Nuclear Energy Professor Stephen Lawrence Leeds School of Business University of Colorado at...
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![Page 1: Nuclear Energy Professor Stephen Lawrence Leeds School of Business University of Colorado at Boulder.](https://reader037.fdocuments.in/reader037/viewer/2022103123/56649d5f5503460f94a3f999/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Nuclear Energy
Professor Stephen LawrenceLeeds School of Business
University of Colorado at Boulder
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Agenda
• Overview of Nuclear Energy
• Nuclear Physics• Nuclear Fuel• Nuclear Power Plants• Radiation• Nuclear Waste• Nuclear Safety
• Nuclear Power and the Environment
• Nuclear Power Economics
• Nuclear Power – Pro & Con
• Future of Nuclear Power
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Overview of Nuclear Power
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Nuclear energy consumption by area
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http://www.nei.org
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http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
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World Nuclear Power Plants
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
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Electric Power Generation
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
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Electric Consumption Profile
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
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US Nuclear Generation Trends
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuc_generation/gensum.html
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Nuclear Physics
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Nuclear Binding Energy
http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/n/nuclearenergy.htm
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Nuclear Binding Energy 2
http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/n/nuclearenergy.htm
Maximum Stability
(Iron)
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Nuclear Fission
http://users.aber.ac.uk/jrp3/nuclear_power.htm
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Nuclear Chain Reaction
http://www.btinternet.com/~j.doyle/SR/Emc2/Fission.htm
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Nuclear Fuel
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Uranium
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle
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Creating Uranium Fuel
• 50,000 tonnes of ore from mine • 200 tonnes of uranium oxide concentrate (U3O8)
– Milling process at mine• 25 tonnes of enriched uranium oxide
– uranium oxide is converted into a gas, uranium hexafluoride (UF6),
– Every tonne of uranium hexafluoride separated into about 130 kg of enriched UF6 (about 3.5% U-235) and 870 kg of 'depleted' UF6 (mostly U-238).
– The enriched UF6 is finally converted into uranium dioxide (UO2) powder
– Pressed into fuel pellets which are encased in zirconium alloy tubes to form fuel rods.
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Uranium Mined and Refined
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Uranium Enrichment
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Nuclear Fuel Pellet
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Pellets Encased in Ceramic
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Pellets Inserted into Rods
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Sources of Uranium
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
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World Uranium Production
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
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Nuclear Power Plants
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Nuclear Power Plants
• Work best at constant power– Excellent for baseload power
• Power output range of 40 to 2000 MW– Current designs are 600 to1200 MW
• 441 licensed plants operating in 31 countries
• Produce about 17% of global electrical energy
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Nuclear Power Plant
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Nuclear PP Cooling Tower
http://www.howstuffworks.com/nuclear-power.htm/printable
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Core of Nuclear Reactor
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactors
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Nuclear PP Control Room
http://www.howstuffworks.com/nuclear-power.htm/printable
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Idea of a Nuclear Power Plant
Spinning turbine blades and generatorBoiling water
Steam
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Nuclear Heat
Heat
Steam produced
Steam
Turbine
Generator
Electricity
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Controlling Chain Reaction
Control rods
Fuel Assemblies
Withdraw control rods,reaction increases
Insert control rods,reaction decreases
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Boiling Water Reactor
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Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
1. Reactor core creates heat2. Steam-water mixture is produced when very pure
water (reactor coolant) moves upward through the core absorbing heat
3. The steam-water mixture leaves the top of the core and enters the two stages of moisture separation where water droplets are removed before the steam is allowed to enter the steam line
4. Steam line directs the steam to the main turbine causing it to turn the turbine generator, which produces electricity.
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Steam
Pressurized Water Reactor
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Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
1. Reactor core generates heat
2. Pressurized-water in the primary coolant loop carries the heat to the steam generator
3. Inside the steam generator heat from the primary coolant loop vaporizes the water in a secondary loop producing steam
4. The steam line directs the steam to the main turbine causing it to turn the turbine generator, which produces electricity
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Reactor Safety DesignContainment Vessel1.5-inch thick steel
Shield Building Wall3 foot thick reinforced concrete
Dry Well Wall5 foot thick reinforced concrete
Bio Shield4 foot thick leaded concrete with1.5-inch thick steel lining inside and out
Reactor Vessel4 to 8 inches thick steel
Reactor Fuel
Weir Wall1.5 foot thick concrete
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Tour of a Nuclear Power Plant
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Reactor Type Main Countries Number GWe Fuel Coolant Moderator
Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR)
US, France, Japan, Russia
252 235 enriched UO2 water water
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
US, Japan, Sweden
92 83 enriched UO2 water water
Gas-cooled Reactor (Magnox & AGR)
UK 34 13natural U (metal),
enriched UO2 CO2 graphite
Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor "CANDU" (PHWR)
Canada 33 18 natural UO2 heavy
water heavy water
Light Water Graphite Reactor (RBMK)
Russia 14 14.6 enriched UO2 water graphite
Fast Neutron Reactor (FBR)
Japan, France, Russia
4 1.3 PUO2and UO2 liquid
sodium
none
Other Russia, Japan 5 0.2
TOTAL 434 365
Source: Nuclear Engineering International handbook 1999, but including Pickering A in Canada.
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
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Advanced Research Designs
• Generation IV Reactors– Gas cooled fast reactor– Lead cooled fast reactor– Molten salt reactor– Sodium-cooled fast reactor– Supercritical water reactor– Very high temperature reactor
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor
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SSTAR Design
• SSTAR – Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor
• Fast breeder reactor• Tamper resistant, passively safe, self-
contained fuel source (U238)• 30 year life• Produce constant power of 10-100 MW
– 15m high × 3 m wide; 500 tonnes
• Prototype expected by 2015
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSTAR
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SSTAR Schematic
http://www.llnl.gov/str/JulAug04/gifs/Smith1.jpg
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Radiation
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Types of Radiation
http://www.uic.com.au/wast.htm
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Types of Radiation
• Alpha radiation – Cannot penetrate the skin– Blocked out by a sheet of paper– Dangerous in the lung
• Beta radiation – Can penetrate into the body – Can be blocked out by a sheet of aluminum foil
• Gamma radiation – Can go right through the body – Requires several inches of lead or concrete, or a yard or
so of water, to block it.• Neutron radiation
– Normally found only inside a nuclear reactor
http://www.uic.com.au/wast.htm
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Measuring Radioactivity
• Half-Life– The time for a radioactive source to lose 50% of
its radioactivity– For each half-life time period, radioactivity drops
by 50%• 1/2; 1/4; 1/8; 1/16; 1/32; 1/64; 1/128; 1/256; …• A half-life of 1 year means that radioactivity drops to
<1% of its original intensity in seven years
• Intensity vs. half-life– Intense radiation has a short half life, so decays
more rapidly
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Half-Life Graph
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Nuclear Waste
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Handling Nuclear Waste
• Waste Reprocessing– Recondition for further use as fuel
• Waste Disposal– Temporary storage– Permanent disposal (usually burial)
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Waste Disposal Funding
• Funded by power customers
• 0.1 cent per kWh
• About $18 billion collected to date
• About $6 billion has been spent– Yucca Mountain, elsewhere
http://www.uic.com.au/wast.htm
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Nuclear Fuel Cycle
http://eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/intro.html
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Decay of Nuclear PP Waste
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
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Nuclear Waste Reprocessing
• Separates usable elements (uranium, plutonium) from spent nuclear reactor fuels
• Usable elements are then reused in a nuclear reactor
• Other waste products (e.g., radioactive isotopes) must be disposed of
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Nuclear Waste Disposal
• Cooled in a spent fuel pool– 10 to 20 years
• Onsite temporary dry storage– Until permanent site becomes available
• Central permanent buried disposal
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Spent Fuel Cooling Pool
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
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Fuel Rod Storage
http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/nuclear_waste_storage/nuclear_waste_storage.html
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Dry Storage Cask
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
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http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/nuclear_waste_storage/nuclear_waste_storage.html
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Dry Storage On Site
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Dry Cask Construction
http://www.nei.org/http://www.nei.org/index.asp?catnum=2&catid=84
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Dry Cask Durability
http://www.nei.org/http://www.nei.org/index.asp?catnum=2&catid=84
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Waste Burial
• Immobilize waste in an insoluble matrix– E.g. borosilicate glass, Synroc (or leave them as uranium
oxide fuel pellets - a ceramic)
• Seal inside a corrosion-resistant container– Usualy stainless steel
• Locate deep underground in stable rock• Site the repository in a remote location. • Most radioactivity decays within 1,000 years
– Remaining radioactivity similar to that of the naturally-occurring uranium ore, though more concentrated
http://www.uic.com.au/wast.htm
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Yucca Mountain Burial Site
http://www.cnn.com/EARTH/9803/27/nuclear.waste.ap/
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Yucca Mountain, NV
http://www.sandia.gov/tp/SAFE_RAM/WHEN.HTM
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Yucca Mountain Cross Section
http://www.nrc.gov/waste/hlw-disposal/design.html
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Entrance to Yucca Mountain
http://www.wnfm.com/New%20files/Yucca%20Mountain%20Pictures.htm
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Interior of Yucca Mountain
http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/nuclear_waste_storage/nuclear_waste_storage.html
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Yucca Mountain – One Opinion
http://www.claybennett.com/pages/yucca.html
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Nuclear Safety
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Three Mile Island, PA
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Mile_Island
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Three Mile Island Accident
• March 28, 1979• Partial core meltdown over 5 days
– Main feedwater pumps failed– Backup feedwater system was inoperative– Instrumentation failed; operators unaware– Should region around TMI be evacuated?
• No fatalities; little radiation exposure• Cleanup lasted 14 years; cost $975 million• Public confidence shaken
– 51 US nuclear reactor orders cancelled 1980-84
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Mile_Island
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Chernobyl Accident
• April 26, 1986
• Pripyat, Ukraine
• Catastrophic steam explosion– Destroyed reactor– Plume of radioactive fallout spread far
• USSR, eastern Europe, Scandinavia, UK, eastern US• Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia hit hardest
– 56 direct deaths; ~4,000 long-term deaths– 200,000 people evacuated and resettled
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_accident
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Chernobyl Accident
http://www.ourtimelines.com/zchern.html
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Causes of Chernobyl
• No containment building
• Poor reactor design (unsafe)– Inserting control rods initially increased reactor
energy generation
• Operators were careless & violated plant procedures– Switched off many safety systems– Withdrew too many control rods
• Causes still in dispute by various parties
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Chernobyl Contamination
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_accident
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Recent US Auto Scrams
http://www.nei.org
![Page 80: Nuclear Energy Professor Stephen Lawrence Leeds School of Business University of Colorado at Boulder.](https://reader037.fdocuments.in/reader037/viewer/2022103123/56649d5f5503460f94a3f999/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
Recent US Significant Events
http://www.nei.org
![Page 81: Nuclear Energy Professor Stephen Lawrence Leeds School of Business University of Colorado at Boulder.](https://reader037.fdocuments.in/reader037/viewer/2022103123/56649d5f5503460f94a3f999/html5/thumbnails/81.jpg)
Nuclear Power and the Environment
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US Sources of Clean Energy
http://www.nei.org
![Page 83: Nuclear Energy Professor Stephen Lawrence Leeds School of Business University of Colorado at Boulder.](https://reader037.fdocuments.in/reader037/viewer/2022103123/56649d5f5503460f94a3f999/html5/thumbnails/83.jpg)
The Environment
Over the past 50 years, US Nuclear Plants Have:
• Generated 13.7 Trillion Kilowatt-Hours of Electricity
• Zero Carbon Depletion & Zero Emissions
Avoiding:
• 3.1 Billion Metric Tons of Carbon
• 73.6 Million Tons Sulfur Dioxide
• 35.6 Million Tons of Nitrogen Oxides
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Greenhouse Gas Production
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
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Voluntary CO2 Reductions
http://www.nei.org
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Emissions Avoided
http://www.nei.org
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Life Cycle Emissions Analysis
GenerationOption
Greenhouse gas emissions
gram equiv CO2/kWh
SO2 emissions
milligram/kWh
NOx emissions
milligram/kWh
NMVOC milligram
/kWh
Particulate matter
milligram/kWh
Hydropower 2-48 5-60 3-42 0 5
Coal - modern plant 790-1182 700-32321+ 700-5273+ 18-29 30-663+
Nuclear 2-59 3-30 2-100 0 2
Natural gas (combined
cycle)389-511 4-15000+ 13+-1500 72-164 1-10+
Biomass forestry waste
combustion15-101 12-140 701-1950 0 217-320
Wind 7-124 21-87 14-50 0 5-35
Solar photovoltaic 13-731 24-490 16-340 70 12-190
http://www.nei.org/index.asp?catnum=2&catid=260
Emissions Produced by 1 kWh of Electricity Based on Life-Cycle Analysis
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Life-Cycle CO2 Emissions
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Nuclear Power Economics
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Nuclear Operating Performance
0%
50%
100%
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Year
Cap
acit
y F
acto
r
0
500
1000
Gen
erat
ion
(B
illi
on
Kw
hr)71 71 74 77 76 74
80 85 87 89 90
RecordPerformance778 Billion kWhrs
GenerationCapacity FactorCDF
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Nuclear Generating Costs
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Gen
erat
ion
Co
sts
($/M
wh
r) 30.3 29.927.3
25.5 25.227.2
23.521.2 20.5 19.4 18.8
FuelCapital ImproveO&M
2002 Dollars
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US Nuclear Production Costs
http://www.nei.org
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US Production Cost Comparison
http://www.nei.org
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US Capacity Factors (2004)
http://www.nei.org
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Nuclear PowerPro and Con
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Disadvantages of Nuclear Power
• Possibly disastrous accidents• Nuclear waste dangerous for thousands of years
– unless reprocessed• Risk of nuclear proliferation associated with some
designs • High capital costs • Long construction periods
– largely due to regulatory delays• High maintenance costs • High cost of decommissioning plants • Designs of current plants are all large-scale
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Anti-Nuclear Ad
http://perth.indymedia.org/storyuploads/13114/en_4b.jpg
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Advantages of Nuclear Power
• Substantial base load energy producing capability• No greenhouse gas emissions during operation• Does not produce air pollutants • The quantity of waste produced is small • Small number of major accidents
– only one (TMI) in types of plants in common use
• Low fuel costs; Large fuel reserves • Ease of transport and stockpiling of fuel • Future designs may be small and modular
– For example, SSTAR
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant
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Nuclear Energy Institute Ad
![Page 100: Nuclear Energy Professor Stephen Lawrence Leeds School of Business University of Colorado at Boulder.](https://reader037.fdocuments.in/reader037/viewer/2022103123/56649d5f5503460f94a3f999/html5/thumbnails/100.jpg)
The Future ofNuclear Power
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Nuclear Units in Construction
http://www.nei.org
![Page 102: Nuclear Energy Professor Stephen Lawrence Leeds School of Business University of Colorado at Boulder.](https://reader037.fdocuments.in/reader037/viewer/2022103123/56649d5f5503460f94a3f999/html5/thumbnails/102.jpg)
New Nuclear Plants Inevitable
• It is no longer a matter of debate whether there will be new nuclear plants in the industry’s future. Now, the discussion has shifted to predictions of how many, where and when.
• New nuclear plants and base-load power plants using new coal technologies are least likely to appear in the populous and energy-hungry Northeast or in California, regions that already have significantly higher energy prices than the Southeast and Midwest
• These differences will tend to favor lower energy prices in the Southeast and Midwest to the disadvantage of the Northeast and California.– Fitch Ratings Ltd., “Wholesale Power Market Update,” March 13,
2006
http://www.nei.org
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G-8 Energy Ministers
• G-8 Energy Ministers Call Nuclear Energy Crucial to Environmentally Sustainable Diversification of Energy Supply– Ministers proceed from the fact that diversification of the
energy portfolio in terms of energy sources, suppliers and consumers as well as delivery methods and routes will reduce energy security risks not only for individual countries but for the entire international community.
– For those countries that wish, wide-scale development of safe and secure nuclear energy is crucial for long-term environmentally sustainable diversification of energy supply
• G8 Energy Ministerial Meeting, March 15-16, 2006, Moscow• http://www.nei.org/documents/G-8_Statement_3-21-06.pdf
http://www.nei.org
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Greenpeace Founder for NP
• Greenpeace Founder Patrick Moore Speaks in Favor of Nuclear Energy at U.N. Climate Change Conference– There is now a great deal of scientific evidence showing
nuclear power to be an environmentally sound and safe choice,” Moore has said, adding that calls to phase out both coal and nuclear power worldwide are unrealistic. “There are simply not enough available forms of alternative energy to replace both of them together. Given a choice between nuclear on the one hand and coal, oil and natural gas on the other, nuclear energy is by far the best option, as it emits neither CO2 nor any other air pollutants.”
• http://www.greenspiritstrategies.com/D151.cfm
http://www.nei.org
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Fusion Energy
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Nuclear Binding Energy
http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/n/nuclearenergy.htm
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Fission vs. Fusion
http://encarta.msn.com
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion
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Tokamak Fusion Design
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tokamak_fields_lg.png
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JET Tokamak
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Extra Slides
![Page 112: Nuclear Energy Professor Stephen Lawrence Leeds School of Business University of Colorado at Boulder.](https://reader037.fdocuments.in/reader037/viewer/2022103123/56649d5f5503460f94a3f999/html5/thumbnails/112.jpg)
Nuclear PP Schematic
http://www.nucleartourist.com/frconten.htm
![Page 113: Nuclear Energy Professor Stephen Lawrence Leeds School of Business University of Colorado at Boulder.](https://reader037.fdocuments.in/reader037/viewer/2022103123/56649d5f5503460f94a3f999/html5/thumbnails/113.jpg)
Nuclear PP Cutaway
http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/teachers/nuc-power-plant.html
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Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuc_reactors/pwr.html
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Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuc_reactors/bwr.htmlc
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Next Generation Reactors• Design Highlights
– 1,400 MWe Plant With Simplified Systems
– Passive Safety Features
• Overall Schedule
– Licensing Process Started 2002
– Regulatory Approval Expected 2006
• Key Benefits
– Faster Construction, Lower Costs
– Improved Safety and Security
– Improved O&M Costs
ESBWR Can Meet U.S. Owner’s New NeedsESBWR Can Meet U.S. Owner’s New Needs
Latest US Design
ESBWRESBWR
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http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
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http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
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http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
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http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuc_reactors/pwr.html
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Global Power Generation
335 GW Market Potential over Next 4 Years335 GW Market Potential over Next 4 Years35% of Orders Come from China35% of Orders Come from China
2003 – 2006 Orders Forecast2003 – 2006 Orders Forecast
Asia AIM Europe Ltn. Amer. N. Amer.
187
57 50
2815
China
125
Rest of Asia62
Rest of Asia62
Source: EPM S1 Forecast
(GW)(GW)