METHODS OF TRAINING

There are seven bases on which the training methods are classified:

1. Location based2. Presence training3. Management level training4. Person based training5. Knowledge - Based Training6. Function – based Training7. Organizational structure – based Training

1. Location Based Training In – Company Off – Company

2. Presence Training On – the Job Training Methods Off – the Job Training Methods

3. Management Level Training Top level Middle level Low level

4. Person Based Training Workers Supervisors Management

5. Knowledge - Based Training Technical Non – Technical

6. Function – based Training Production Marketing Finance Personnel And the like………….

7. Organizational structure – based Training Managerial Non – Managerial

On The Job Training1. Coaching

2. Job Rotation3. Job Instruction4. Observation5. Lateral Positioning6. Attachments7. Junior Boards and Committees

1. Coaching The trainee is placed under a particular supervisor, who functions as coach; often the trainee shares some of the functions of the coach. The supervisor provides has to watch the work of the trainee, offer him suggestions and feedback for improvement.

2. Job Instruction: This method is also known as training through steps. The trainer explains the way of doing the things in steps to the trainee and allows him to do the job. The trainer appraises the performance of the trainee, provides feedback and corrects the trainee. This method involves four steps:

1. Prepare the employee for instruction2. Present the job with each step separately3. Have him to do the job in each step4. Follow through till he becomes familiar.

3. Job Rotation This type of training involve is the movement of the trainee from one job to another. The jobs vary in content. This method gives the trainee an opportunity to understand problems of employee on other jobs and how he could transform himself to the situation to solve the other employees or peers.

Job Rotation: Merits The trainee can maintain a certain generality of approach and avoid

becoming merely a specialist. Awareness of what is happening elsewhere and familiarity with other

task-centers helps a balanced and informed attitude to enterprise goal and activities.

New contacts are established and the horizon of enterprise governance becomes effective.

A competitive environment prevails giving way to inclination from other employees.

Each leader's abilities and talents are best tested in a variety of jobs leading to all- round development.

Job Rotation - Demerits• Change in employee cause dislocation and disruption in normal work. • Interpersonal relationships may take time adjustment.

• A trainee may take time to settle down and he is prone to erroring due to hasty in learning.

• An employee trained in another job may indulge in costly experimentations in his original job.

• More supervision and guidance from the senior level is required on the roving employee or trainee

4. Observation A variant of rotation methods is the observation methods, in which the trainee is expected to observe the work process in a centre. The trainee spends a few sitting in the room of a manager going through the instruction files, letters, and correspondence. He asks the manager as to how the works are completed.

Observation - Merits• It does not disturb the established tenor of work.• The trainee is able to get a detached and comprehensive look at the task

the systems and procedures.• The training is quick and flexible.

Observation - Demerits• This method is suitable for passive observes. • It leads to superficial learning.• Since the trainer has no responsibility, his interest in training may not

exist.

5. Lateral PositioningIn this method, the trainee is permanently posted to take up the jobs in other departments. He has to take full responsibility of the assignment and he will not be know when he will be shifted again.

Lateral Positioning - Merits• It enhances inter- functional understanding and team work.• In case of inter - personal and group conflicts, this methods not only

averts the conflicts but also injects an element of positive attitude in a trainee.

• It helps the organization to have a flexibility with units employee inventory

Lateral Positioning - Demerits• An employee asked to hold charge of an unfamiliar job will take to settle

down.• The junior second - line employees may resent it as it makes their

chances of promotion uncertain.• The relationship, with the employees and discipline within the, group

may an unsettling effect.• Normally, it is taken as a punishment rather than reward resulting in

stymied personal career advancement.

6. Attachment• In this method, the junior is attached to a senior by rotation in different

functions. The senior routes much of the departmental work through the junior and he is taken as an integral part of the trainer.

Attachment - Merits• The junior i.e.; trainee, is not overburdened with work and responsibility

and he secure full participation in the functioning process resulting in the acquisition of insight on the job content.

• The chances of costly mistakes or upsetting relationship within thegroup are eliminated.

Attachment - Demerits• Since the trainee has no direct responsibility for the success of the job, he

often becomes a mere observer of the whole process.• The trainee may lose the loss of independence in analyzing and deciding

the appropriateness of a function, if the trainer being senior has complexand exclusiveness

7. Junior Boards and CommitteesThe trainee is asked to participate in the deliberations of junior boards and decision making committees. Here, the real - life actual problems are discussed, different views are debated and decisions are taken. The trainee is mute observe but having a flair for listening, which helps the trainee in the process of understanding, comprehension, analysis and decision making.

The merits are –

• It inculcates a sense of responsibility and participation • Widens the trainee's perspective and team ship with senior and peers

from other disciplines.

The demerits are –

• It does not permit any specific attention to the training needs • The debates and discussions often tend to be lacking purposiveness,

authority and decision commitment.

Off – The Job Training Methods

Objectives

• Emerging complex managerial process.• Emphasis on behavioural outcomes• Development of new techniques of management• New findings of behavioural science• Multi disciplinary approach to management

• The changing profile of trainees from mute observation to activeinvolvement in the learning process

• The presence of complex of socio-cultural dimensions in learning. Hence, an in - depth understanding of these methods is made under the heads

The types of training under Off – The Job Training method:

• Lecture • Correspondence• Role Playing• In basket Method• Case study method• Business games• Conference • Sensitivity training (T – Group)• Seminars • Workshops• Symposiums• Programmed instructions• Field work (Application project)• Syndicate work

LECTURE METHOD

A discourse read or delivered before an audience or a class upon a given subject especially for instruction. " In olden times, the Guru used to lecture and the pupils used to listen and there was a peripheral or minimal questioning session. In recent times, the lecture of the speaker is followed by a high intensity of observation, discussion and questioning leading to a realistic understanding of the talk delivered.

The lecture method in recent times has been ably supported the use of – • Charts• Graphs• Slides• Flip charts• Models• Films • Other audio - visual aids.

Lecture Method – Merits

• It is simple and efficient backed up with study materials• It reduces anxiety about upcoming training programmes by explaining

their basic purpose• The basic material provides a common background for subsequent

activitie

• It helps in introducing a subject and presenting an overview of scope.• It helps in illustrating the application of rules and principles;

reviewing,clarifying and summarizing.

Lecture Method – Demerits• The learners are passive instead of active participants. It violates the

principle of learning by doing and it is normally a one-way communication.

• The presentation requires a great deal of preparation, which requires a high level of time devotion and public speaking skills.

• There is tendency of drifting. The effectiveness of lecture depends upon content command and audience knowledge level. Most of the times, anyone of them is certainly lacking and this results ineffective lectures.

• The presentation of material should be geared to a common level of knowledge. It tends to emphasize the accumulation and memorization of facts and figures and does not lay stress on the application of knowledge.

• Even though the speaker can adjust to the specific audience group, the individual differences of' the audience/will mitigate the effectiveness.

• It is normally characterized by halo effect, status barrier, complexes and emotional excesses. .

CORRESPONDENCE METHOD

In this methods, the instructional activity is through correspondence and the speaker's found in lecture method is occupied by the study material sent through post to the learners interested in specific area bf training. This method pre-supposes the scattered locations of the trainees, who are constrained to attend the physical locations of learning.

Correspondence Method – Procedure

The training should be clear about the instructional objectives to be achieved based on the requirement of the clientele or trainees as well as the magnitude of the trainees.

The trainers should analyze the information content and sequence of the study material contents, which are to be dispatched to the trainees either wholesale or sequentially. The study material should be more self - instructional style than of traditional textbook form, optimally loaded with reference materials and additional suggested readings to motivate trainees to acquire an increased knowledge horizon on his own endeavor.

An ingredient of study material is the inclusion of exercise manual along with response sheets for assignment completion and the trainers should see that the trainees respond to them in time. The trainees should get the feedback after assignment completion. The trainers should be prepared to clarify the doubts as and when they come up and a network of study centers are to he set by the training institution to provide the feeling of venue- training as far as possible.

Arrangement of personal contact programmes (PCPs) is a sine qua non to remove the doubts of the participants, if any. Whatever could not be communicated clearly through the written lessons should be transmitted through their visits and discussions. At the end of PCP, the response to reaction sheet from trainees should be carefully studied by the trainers to improve the contents and standards of the course there by rejuvenating course material

Correspondence Method – Merits

o Training is possible without asking trainees to attend training. They could be at their places' of work and learn at the same time.

o A small group of trainers can train a fairly large number of participants simultaneously.

o It provides an opportunity to study at their own places and at the time convenient to them. In this way, the heterogeneity of the trainee group is taken care of.

o The repeated reading of brief text and elaborate exercises is feasible, unlike the lecture method in which they listen to it only once.

o A regular feedback based on evaluated assignments results in an indepth understanding of issues or subjects.

o The PCP provides an interactive forum for heterogeneous intellectual groups, which put their intellectual mite for an exploding knowledge

o It is less expensive for the participants as well as for the training institutions since a large number of participants can be trained simultaneously by a small team of trainers.

o It helps the physically handicapped learners significantly.

Correspondence Method – Demerits

o The PCP between the trainers and trainees is not the extent it is desired.o The interaction for clarification by a trainee is done through the trainer,

but through the study material, which inanimate and hence the learning process is hampered, interrupted or postponed leading to the possible low knowledge level.

o Correspondence Method - Demeritso Getting adequate and relevant additional reference material may that the

learning pursuit. o There is general delay, in the timely availability of study material. o There is a dearth of sound coordination to manage the whole show.

ROLE PLAYING

Role playing is a training technique in which participants assume an identity other than their own, to cope with real or hypothetical problems in human relations and other areas.

Aim of Role Play

Places a problem in a life like setting. The problem involves ongoing processes. The problem typically involves the participants themselves. Emotional and attitudinal aspects are dealt with in a similar frame

of reference. Emphasizes the importance of feelings. Participants are psychologically “inside” the problem situation. Make for emotional involvement. Provides practice in interpersonal skills. Provides for testing ideas and hypotheses. Trains in emotional control. Provides for execution of action or solution. Allows continuous feedback.

Advantages

Role playing provides an opportunity for developing insight into what is happening when it is happening.

Role playing emphasizes the importance that feelings and emotions play in many problems, especially problems associated with human relations

Role playing enables the manager or supervisor to see a situation from a perspective different to his own.

Role playing, successfully handled, develops the interest of the learner, thereby providing a dynamic situation during the course of which attitudes can be modified and new attitudes developed.

How is it conducted? 1) Trainers start by briefing all the participants

He outlines the situation. Gives a concise description of the characters involved. Players are given time to fix their characters in their minds and

audience are oriented to what they are to watch. The audience can be divided into

Listening or watching Or a special observer for later panel discussions.

Tape recorders or CC TV may be employed.2) The group acts out.3) The actors and the audience discuss the proceedings

What was enacted? The motivation of the people involved. Why the scene developed as it did.

Variants

Role reversal. Multiple role reversal during the scene. Repetition of the scene itself with role reversals.

Types of role play

1) Structured role playing Leader sets both the situation and the roles. Specifies the goals of the activity. Elaborate written material describing the role and situation may be

provided. Or alternatively the trainer might assume the role of the leader in

the role playing. He orally assigns the other roles.Ex : To study different leadership pattern.

Or Role playing planned in advance by members of the group itself.

Simulated situation is presented to group first. Next the enactment. The planning group determines the degree of the spontaneity and

the amount of advance information to the players.

2) Spontaneous role playing No advance planning by the leader of the group. Problem situation arises from the group discussion. Enactment itself serves as the briefing.

Learning through Doing, Imitation, Observation and feedback, Analysis.

3) Multiple roles playing

Divide the entire participants group in to role-playing sub- groups, Everyone role playing simultaneously. Following multiple role playing there is a discussion on the mutual experiences.

Drawbacks of Role Play

1) Effectiveness depends on the skill of the leader.2) Time consuming.3) Restrict the number and complexities of the problems to be dealt with at

one time.4) Some feel it is too artificial. May result in very little transfer of behaviour

change to real situations.5) Real life transfer may be improved by having individuals who are involved

in real life conflict situation undertaking for role playing together, playing each other’s role.

6) If the problems lack sufficient conflicts or variety participants may find it boring.

7) Spontaneity in the culture of the community or group is very essential.5) Group should be accustomed to informal, game like atmosphere.

IN-BASKET

Definition:Developed originally as a possible measure of aptitude for the administrative components of the managerial role, the In-Basket is a simulation of a manager’s workload on a typical day. The name is derived from the wire baskets that formerly were seen on almost every manger’s desk, marked "in" and "out" for mail and memoranda.

Major Aims:1. As a diagnostic tool, the exercise provides information on how a

participant handles a sequence of problems in a given situation, under some pressure and thus some measure of his potential or his competency.

2. As a training device, it can be used to help the trainee identify areas in planning, organizing and administrative behaviour in which his skills need to be improved, as well as an opportunity to practice those 8kils in a situation in which he can obtain feedback on his performance.

Design and Methodology:The underlying idea of the In-Basket technique is that a person is required to assume the role of a fictitious executive or supervisor in a hypothetical situation.

1. Getting familiar with the situation:-The participant is presented with numerous background materials so that he may become familiar with the organizational situation. They may include such items as –

Financial statements Organizational charts Job descriptions Formal position papers Informal items such as descriptions of the personalities and performance

of other characters in the test situation. Though they may vary in nature and content, they all share the common purpose of increasing the reality of the hypothetical situation for the participants by placing the tasks which they are to perform in context.

2. Take actions: - Once a player is familiar with the situation, the exercise itself is begun. Each player is presented with a group of letters, reports, notes and related items which have presumably accumulated in the' In-Basket of the hypothetical manager. He is then asked to take any actions he deem appropriate with the In-Basket items within a limited time period.

3. Write all his notes: - Unlike some other types of exercise in which a participant merely tells what he would do, as an executive, the In-Basket p1ayer must actually do it. They must actually write –

All his notes and memoranda Write out his conversations with others Put down the contents of his telephone calls on paper.

Thus, at the end of the exercise, there will be a written record of every action which each participant has taken

4. Attend a crucial meeting or conference: - An important dimension of the In-Basket experience is time pressure. The situation into which each participant is placed contains a time period during which all available work must be accomplished. At the end of that time period, for example, the participant may be scheduled as part of the exercise to attend a crucial meeting or conference at which at least some of the items in his In-Basket will be discussed. In order to be prepared for this conference, the participant is literally forced to scan many different items calling for different actions and deal with them By -

Setting priorities Delegating certain items to his subordinates for handling.

5. Explaining their actions:-The In-Basket game also includes a procedure which allows players to explain their actions. The player's actions are either-

Scored in some manner Reviewed with him by an interviewer or instructor, or by a group of his

fellow players, or both.

Advantages of in-basket exercise:-

The key to the In-Basket's effectiveness as a training device is the fact that it is rooted in real-life situations - If the selected situation is similar to one in which the participant actually has or expects he will function and if, in addition, it is constructed so as to call adequately for use of the participant's decision-making and problem-solving abilities, his behaviour in the game may be more natural than in some other types of training techniques.

It can be designed either to focus on the activities that are part of all executive positions or to emphasize certain specific aspects of performance - For instance, if the objective is to develop or improve human relations skills, the In-Basket material can be weighed heavily with interpersonal conflicts, other responsibilities being held to a minimum.

The In-Basket can also be adapted to the level of the position for which training is required – If first-line supervisors are participating, the problem- can be constructed to emphasize such factors as providing staff services, supervising work, and technical aspects of production. If it 1s desired to train higher level executives the problem may be related to activities such as long range planning, diversification and decentralization.

Disadvantages:Like any other training technique, this In-Basket method has certain shortcomings.

It is handicapped by the fact that is difficult to score or measure its effects.

Further since the In-Basket is a form of role-playing, it may become unrealistic no matter how "realistic" the situational setting is made. This may step from the fact that the In-Basket is essentially an individual and non-inter-active device. Although each participant plays the "game", he plays it by himself, and with his own materials. Except for the post game review period, there is little opportunity for interaction between participants.

Decisions are made during the In-Basket exercise without the advantage of consultation. The trainee who participates in the In-Basket exercise is not constrained "by other people's behaviour in a dynamic fashion. The In-Basket exercise thus provides little training for team management responsibilities.

CASE STUDY METHOD

This form of case study will provide an authentic management problem. It will present reports, facts, and even, opinions but will not evaluate. it will have been gleaned for the most part from research in the field and will have been put together in a conscious effort to ensure accuracy and reality.

PRIME PURPOSE:

1. One of the foremost tasks of any effective management education is to improve the ability of managers and embryo managers to take wise decisions and make plans for their successful implementations. This is what the case study method aims to do.

2. To develop skills in discovering and defining the vital questions that need to be answered and then to learn how to set about finding the answer.

3. To develop habits of logical thinking.4. To train in analysis and decision making.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CASES:

1. Long cases or Classic Cases2. Short Cases3. Incident process

1. LONG CASES: Also called as classic case or Harvard cases. This approach uses detailed case reports. Sometimes run to 40 – 50 pages of text with supporting charts and documents. It is usually in the form of a running narrative that includes –

History of the company Biographies of key persons Information about finances Marketing information Production information

Drawbacks of the Long case method: Needlessly long, Too much trouble deciding just what is important

2. SHORT CASES: these may be only a page or two. All extraneous information is removed, leaving only information that is pertinent to one problem.

Drawbacks of the short case method: Limits the depth to which the trainees can probe. The information needed to dig beyond the obvious symptoms of trouble, diagnose and solve the problem is absent

4. INCIDENT METHOD:

The Incident Process:-

1. Fact – Finding – stage: Only a bare incident is reported to the group. It may involve merely a statement. Other information relevant to the incident is known only to the discussion leader. The group gets the information only by asking for it specifically.

2. After the Fact – Finding – stage the group attempts to determine the major issue to be resolved and whether or not minor issues must also be considered.

3. Each member writes his own solution, and then joins in a short period of general discussion of all the proposed solutions.

4. Those with similar solutions meet to iron out the differences and select a spokesman to argue the merits of their approach in debate with other viewpoints.

5. The leader finally reports the real life situation.

Drawbacks of the Incident case method: Time consuming, Lengthy and tedious process, Time of the knowledgeable managers who supply the facts also needed

Objectives of the Case study method:-

1. It distributes knowledge and facts.2. It improves participants’ skills in –

Problem Analysis Communication Decision making

3. It affects attitude formation and particularly brings home to the participants that nothing is absolutely “right” or “wrong” in the field of human behaviour.

Advantages of case Study method:-

1. A Case study presents a sample of business life in slow motion, so that it may be studied in detail. The objective diagnosis of causes and alternative broadens participants understanding and provides an improved guide to action.

2. Case study analysis helps participants to realize that there are several ways of looking at, thinking about and acting in a particular business situation.

3. The method develops a systematic way of thinking about business issues and managerial decisions.

4. In the course of studying and making decisions on a number of cases, participants will discover some of the underlying principles of management.

5. Using case studies is a convenient means of exposing participants to a diversity of business situations and problems during a training course.

QUESTIONS YOU MUST ANSWER TO SLOVE THE CASE What is going on here? Is there a problem at all? What precisely is the problem? What has caused it? Are we looking at causes or symptoms? What are the main issues? Why are these issues important? Whose problem is it? What precisely are its objectives? What should he try to do now? What possible courses of action are open? How realistic is each of the actions/solutions proposed? What are their possible effects?

SYNDICATE METHOD

An advocate, a judge or a delegate was called a syndic in ancient Greek syndicate is a body of syndics.

Syndicate – it represents a body of individuals having the ability to tackle a case or a problem with a profound analysis and their role being conceived to be judges giving decisions.

The purpose of syndicate method is to expose a participant to a milieu in which he is persuaded into reflecting upon his experiences as an executive, updating his knowledge, improving his executive skills and developing insight into human behaviour.

Any method of working which a small group may use to achieve a particular purpose might fairly be described as a syndicate method. The essence of the syndicate method is that men should learn from each other and should contribute their own experience to the fullest. The main task of the tutorial staff is to organize the work so that this mixture of the experience takes place to the maximum extent possible within the duration of the course.

FIELD STUDY

Field studies normally appear among the set of teaching methods currently in used with management schools all over the world. And yet, looking at the situation more closely, it is in most cases a very unstructured activity and stands just for “going into the field”.

In the following pages we want to present a more structured version of the method, which was introduced at the Centre d’Etudes Industrialize (CEI) a

couple of years ago and enjoys an over-all acceptance among both teacher and student body.

The two versions of field studies 1. The industry study trip2. Management system study.

INDUSTRY STUDY TRIP

Criteria

We understand by the “Industry Study Trip” a teaching method that fulfils the following set of criteria :

- the visit of a well-choosen company ;- a well-prepared examination of company’s annual reports, the

environment in which the company operates ; a preparation of the expected problems should precede the trip ;

- the participants must meet the policy-making level of the company ;- the participants have to report on their studies in the field ;- this report should not only record the situation in the company but should

show the author’s opinions about the problems and the way of tackling them practically.

Let us examine the various criteria in more detail.

1. The company must be an “interesting case”. At the same time, the company must be assessed according to its openness and willingness to respond to questions. By “interesting case” we mean the company should have a striking strategy event in the recent corporate records. This can either be a take-over of a competitor, a development of a diversified product range or even simply an outstanding rate of growth, which makes it interesting to know more about it.

2. The Participants want to know more about the company when meeting the management. Hence, they have to study the company’s situation before they visit it. Assessing a company’s situation means studying and analyzing the latest annual reports, the competitive situation and the whole environmental sector in which it operates. Only then can the right questions be brought up, which may lead to a deeper understanding of the present situation. At CEI a series of sessions on the environment sectors given by a guest lecturer – if necessary – premise the actual trip. At the same time, small study groups analyse different aspects of the company and present them in class so that enough background material on the company is available. For example, at one stage a Swiss aluminum company was selected which had the highest rate of growth among the competition. The participants were analyzing the annual reports, the competitor balance sheets and annual reports, etc. Moreover, guest lecturers gave a series of sessions on the situation of the industry as well

as on the environmental sectors of the companies. This preparation enabled the students to talk very competently with the managers they met.

3. It is absolutely necessary that the participants meet the top management people in the field. The most interesting issues normally have a strategic character. However, strategy is not formulated at middle management but at the top. If the participants only meet functional department managers, the discussion necessarily focuses on administrative and operational matters and just deals with strategic issues to a minor extent due to the position of the managers in the company.

Effectiveness

Looking at the industry study trip from a time dimension, we can distinguish certain phases of the trip as a teaching device :

- preparatory phase (gathering of information on the company, the competitive situation and environment)

- the actual visit to the company ;- preparation of a report on the company that has been visited ;- preparation and discussion of the reports.

It is, of course an interesting question which phase contributes most to learning given taxonomy of teaching objectives representing the different learning domains. It is hypothesized that the method on the whole has a comparative strength over other methods at the outset of the problem-solving cycle while the different phases might enhance knowledge, attitudes and skills unequally.

MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS STUDY

The second version of field study is a trip lasting several weeks to selected companies in different cultural, political and economical settings. The main features that distinguish the management systems study from the industry study trip are :

- The limited range of topics (mostly one these);- The number of companies, preferably operating in different

environments ;- Duration.

1. The pre-selection of a topic known to both the students and the company people well in advance guarantees a certain depth in the discussion between them. If one does not confine the topic when visiting a company, the discussion will stay normally very much on the surface, due to the number of areas which are of general interest. The chosen topics are generally very attractive. The following list representing the

topics chosen in the last years documents the areas of interest at the particular point of time :

- factors contributing to company growth ;- control of international operations ;- the effect of internationalization, including foreign trade, on the

organization of the enterprise ;- technical innovation ;- motivation of man ;- training of managers and other personnel within the enterprise ;- practices and techniques in market research, sales promotion and

distribution.

2. The management systems study as a teaching method is especially powerful in international business education. It is very intriguing to see, for example, how diversification strategies are pursued in different countries or how innovation is organizationally structured in different economic systems. This method is particularly rewarding for a student who has to deal with international issues. It gives him a certain outlook and a feeling that there is not one panacea to tackle and handle business matters. It prevents getting locked in with a certain type of thinking by being confronted with various approaches that are often equally successful. It stimulates the readiness for becoming more creative and innovative, characteristics which are required in a business world that changes constantly.

3. Use of this method must necessarily take longer. Seeing two or three companies has only minor impact. In our opinion, It is a certain threshold of exposure which leads to learning. It is, however, a fairly expensive way of learning. Although there are no effectiveness studies on the method, it is well accepted in industry.

SEMINAR

A seminar is a meeting for discussion based on the presentation of the views and empirical evidences on theme and arriving at certain conclusions on the issue. Normally, a seminar is conducted under the guidance of a chairman, who is called a trainer for the purpose of study here. It is significantly different from a lecture method. A lecture is dominated by speech and a seminar is identified with domination of discussion. In a lecture, the rate of participation is lower than that in a seminar. Seminar is for a small group of highly intellectual participants and a lecture is targeted towards the novice in the field. The trainer is a principal presenter of information in a lecture, but he is an expert a facilitator, an initiator and a guide in a seminar. From the viewpoint of instructional objective, seminars attempt to develop higher cognitive attributes through discussions, whereas lectures aim at information content and comprehension.

The modus operandi of seminar method is presented below. A theme is identified by the trainer or a group of experts well in advance of the seminar scheduled. The scope of the theme is briefly explained in a brochure, which is a given to the trainees seeking the writing and presentation of the papers. After the receipt of the papers, they are subject to evaluation from the viewpoint of justification parameters by the trainee or the seminar committee and the papers are selected for presentation on the scheduled date or dates. The participants are the trainer, paper writers and the other participants. Normally, the copies of the papers are sent in advance to all participants for their perusal and oncoming discussion. The paper presentation is very formal and lasts for a short time on each papers based on the abstract of the paper, which is normally not more than a page. Major time is devoted for discussion. After the presentation and discussions, the major fact-studied observations are recorded and distributed to the participants. Normally, the multimedia approach is adopted depending upon the presentation strategy of the paper writers. Involvement of the participants is passive during presentation and it becomes active, sometimes turbulent, at the time of discussion.

The merits are

1. Meticulous advance preparation of the contents by the paper readers and of the discussion points by the participants ;

2. Learning of participative techniques leading to confidence formation3. Participants speaking out their observations, comments, doubts and

disagreements without inhibitions.4. Development of higher cognitive attributes, creativity and team spirit and5. Recognition of undercurrents of a phenomenon leading to new

theorization and adoption of the same to real problem situations.

The demerits are

1. Tendency of building up of participant numbers precipitating the usefulness and outcomes.

2. Sidetracking to unnecessary and irrelevant exchanges among members thereby wasting much of the time.

3. Presence of participants as mute observers thereby nullifying the very objective of training.

4. Time constant leading to shallow discussions ;5. Emergency of acrimonious relationship because of philosophical and

cultural differences (Remember that truth is not sweeter, but bitter) and 6. The tendency of perceiving training as a corporate dole-out.

To conclude, the seminar method of training requires presentation of views and issues in a capsule form and an in-depth discussion to arrive at startling conclusions and innovative concepts to be further examined leading to cognitive abilities of the participants. However, the danger lies in perceiving it to be situation of work-free and holidaying-in.

SYMPOSIUM METHOD

The origin of this method goes back to a situation when a group was discussing over an issue in a free and half-drunken mood and at the same time, going deep into the issue in discussing it threadbare. The method is similar to seminar method but with a few marked differences. Basically, the symposium method is one where discussion is predominant and the entire procedure is full of deep involvement in discussion. There are three components in any symposium viz, trainer, group of experts and participants.

The trainer has to start with the selection of the topic or theme or issue. The trainer briefs experts and the participants about the theme. The session starts with the discussion on the issue or topic by the experts. The discussion is indepth in nature. The participant and the audience (if any) will ask questions relating to the issue. Then a summary view is presented to all the audience including experts and participants.

The merits are

1. The discussion held is not superficial or a routine performance but an indepth one, which helps the participants in deeper understanding.

2. There is a chance for participants to take up the role of experts.

The demerits are

1. If the discussion is sub-standard, the method flops. Hence the expert group should be of high caliber.

2. There may be a passive involvement from participants.3. Participants acting as experts may level to solution in involvement.

To conclude, the symposium method involves a high degree of involvement by the specialists. Hence, the method is adopted at a higher levels of management, where the employees are the specialists with homogeneity attitude and aptitudes.

CONFERENCE METHOD

This method is called so, because the delegates or participants ‘confer’ to discuss the issues. This method is some what similar to seminar, syndicate and symposium excepting the procedure involved. Generally, a conference is characterized by large number of participants unlike a seminar. A conference is conducted according to an agenda prepared in advance by the trainer. The agenda includes a plenary session. Presentation session, a discussion session and an observation session. The trainer occupies the chairman’s role. In the plenary session, the chairman highlights the purpose or the objective of the papers to be presented and the discussions to be held are explained. The

plenary session is followed by the presentation the delegates. Each delegate’s name is announced and he is requested to make the presentation. As the number of presentations is larger, discussion is postpone for the next session. The discussion session focuses on analyzing the issues or ideas presented by the delegates. The observation session is meant for summing up the issues and drawing up a list of conclusions after discussions.

The advantages are

1. It takes care of a large number of delegates for presentation and discussion.

2. It provides the knowledge of objective oriented activities to the participants.

3. It helps to develop the ability to make presentations before a learned group.

4. It helps develop higher cognitive abilities.

The disadvantages are

1. It may be difficult to arrange everything systematically for large number of delegates.

2. The progress is slow because all those desiring to speak on a point are generally allowed to do so.

3. There is always an improper time management, because the discussion on first presented papers take away much of the time resulting in top sided discussions.

4. This method requires a high level of organizational competence to make it successful.

To conclude the conference method is the most generally preferred method because of its usefulness. However, care should be taken to allow for free expression without fear and to control the distraction.

WORKSHOP METHOD

The word, ‘workshop’ is borrowed from the area of industry. Literally, it means the place or venue where some manual work (skilled, semiskilled and unskilled) is done. When it is borrowed and use din training, its operational definition changes to work done with full involvement in problem solving and designing activities which need not be manual but also intellectual in nature. The important components of this method are trainer, co-trainers, participants and venue. The trainer conducts the proceedings of this method. The co-trainers assist the trainer in conducting this method. The participants are the target trainees assigned for training purpose. The theme, visualized as the objective of training, provides scope of participants to work out something substantially and through practical involvement. Venue is the arrangement of physical facilities to do the work or exercise.

The process of conducting the workshop is given below. The trainer has to select a theme, the problems of which need a package of solutions. The background materials are sent in advance to the participants for acquainting them with problems and pondering over the issues. The session starts with a lecturette (normally a briefing) by the trainer or the expert dignitary. After this the participants are divided into small groups, the number of which depending upon grouping or clustering of issues. For each group, there is a chairman selected by each group and it is assisted by a co-trainer in conducting the deliberations. The session of each group comes to an end with the development of package of solutions or contents. These packages are further deliberated when all the sub groups assemble again as a group to deliberate on the packages. Here, the deficiencies are corrected and sequencing of parts or packages in terms of inter and intra packages is done. The result is virtually a compendium of ideas or contents put in a sequence. True to its name, the workshop manufactures or produces something useful for participants themselves or for others. Eventhough it is very similar to syndicate method.

The merits are

1. It makes the participants work with full involvement.2. It produces something which is really useful.3. It develops higher cognitive attributes affect attributes.4. Its uniqueness lies in turning out something tangible.5. It helps in developing work experience.6. The active group is participant and the passive group is trainers.7. The trainers knowledge increases.8. It requires minimum physical facilities.

The demerits are

1. Its application gets restricted to top and middle management.2. The session in workshop may get disrupted because of conflicting views.3. Long sessions may decrease the quality of output.

PROGRAMMED LEARNING

Programmed learning is one of the training methods developed in recent years from extensive research. It is a teaching method which places the emphasis on communication - if the student or trainee fails to learn then it may well be the fault of the teacher rather than his own

Programmed learning is a method whereby the trainee teaches himself by working through a series of steps all leading to carefully defined goals or objectives. He cannot go on to the next step until he has mastered the preceding one and so on to the end. -, To endure that he is really learning the information in each step, he must answer questions correctly. He has immediate knowledge of results at each step so that he can check to see how well he is doing.

The information to be taught is presented in a form known as PROGRAMME

The person who writes the programme is known as PROGRAMME WRITER or PROGRAMMER.

The person for whom the programme is written is called the TARGET GROUP.

Programmed Learning is a self – instructional method of training stressing MOTIVATION to learn. It places the emphasis on 'COMMUNICATION with the trainee - if he fails - to learn then it is probably the programmer (the instructor) who is at fault. He may not have explained properly, or in a vocabulary which the trainee understands, or may not, have given him enough information. It is therefore up to the programmer to make sure that his trainee is learning.

1. Trainee works at his own pace.2. Through a series of logical steps3. All leading to predefined goals and objectives4. By actively responding5. And by mastering each step6. He receives feedback information7. Which motivates him to continue.8. The programme is thoroughly tested before it is printed

SENSITIVITY TRAINING OR T – GROUP TRAINING OR LABORATORY TRAINING

The National Training Laboratories (NTL) in US pioneered “Laboratory training associated with T – Group or Sensitivity Training for executives’ middle managers and people from non – business organizations and many executives have been exposed to these types of programme. It is capable of releasing some important forces which can enhance man’s ability to control more effectively and creatively his human environment. In fact, sensitivity training means different things to different people.

On a very general basis, this can be taken as a development technique that attempts to improve or increase the human sensitivity and awareness of his own feelings and the feelings of others is a vital necessity for the adoption of the individual to the organization. A manager who is sensitive to the impact of his behaviour on others is the cause of resentment, withheld effort and ultimately reduced organizational effectiveness.

T – Group training is often called laboratory training because T – groups are in effective laboratories in which people experiment on their own discussions. T – Groups are really small discussion groups with no set leader. The groups are totally unstructured, they have no set task or agenda and the trainer merely raises questions and provides occasional comments. T – Groups are expected to

learn more about themselves, especially emotions. These are the three stages of the T- group training:

1. Unfreezing2. Change3. Refreezing