regulations

• The Zangger Committee– 37 members that address specific issues related to Article III,

paragraph 2 of the NPT

• Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty– Prohibits production of fissile material for nuclear weapons

– Initiated in 1993 but no agreement to date

• Reduced Enrichment for Research and Test Reactors

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Technical Cooperation• Government agreements

– Interagency reviewed and approved

– Broad scope or focused effort

– May require State governing body approvals– Not easily accomplished

• Organizational agreements– Must be compliant with national rules and regulations

– Require detail procedures at the organizational level

– Are generally more focused to address specific technologies

• Academia– Fundamental research

– Student exchange programs

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Summary• Nuclear nonproliferation efforts have been ongoing for

more than 50 years • The creation of the IAEA and enforcement of the NPT

emphasizes importance the international community places on reducing the threat of nuclear weapons– 170 States have safeguards agreements in force

– 89 have signed and ratified both a CSA and the AP

– 52 were verified to have no diversion of fissile materials and no indication of undeclared nuclear material or activities

• The IAEA encourages technical collaboration between States

• This collaboration provides advancements in safeguards technology and methods that strengthen safeguards

• Continued success is dependent upon international support

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References• http://www.iaea.org/About/history_speech.html• http://www.iaea.org/About/statute.html• http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/Other

s/infcirc153.pdf• http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/1997/i

nfcirc540c.pdf• Van Sickle, M., Kovacic, D., International Safeguards 101:

Introduction and Overview, January 2010• http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/News/2002/sgarticle_02.sh

tml• Rauf, T., Drawing Safeguards Conclusions, Presentation to

the 2004 NPT Preparatory Committee, April 29, 2004