Notes to Modern Philosophy

7/29/2019 Notes to Modern Philosophy

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THE

HISTORY

OF

PHILOSOPHY

:MODERN PHILOSOPHY

ENLIGHTENMENTAND THE RISEOF SECULAR REASON

Jacob Moh Yii Jenq

Second Year Philosophy

St. Peters College,Kuching


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A History of Philosophy Course Description & Lecture Outline

COURSE DESCRIPTION

This course identifies and describes the historical events and intellectualmovements that contribute to the shaping of modern European thought fromthe 14th to the 19th century .

The fragmentation of both medieval Europe and Church ushers in theRenaissance of the 14th and 15th century, spreading the values of humanismfrom Italy to Northern Europe. Simultaneous developments during theProtestant Reformation in the 16th century effect a similar revival ofintellectual and spiritual challenges to both Church and society.

With the advent of the Scientific Revolution (c.17th 18th century) theautonomy of human reason from religious authority and tradition matures; it ismagnified during the Enlightenment of the 17th and 19th century and ushersin the age of empirical science (Empiricism) as well as Rationalism.

Romanticism reacts to the tenets of Rationalism but is unable to containthe popular development of Idealism. Borrowing the basic principles ofIdealism, Marxism is formed in the 19th century and begins to shape the spiritof the sciences as well as theology.

From the Renaissance to Marxism, a plurality of trends gradually definesthe liberal tendencies of modern theology (i.e. liberal theology) in the 19th

century. This course discusses and assesses the impact of liberal theology onthe life of the modern Church understood in light of the Churchs response tothe movement as read in such Church documents as Aeterni Patris (1879)and Providentissimus Deus (1893). A final evaluation of the relationshipbetween theology and philosophy at the beginning of the 20th century ispresented at the end of the course.

COURSE ASSESSMENT

1. Participation in discussions: 15%

2. Two (2) response papers

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(1,000 words each)[The first paper responds to the lectures onmajor events / ideas of the Renaissanceand the Reformation; the second paper

responds to the lectureson the Scientific Revolution andthe Enlightenment]: 30% (15% for each paper)

3. Book report (1,500 words): 30%

4. Oral exam: 25%

Participation

During the course of lectures there will be space for class discussions aboutthemes or topics of importance or interest. These sessions are introduced sothat the group may experience a shared concern for the thoughts and feelingsof each member about a given topic. All are encouraged to participate to thebest of their ability. In particular, attention must be given to the ideas andsentiments shared by members of the group during such discussions. Equallyimportant and crucial is the ability of all members to be open, honest andcharitable in their comments and expressions toward other members of thegroup.

Response Papers

Students are expected to submit two (2) response papers (maximum of 1,000words each) on (i) the lectures concerning the Renaissance and theReformation and (ii) the lectures on the Scientific Revolution and theEnlightenment [due at the end of the term]. These papers should comprise ofthe following elements:

1. A brief summary of the content of the lectures;2. A personal response to the topics covered in the lectures and discussions

[this includes any questions, comments, and further suggestions about

the study of modern philosophy].

Book Report

The book report is due before the course examination. Students are providedwith a bibliography of contemporary books on philosophy. They are required tochoose a title from this list and to consult with the lecturer about his choice ofauthor and book. The book report should address the following:

1. A brief description of the author (who is s/he and his or her background);

2. A brief description of how this book is relevant to the course;

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3. A summary of the contents of the book;4. Some personal reflections on the contents of the book regarding the

following questions:a. Does the book help you understand the course better?

b. Is there anything unique or distinctive about the authors views orapproach to the study of philosophy?

c. What agreements or disagreements do you have with the author?d. Overall, are you convinced by the authors arguments or position?

Examination

Students will be examined individually and each session will last for hr.Prepared questions will be given to the students before their revision weekbegins. During the examination students will be asked to discuss with thelecture their answers to any of these questions. Further questions for thestudent may be based on the response papers and book report that they havesubmitted for the course.

LECTURE OUTLINE

Introduction A Historical Preface to Modern Philosophy (1400-1900)Lecture 01 The Renaissance Movement (1400-1600)Lecture 02 Renaissance and Christian HumanismLecture 03 Neo-Scholasticism and the Protestant and Catholic

Reformations

Lecture 04 The Scientific Revolution: Mechanism andEmpiricismLecture 05 The French RevolutionLecture 06 Rationalism and the EnlightenmentLecture 07 Romanticism, Idealism, and MarxismLecture 08 Secularization and theology: the case of Liberal

TheologySummary/Epilogue Modern Theology and Philosophy

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A History of Philosophy Introduction. A Historical Preface

History of Modern Philosophy

Introduction

A Historical Preface to Modern Philosophy

1. Introduction: Ideas and their contexts. The experience of man isnot born in a vacuum. Everything that man says, does and thinks hedoes so in the context of a given time and a given space. Hence, theactions of men are contingent by nature and nothing that man does is

permanent or eternal. On the contrary, mans being and existence is

limited and restricted by time and space. This is why we say that man(and his actions and productions) are historical by nature. Everythingabout man happens within a historical context and framework. So, inorder to understand a man better one needs to also understand hishistorical background.

2. The same can be said about mans intellectual existence his thoughtsand ideas. This is an intellectual aspect of mans being that exists in acertain time and space. What man thinks that is, his collection of ideas

is contingent and historical by nature. Ideas are born in a certainmilieu, that is, a specific historical situation or context. In this sense,ideas are best understood in the context of their social, cultural andhistorical framework. In other words, to understand the ideas of a man itis also helpful to understand his background as well.

3. Modern history (14th 19th century).The historical period that isconsidered in this course is the period 1300-1900, or the beginning of the14th till the end of the 19th century.1 Historians of philosophy consider thisto be approximately the period of modern philosophy. Scholars do notarrive at this classification without good reason. Just as Ancient orClassical, Medieval and Contemporary philosophy, philosophybetween 1400-1900 is distinctively modern because this periodconsists of a distinct and unique character or nature of thinking thatother intellectual periods do not share. In order to understand whatmakes philosophy modern, it is necessary to begin with a survey of the

1 Some historians choose to classify modern history as beginning after the Thirty Year's War (1618-1648), a

period when leaders and intellectuals began to loose faith in religion and pursued a philosophy of pure reason viascientific methods. For these historians, modern history lies between the mid-17th and the end of the 19th century.

For a detailed survey of the period surrounding the Thirty Years War, see Richard S. Dunn, The Age of ReligiousWars, 1559-1689 (W.W. Norton & Co., 1970).

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historical background of the period 1300-1700.

4. Europe in the 13th century and after. Between the late 12th and 13thcenturies, European society experienced great development and progressin most areas of society and culture. This was a period when Europe wasalready Christianized and all the greatest kingdoms had strong relationswith the Catholic Church. This political and religious partnership formedthe basis for Christendom, that is, a collective society wherein religiousor Christian values permeated the culture and politics of the civilizedworld. In the 12th and 13th centuries the first universities were founded(in Paris, Bologna, Oxford, Naples and Salamanca). In these universitiestheologians and philosophers did their utmost to demonstrate thathuman knowledge or reason (ratio, scientia) was compatible with

Christian revelation or faith. The greatest thinkers in this period werealso theologians. Notable were the personalities of Bonaventure (1217-74), Albert the Great (1200-1280), Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) and JohnDuns Scotus (1266-1308). Outside the universities there were alsointellectuals like Dante Alighieri (1265-1321)2 and Roger Bacon (1214-1292).3

5. The Great Schism and the decline of the papacy. However,during the 14th and 16th centuries several elements contributed to the

decline of Christendom. Firstly, there was the internal conflict within theRoman Catholic Church. At the time, Christian rulers in Europeancountries (e.g. King Philip of France) tried to gain political influence overthe Church. The papacy yielded to political pressure and moved fromRome (Italy) to Avignon in France. Between 1305-1376 the popes stayedin Avignon and not in Rome. This practice ended when St. Catherine ofSiena (1347-1380)4 together with St. Bridget of Sweden (1303-1373) persuaded Pope Gregory XI to return to Rome.

6. During the seventy years in Avignon, among the many popes elected, thecardinals had elected eight popes who were French. When the papacymoved to Rome, and Gregory XI died, the college of cardinals elected anItalian pope, Urban VI. Many of the Cardinals began to dislike the newPope because of the way he attempted to reform the papacy by force.Many of the French cardinals fled to France and, in protest to the election

2 Well-known for his literary portrayal of hell, purgatory and heaven in hisDivine Comedy.

3 A Franciscan monk who was a pioneer or founder of what is called the experimental sciences, that is,methods of investigating the world using the methods of observation and testing hence, experiment (from

experiri, try).

4 Catherine of Siena is a Doctor of the Church. Together with St. Francis of Assisi, she is the patroness of Italy.



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of pope Urban VI, the French cardinals elected a French pope, ClementVII. Later, a third pope was elected, claiming to be the true pope. Thus,there were three popes elected at the same time. This began the GreatSchism of the popes, which lasted from 1378 to 1417, until the Councilof Constance settled the issue by electing Martin V as pope. By then, theintegrity and authority of the papacy had weakened. This sad situationwith the papacy caused some thinkers to question the authority of theChurch. Theologians such as John Wyclif (1330-1384) and John Hus(1369-1415) began criticizing certain doctrines and the authority of theChurch. There was even rebellion from certain sections of religiousorders.

7. The decline of spirituality and theology. At the same time, Western

theological and philosophical learning began to decline rapidly. Duringthe 12th and 13th centuries, the great Doctors of the Church such as St.Albert the Great and St. Thomas Aquinas demonstrated thecomplementary nature of faith and reason. In the 14th century, however,intellectuals became immersed in purely intellectual questions. Therewas also a new method of philosophy and theology known asNominalism and it was first proposed by the English Franciscan Friar,William of Ockham (1280-1349). Ockham believed that philosophicalarguments could not really demonstrate the truths of Christian faith,

even though the truths of faith could be argued for.5

Albert and Aquinaswere convinced otherwise. After Ockham, theology and philosophybegan to deal with specifically intellectual problems and graduallybecame divorced from issues of religion and spirituality. This caused aspiritual crisis at the grassroots of European society.

8. Mysticism in the 14th century. The religious and spiritual livesof the people received little attention in the 14th and 15th centuries.Theologians and philosophers were more concerned with intellectualquestions and Church politics. The hierarchy (pope and college ofbishops) were immersed in church politics as well and they had toconstantly worry about their relationship with the rulers of the secularkingdoms. The common people were, therefore, generally neglected bythe church and a spiritual vacuum existed among the common people.In response to this, mysticism became increasingly popular among thepeople. Mysticism was an approach to knowing God more through theheart than the mind (intellect). Hence, it was a more individual or personcentered. Well-known mystics of the time included Meister Eckhart

5 See John Kilcullen, Ockham, in Mautner, The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy, 398.



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(1260-1327)6 and his followers, John Tauler (1300-1361) and Henry Suso(1295-1366). There was also the spirituality of modern devotion (theDevotio Moderna), whence works such as The Imitation of Christ(Thomas Kempis) was produced.7 Such and other spiritual movements werecatered for popular and personal piety and spiritual awakening.

9. Yet, as mentioned above, the move to renew the spirituality of the Churchwas found lacking in the hierarchy of the Catholic Church. In fact, thespiritual renewal of the Catholic Church in the late 14th century facedmany political obstacles. Because of these obstacles the religiouspractices of the Church were gradually corrupted.

10. Corruption in the Catholic Church: Simony and the selling of

Indulgences. These political obstacles arose whenever the Church triedto implement some reform or another in a local church within a givenregion or political territory. In the 15th century, Europe was experiencingthe growth of nationalism. Regions or territories gradually becameunited under one political ruler or nobility (e.g. princes). Such regions orterritories became political entities known as nations. In order for theChurch to practice reform in a territory, the popes had to seek theapproval of the ruler or nobility of the region. Usually, these rulers woulddemand a price from the Church before any permission was given to

implement reforms in the region. Sometimes the price was not in theform of money alone; rulers and princes also demanded to have someofficial control of in Church matters.

11. In order to realize these political demands the Church ordainedsome of these political rulers as bishops of local dioceses and abbots ofmonasteries. Such a relationship between the Church and the rulersimpoverished the Church's authority as well as its wealth. In response tothis financial crisis, the Church resorted to two practices:

a. The practice of simony . This was the selling of Church officesand spiritual authority to rulers and princes. The Church sold theseto rulers at a very high price.8

6 A German Dominican.

7 See Christopher Dawson, The Dividing of Christendom (Image, New York, 1967) 52-3.

8 Some rulers were rich, so they were able to purchase two or more offices and became bishops of two or more

local churches. This practice was known as pluralism. However, since these so-called bishops were never reallyinterested in the local churches they were never really present to care for the local Christians. Rather, they usually

paid someone else to do the work. This practice was known as absenteeism. Hence, simony led to pluralism,which in turn led to absenteeism.



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b. The selling of Indulgences . The Church also practiced collectingfees from pilgrimage sites or, more controversial, the selling ofindulgences. Traditionally, the Church granted indulgences when ithas been demonstrated that the believer has repented for his sinsthrough good works and prayer. By the 16th century, suchindulgences need not be earned because they could be bought.When anyone purchased an indulgence for a price, the Churchpledged that the person would be freed from the consequences ofhis / her sin after death. The practice of simony and the selling ofindulgences corrupted the spiritual intentions and morality of theChurch.

12. The Renaissance and Humanism.9 Other factors added to the

decline of Christendom. In the 15th century the popes acquired a tastefor classical Greek and Roman culture. They spent huge sums of moneyobtaining the services of artists to create magnificent pieces of music,sculptures, literature and paintings. These works renewed and restoredthe ideals and values of ancient Greek and Roman culture and it was thehope of the popes that such renaissance would provide a moral rebirthfor Christendom. Such reclamation of the past is known as the period ofthe Renaissance. St. Peter's Church in Rome is one such product of thisperiod.

13. However, another product of theRenaissance was the intellectual movement known as Humanism. Thismovement was composed of Christians who were determined to reformthe ideas of the Church by popularizing and synthesizing the classicalideas and values of the Scriptures, Greeks, and Romans. Among themwere personalities like the Dutch scholar Erasmus of Rotterdam (1465-1536) and the English lawyer and politician, St. Thomas More. TheseHumanists likewise tried to revitalize the Catholic Church, but to no avail.In the case of Thomas More, he stood firmly for his loyalty to the Churchand the pope against his King, Henry VIII. For this he was martyred.

14. Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation.A more radical sortof reform was needed to awaken the Church to its complacency and thecorrupt nature of some religious practices. The German Augustinianmonk, Martin Luther (1480-1546),10 initiated such a radical reform by

9 For a survey of the Renaissance and humanism, see D. J. Fitzgerald, Renaissance Philosophy, in the New

Catholic Encyclopedia, 2nd edition, 10:120-125.

10 For a recent biography, see Samuel Willard Crompton,Martin Luther(Chelsea House Publishers, 2004). For a

collection of Luthers basic writings see Timothy F. Lull (ed.),Martin Luthers Basic Theological Writings, secondedition (Augsburg Fortress, 2005).



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contrasting the Church with the values of Christ found in Scripture,particularly those values found in the New Testament. His main thesisstated that man is justified by faith alone and not by good works. Thiscorresponded to the message of St. Paul's letter to the Romans,11 whichLuther studied and commented on thoroughly. Luthers doctrine ofsolafidei (faith alone) was a desperate cry for a corrupted Catholic Church toreturn to purify its faith.

15. In 1517, Luther nailed somedocuments on the chapel door at the city of Wittenberg. Thesedocuments contained what is known as the Ninety-five Theses onIndulgences. In his theses Luther vehemently argued that too muchdependence on good works (including indulgences) and the neglect of

ones inner faith is contrary to Christianity. After several confrontationswith Church authorities, Luther was excommunicated from the CatholicChurch by the bull, Exsurge Domine, in 1521. This series of eventsinvolving Martin Luther and the 16th century Church is known popularly asthe Protestant Reformation.

16.The Protestant Reformation gave rise to Lutheranism, the most Catholicform of Protestantism.12 Soon, other Protestant movements such as theCalvinists [followers of the French theologian, John (or Jean) Calvin, 1509-

1564], the Anabaptists, and the Anglican Church (established by HenryVIII) followed suit. Christendom or the Christian civilization of the MiddleAges was now fragmented into different nations (nationalism) as well asdifferent Christian groups. This sad situation forced the Catholic Churchto assess and evaluate itself. This self-assessment led to the CatholicReformation and the important reforming council, the Council of Trent(1545-1563). The Council of Trent laid down decrees for reform withinthe Roman Catholic Church. By now, however, the Catholic Church waswounded and became less catholic or universal in character. TheProtestant Reformation forced the Catholic Church to purify and renewitself for the sake of maintaining whatever unity was left.

17. The Thirty Years War. Internationally, the situation worsenedwhen the last of the so-called religious wars of Europe betweenCatholics and Protestants, and among Protestant nations (mainly inGermany), arose. This period of religious war is known as the ThirtyYears War (1618-1648) in which religious persecutions of minority

11 Although Pauls letters also do emphasize the value of works, it can be argued that the moral quality of such

works depends on the nature of ones faith. See also the Letter of James.

12 Alan Schreck, The Compact History of the Catholic Church (Rome, 1987) 72.



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religious groups in respective territories took place. Certainly, there werealso political and economical causes for the war and religion was actuallynot the main cause of the war itself; religion itself was subordinated topolitics.13 Ultimately, however, this conflict brought about thedisintegration of European and Christian culture and the religious identityof Europe was brought into question.

18. The conflict ended when the Treaty ofWestphalia (1689). This treaty accomplished two things: (i) it establishedreligious toleration and liberty for both Catholics and Protestant groups;(ii) it recognized the equality and independence of modern states ornations. Both religious liberty and the existence of independent statesstill govern the state-system of the world today. However, in the 17th

century, the treaty was a significant testament to the fact that theCatholic Church the pope no longer had a dominant influence onmodern society. Society had become religiously pluralistic andsecular in the 17th century.

19. Summary: Medieval decline and modern revival.

Modern society and philosophy arises from thehistorical background briefly described above. The 13th century was agolden period for the Catholic Church. However, by the 17th century the

religious and cultural identity of Europe was in crisis. This crisis wasbrought forth by a series of events that included the ProtestantReformation and the religious wars of Europe. In response to thisdeclination, the Catholic Church did implement some measures ofcounter-reform or Catholic Reform. However, other factors preventeda return to the old days of Christian civilization. These factors include therise of nationalism and secular learning (the rise of Renaissancehumanism). The 17th and 18th centuries also witnessed the rise ofscience and technology (the Scientific Revolution), the Enlightenment(the philosophy of Reason, or rationalism), the establishment ofdemocracy (the rule of the people, for the people, by the people) andsecularization (the privatization of religion and its exclusion from publiclife). These movements radically transformed Christian Europe intomodern society where religion no longer became the dominant factor ofhuman life.

13 See William J. Bausch, Pilgrim Church, revised edition (Connecticut, 1989) 258. See also Carlton J. H.

Hayes,A Political and Cultural History of Europe, vol. 1 (Macmillan, 1932) 274, cited in Bausch,Pilgrim Church,259.



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Bibliography

Bausch, William J.1989 Pilgrim Church: A Popular History of Catholic Christianity.Revised edition. Mystic, Connecticut: Twenty-Third Publications.

Dawson, Christopher.1967 The Dividing of Christendom. Originally published in 1965(Sheed and Ward). Reprint. Garden City, New York: Image Books.

Schreck, Alan.1987 The Compact History of the Catholic Church. Rome: ICCRO.



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A History of Philosophy Lecture 1. The Renaissance

Lecture 1.

The Renaissance Movement

1. Introduction: The Medieval Crisis.The previous lecture brieflysurveyed the general historical situation from which the modern world

arose. It was a situation of tension between movements of decline as

well as development; some elements of medieval culture declined while

other elements developed. Overall, however, there was a process of

transformation in medieval society.

2. An essential element of this transformation is the fragmentation of

Christian Europe, or Christendom. The Catholic Church was beginning tobreak up institutionally as well as politically. This caused a religious crisis

for Europe a crisis that is still being felt today in parts of Europe as well

as Asia. It is useful to bear in mind that medieval Christian history

coincides with the history of medieval Europe itself; what effected the

medieval Church effected medieval Europe and vice versa. Hence, the

crisis of the Christian world was also a crisis of the European world. From

the mid-14th century, the Church could no longer provide a stable or

unifying foundation for the European world any longer; Europe began a

self-transformation via the process of political fragmentation (into nation-states). As Europe fragmented, so did the Christian world. This

fragmentation (as we will see in the rest of the course) happened at all

levels of society.

3. 15th century Secularization Political and Intellectual. A cause

for the crisis can be traced to the autonomous (i.e. independent) political

development of parts of European society. Certain rulers of political

territories began to free themselves from the constraints of religious (i.e.

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Christian or Church) authority. These rulers and their territories gradually

grew more independent of each other and of the Church. In the 14th and

15th centuries Europe was experiencing the growth of what is known as

city-states and national monarchies. These states and monarchiesperceived the growing need to become independent from the political

influence of the Church. Indeed, the rulers of these rising nations began

placing political pressure on the Church in order to expand their political

territories.14 In turn the Church had to find ways to cope with the growing

autonomy and strength of these rulers and nations. Often, the Church

compromised to political pressures, which sometimes meant

compromising with the secular rulers. Hence, the conflict between

Church and state intensified by the 15th century. This led to the

beginning of the political secularization of society, that is, politicalautonomy of rulers to govern their territories without the influence of the

Church.

4. The political secularization of society was just one aspect of the medieval

crisis; there was also the secularization of human thought or the intellect,

which was more widespread and significant. Political secularization

involves the freedom of self-rule without restraints from any external

religious authority. Similarly, the secularization of human thoughtinvolves the freedom of thought and expression without restraints from

any external religious authority as well. Such a process did not happen

overnight but developed through several intellectual movements,

beginning in the 14th century. This course will discuss these main

movements, namely, the development of (i) 14th century Renaissance

philosophy, (ii) 17th century Rationalism and Empiricism (the

Enlightenment), and (iii) 18th century Idealism. These movements

contributed to the gradual separation between human reason and

religious belief. It is not a real separation of a persons reason from his orher faith; it is a conceptual one. This intellectual separation is known

today in modern philosophy and theology as the dichotomy of reason

(or science) and faith (or revelation). This dichotomy gave rise to what

may be called a secularization of reason, that is, the ability for

independent human reasoning about the truth without the aid of religious

authority, either in the form of the Church or divine revelation or faith.

14 Cf. W. W. Wilkinson, Renaissance,New Catholic Encyclopedia (2nd edition) 12:117d.



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5. There is a consensus among scholars that the dichotomy or

secularization is most complete during the time of the Enlightenment

around the 18th century. However, this process was earlier evident in the

14th

century movement known as the Renaissance.15

It is debatedamong some historians whether the Renaissance actually took place at

all. However, among those who believe that there was such a

movement, the Renaissance is generally accepted as a period of general

cultural transition16 involving changes and transformations at all levels

and aspects of European society; it is for them a transition period

between the medieval culture of the 13th century and the modern

secular world of the 17th century. If this is true, then the Renaissance

becomes important as a background to understanding the beginning of

the modern world. It is easier to understand what makes the modernworld modern and secular once the spirit of the Renaissance

movement is understood.

6. Francesco Petrarch Father of the

Renaissance.

The term rinascita (meaning, rebirth) was first

used by Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574) in the 16th

century to refer the Renaissance as a historical

movement in the 14th century.17 However, the

conceptof the Renaissance was developed earlier by

writers of the 14th and 15th centuries beginning with the great Italian

poet, Francesco Petrarch18 (1304-1374). Petrarch seems to have been

the first to conceptualize history in terms of stages ranging from

ancient, middle and modern.19 He referred to the period before the

adoption of Christianity by the Roman Emperors (i.e. the period

approximately before the 4th century, specifically, before the time of the

15 The Renaissance began in Italy in the 14th century; France, England and Germany experienced the movementlater in the 15th century.

16 W. W. Wilkinson, Renaissance, 12:109d. Christopher Dawson called the Renaissance period a period ofcultural revolution which ushered in a new culture or a new way of life. Hence, it was not merely a revival of

classical studies. See C. Dawson, The Dividing Christiendom (Image, New York, 1967) 42-3.

17 Ibid 12:111a.

18 Also known as Francesco Petrarca. His thoughts will be discussed in more detail in the next lecture. For asurvey of his background, see R. Montano, Petrarch, Francesco,New Catholic Encyclopedia (2nd edition) 11:212-

217.

19 Such a conceptual scheme is the convention of any history course today.



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Roman emperor Constantine the Great20) as ancient history; from that

time till his own time (i.e. 4th 14th century), Petrarch referred to the

period as modern history. However, within this modern period

Petrarch distinguished a middle period between ancient Rome and hisown time that he called the Dark Ages; he termed it so because, for

him, it was also a period of cultural darkness for humanity.21 Petrarch

believed that between the 4th and 14th century there was a great decline

and suppression of intellectual expression in the forms of poetry

(literature) and art. For Petrarch and others, this religious and political

suppression contributed to the decline of human society and

enlightenment as a whole. Hence, the middle ages was for Petrarch a

period of darkness for human culture, the Dark Ages. On the other

hand, he regarded his own time (i.e the 14th century) as a period ofintellectual revival. Petrarch seems to be the first to recognize and apply

in his works this revivalist spirit. For this reason, many regard him as the

father of the Renaissance movement.

7. The Spirit of the Renaissance: Rebirth of antiquity. Petrarch

believed that it was possible for human society to gain enlightenment

(literally, to be in-light or to shine). However, for this to happen,

society had to do two things: First, it had to turn its back on the previousmedieval culture and, second, it had to revisit the cultural wisdom of the

ancient Greeks and Romans, which was considered by Petrarch and

others to be superior to medieval culture. Indeed, 14th century Italian

culture was still very much linked to medieval ways of being. The only

way to revisit the wisdom of antiquity (i.e. ancient Greece and Rome

before the 4th century or Middle Ages) was to study the written works or

literature of the ancients. Therefore, poets and scholars like Petrarch

worked tirelessly to collect, translated, study and understand ancient

Greek and Roman writings in order to collate and apply the values ofancient culture. This was not a purely intellectual exercise for Petrarch

and his followers; they intended to give ancient culture an opportunity to

be reborn in the 14th century. To return to medieval culture would be to

return to a cave of darkness, illusion and ignorance. Only by studying the

ancient Greek and Roman poetry, literature, and philosophy could

20 Constantine lived between c.275 and 337. He embraced Christianity and was baptized in his deathbed in 337.

21 See Wilkinson, 12:110c. Petrarchs modern period or Dark Ages is commonly known today as the MiddleAges (c. 6th 13th century).



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modern humanity understand the true human values that make society

perfect. For this reason, Petrarch called the study of ancient Greek and

Roman literature the study of the humanities, or studia humanitas; to

study the works of antiquity was, in a sense, to study humanity (i.e.man) in itself. Hence, humanistic studies or humanism22 was born in

the 14th century with the original concern that men should help their

fellow men.23

8. In the two major forms of intellectual and artistic expression poetry and

art the concept ofrebirth becomes central to the movement known as

the Renaissance. Indeed, Renaissance is derived from the Latin word,

renascent- (from re, again + nasci, be born), which means being born

again.24 The Renaissance movement is essentially a movement of therebirth of forms of human expression and knowledge that were previously

overshadowed or suppressed in the Middle (Dark) Ages or Medieval

period. Essentially, rebirth speaks of something being born again, this

something being the human intelligence and expression that flourished

before the formal institution of Christianity in the Roman world. What is

being reborn here is the wisdom of antiquity, that is, the knowledge of

the ancient and classical cultures of Greece and Rome. Study of the

humanities or humanism will revive the values of true human culture forthe good of modern man.

9. 14th century individualism and the

Renaissance.

Central to the spirit of the Renaissance is the notion

that humanity can be enlightened only by a return to

the culture of antiquity; this return to antiquity

demands a rebirth in of ancient cultural values in the14th century. Such rebirth took place first and

foremost in the literature form of poetry and, later, in

art. However, this rebirth of literature and art could

22 The term humanism refers to a world view in some way centered on man rather than on the suprahhuman or

the abstract. W. J. Ong, Humanism,New Catholic Encyclopedia (2nd edition) 7:182b.

23 Wilkinson, 12:114a. Wilkinson observes the humanists like the poet Petrarch and the Coluccio Salutati (1331-

1406) share the same concern for the practical welfare and happiness of humanity as a whole.

24 The New Oxford Dictionary of English, 1570.


Dante Alighieri


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not be possible without individuals of great intellectual minds.25 The

Italian poet and writer Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375) observed in the

14th century that there was a growing number of illustrious men (i.e.

men of genius and ability) in his own time. According to him,personalities like the poet Dante Alighieri26 (1265-1321) and Petrarch

were pioneers of the Renaissance because they revived the lost art of

poetry. Yet, they could only do so because of their individual intellectual

abilities. Both were poets but Dante explored poetry in a wholly different

way from traditional poets while Petrarch was more conventional. Hence,

individualism was a basis for the revival of literature and art during the

Renaissance. According to Boccacio and Filippo Villani (1325-1405), while

both Dante and Petrarch were responsible for the revival or rebirth of

poetry in the modern period,27 they were first and foremost individualgeniuses. Villani also believed that the painters Cimabue (1240-1302)

and Giotto di Bondone (c.1267-1337) were responsible for the rebirth of

modern art in their own way.

10. Civic (political) freedom the basis for revival. Without individual

genius the forms of poetry and art could never have experienced a

rebirth in the 14th century. On the other hand, it is also true that without

the freedom to do so, personalities like Dante and Petrarch could neverhave the space to express themselves.28 This relationship between

freedom and the rebirth of human intelligence and expression was

explored by the 15th century Italian politician Leonardo Bruni (1370-

1444), who suggested that the decline of human culture in the middle

ages was due to the fact the there was little political freedom during

between the 4th and 14th centuries. He observed that as political freedom

becomes greater in his own time, education and expression in arts and

letters increasingly flourish. As with Boccacio and Villani, Bruni believed

that Dante and Petrarch were responsible for the recovery of modernliterature. Bruni, however, believed that this was because the political

circumstances of 14th century Italy allowed them greater political

25 See C. Dawsons evaluation of this characteristic in the 14th century in hisDividing of Christendom, 45-6.

26 Some aspects of Dantes thoughts will be explored more fully next lecture. A survey of his life and work is

found in R. Montano, Dante Alighieri,New Catholic Encyclopedia (2nd edition) 4:516-522.

27 Wilkinson, 12:110c.

28 See Ong, Humanism, 7:185a: Europe in places, notably Italy, had reached a state of opulence, civic

organization, and cultural self-confidence sufficient for Petrarchs type of enthusiasm to have appeal and to beindulged on a significantly wider scale than before.



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freedom,29 which in turn produced exceptional personalities such as

Dante and Petrarch.30

11. Secular humanism.31

This notion of political freedom becomesanother defining element of 14th century Renaissance in Italy. The rebirth

of true human values is only possible if society allows such values to

flourish. However, if there is suppression of any sort such a renaissance

becomes impossible. Before Bruni, Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406) had

already become aware of the need to first establish political freedom for

members of the state.32 Such freedom would not be merely political but

it would be a freedom that comes from the proper education of true

knowledge for the mind. For this reason, both Salutati and Bruni (like

Petrarch) encouraged the study of the humanities or studia humanitas forthe young so that the proper human values could be instilled in society

as a foundation for a true human society. This motivation to create a free

space or situation of freedom for human growth and flourishing is known

as civic humanism or political humanism. Being political, it is a

practical sort of humanism that concentrates on the social and political

values of society, such as education and politics. Salutati, for example,

believed in the superiority of the active life that emphasized the welfare

of family, friends and the state.33

Bruni also believed that the study ofpolitics should supplement moral philosophy for both contributed to

knowledge about the good and happiness of society. Both Salutati and

Bruni, therefore, encouraged the study of humanities (i.e. the politics and

morality of the ancient Greeks and Romans) for the perfection and

elevation of free humanity.34 In other words, the study of the

humanities leads to greater freedom, which in turn contributes to the

29 Dawson, 44-5. In the 14th century, the Italian city of Florence was a model of such a free state, in which the

educated class had political rights and freedom.30 According to modern studies there is a divergence in Brunis theory, namely, the literary revival of the

Renaissance seems to have been greatest when Italy was under despotic princes or commercial oligarchs of wealthy

businessmen. See ibid 12:111a; 12:116b.

31 See also Dawson, 46ff.

32 Ibid 12:114d-115a.

33 He wrote to one of his friends who was planning to become a monk: Do not believethat to flee from

turmoil, to avoid the view of pleasant things, to enclose one self in a cloister, or to isolate oneself in a hermitage,constitute a way of perfection Without doubt you, fleeing from the world, can fall from heaven to earth, while I,

remaining in the world, can raise my heart to heaven. Cited in Wilkinson, ibid.

34 Ibid 12:115b. Bruni calls studia humanitas surely the best and most excellent of studies, those most

appropriate for the human race, needed in private as well as public life, and distinguished by a knowledge of lettersbefitting a free born man. Cited in Wilkinson, ibid 12:115c.



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good and happiness of society as a whole. This principle is the

foundation of what is known as secular humanism, that is, humanism

that concentrates on the social and political welfare of human society.35

12. Rebirth and perfection. If the14th century was a period of rebirth for

the arts and letters (i.e. humanities), then it would also usher in a period

ofprogress and development toward perfection. For the Renaissance,

the rebirth of antiquity was a only a means to an end, which was the

perfection of human knowledge and expression. Therefore, the

experience of the renaissance necessarily led to the perfection of

humanity. This idea was already implicit in the works of 14 th century

Renaissance thinkers like Petrarch but the notion that humanity truly

begins its progress toward perfection in the Renaissance (i.e. after theMiddle Ages) becomes stronger after the 14th century. For example, the

16th century Italian painter and architect Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574)

believed that human culture rose to perfection in the ancient world but

declined about the time of Constantine the Great. Vasari tried to

describe this progression of history using the metaphor of birth, growth,

age and death.36 With the Christian Roman Emperors after the 4th

century the death of art and literature arrived. However, with painters

like Cimabue in the 13th

century art is revived and given a second birth,or rebirth. Therefore, as Vasari says, his was a time in which the arts

were undergoing a process of rinascita or rebirth, which will naturally

progress (i.e. grow) and develop into perfection in his own time. There is

now only the possibility of progress but no longer the possibility of a

return to the age of medieval literature and art. This general

interpretation of human history as a whole is popular among historians

even today.

13. The Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation. In the 16th

century the Protestant Reformation took hold of Germany and, later, the

whole of Europe. This historical event can be understood in two ways,

namely, (i) as a crisis in the history of the Catholic Church or (ii) as a

rebirth of Christian spirituality in another expression. Martin Luther

35 In principle secular humanism is neither atheistic nor fundamentally opposed to religious belief in God. It candeny and oppose the existence of God and the good of religion; this is a fair picture of secular humanism in the 21st

century. Nevertheless, understood historically, secular humanism does not oppose belief in God but ratherconcentrates on the life of man in society as a whole. Such a scheme must, therefore, include mans religious

belief. Liberal educationin no way rejected the supremacy of Christian ethics and theology. Dawson, 47.

36 Ibid 12:111b.



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(1483-1546) himself disliked certain theological elements of medieval

philosophy and theology and sought to make people aware of teachings

of the Church that he believed were either inadequate or erroneous. In

this sense he attempted to lead the people back to the true spirit of theteachings of Christ and of Christianity by reviving study of the scriptures

in contrast to reliance on rituals and tradition. For Luther, scripture was

the source of the Churchs teachings; to understand how to rectify the

Churchs teachings and practices, Luther had to return to the source,

scripture. This notion of returning to the source is born of the

Renaissance spirit. The Renaissance thinkers themselves believed that in

order to re-establish the true values of humanity, one needed to return to

the source of these values. For humanists like Petrarch, Bruni and Vasari

the source was the writings of antiquity, not medieval works. It was notenough to rely on what religious or political authorities told people to

believe about truth; one had to see for oneself what truth the sources

really contained to read, study and interpret the sources themselves.

Only then could one understand the truth for oneself. Luther and the

Renaissance thinkers were of the same mind; they returned to the

sources in order to reclaim and re-establish human and religious values

for the good of society and the Church. For this reason, Luther himself

understood the Renaissance movement as preparing the way for hisreligious revival.37

14. The Renaissance and the Enlightenment. The Renaissance harbored

a general dislike for medieval culture. However, in the 18th century, it

was the French writer and poet Voltaire38 (1694-1778) that expressed

most strongly his distaste for Medieval culture. Voltaire was a leading

thinker in the 17th 18th century movement called the Enlightenment,

which was a movement that upheld individuality and reason against the

authority of tradition (religious or political). As described above, this dualcharacteristic of individualism and rationalism earlier flourished during

the Renaissance in the 14th and 15th century and Voltaire clearly agreed

with the spirit of the Renaissance. Voltaire considered the Latin language

of the Middle Ages to be barbarous (i.e. inauthentic) and medieval

Scholastic theology (i.e. Scholasticism) as an insult to the philosophy of

37 Ibid 12:111b.

38 This is a pseudonym of Franois-Marie Arouet.



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Aristotle.39 These factors contributed to the decline of human culture in

the Middle Ages. For Voltaire, human intelligence revived (was reborn) in

the 13th and 14th centuries and this was possible because of the growing

wealth of Italy at the time.40

Yet, he also recognized that such growth inwealth and intelligence during the Renaissance also yielded a society of

gifted individuals that was less moral and irreligious.41 The intellectuals

of the Renaissance were generally men of great learning but critical of

the religious and moral traditions and authority of their time. Hence,

Renaissance (and humanist) thinkers were generally inclined to be

suspicious of such traditions and authorities. Nevertheless, Voltaire

hailed Renaissance irreligion as a necessary consequence of the

destruction of Christianity. We need to remember that for Voltaire as

well as for most of the Renaissance thinkers medieval Christianity waslargely responsible for the deprecation (corruption or decline) of human

culture as a whole. In this sense, Voltaire and the Renaissance thinkers

believed that only by shedding ones faith in religious and moral

authorities and traditions could there be greater freedom to develop

ones reasoning.42

15. The Renaissance and Idealism. The 19th century German philosopher

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) had a similar opinion withVoltaire. For Hegel the Middle Ages was a period merely devoted to

external rites or ceremonies and intellectual (i.e. scholastic) thinking;

there was little emphasis on the spiritual element of religion.

Furthermore, the medieval political situation (i.e. Church authority as well

as feudalism) was oppressive of human freedom and this created a

situation of bondage for the human spirit. However, during the 14th

century, when the political situation was transformed and citizens

became free once more, human intelligence began to gain self-

confidence. It experienced a rebirth, according to Hegel, and it was freeagain to study the arts and sciences and take real interest in the

particular things of nature (i.e. the physicalworld).43 This was period of

in which the human mind (or consciousness) was once more free to

39 Ibid 12:111d.

40 Italy was then a major commercial hub in Europe.

41 Murder, assassinations, and conspiracies were also widespread during the Renaissance in 14th century Italy.

42 Ibid,12:111d.

43 Ibid 12:112a.



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explore and discover the world and man. For Hegel this freedom to

discover the world and self is but a natural process and development

toward a higher state of self-consciousness; expression in the arts and

knowledge in the sciences contribute to this self-consciousness or self-awareness of who man is. In this sense, for Hegel, the Renaissance mind

became to highest expression of individuality and individual expression;

it was an individuality that worked against the corporative tendency44

(i.e. the over-emphasis on the masses or group) of medieval culture.

16. All the above elements found in the thoughts of Renaissance thinkers like

Petrarch and later critics like Voltaire and Hegel are summarized and fully

developed in the thinking of the 19th century philosophical historian Jacob

Christoph Burckhardt (1818-1897). In his work, Die Kulture der

Renaissance in Italien (The Culture of Renaissance in Italy), he concluded

that the Renaissance developed the human being into an authentic

human individual personality. Such individuality underwent a ban

during the Middle Ages and people at that time were dreaming or half

awake because they were under a woven veil of faith, illusion and

childish prepossession.45 In other words, the people of medieval society

never really understood who they were as human beings (cf. Hegel).

Then, in the 14th

century, the Italian states and emperors were involvedin political contests and feuds. Eventually the Italian rulers gained

political autonomy, which in turn allowed greater freedom and

possibilities for Italian citizens to flourish. This freedom meant release

from the previous illusions and restraints (i.e. the woven veil) of the

Church. When this woven veil was lifted, human personality

rediscovered itself. Not only did it recover itself but it also rediscovered

the natural world for what it was; the Renaissance mind could now

independently study the natural world as it was (i.e. objectively) and

without too much intellectual abstraction (i.e. speculative metaphysics).In other words, the human mind was free to discover for itself and

needed no authority to tell it what to think. In a sense this was a kind of

excessive individualism. However, Burckhardt understood this

excessive individualism as a historical necessity: The individual was

politically and spiritually restrained by the medieval Church for so long

that, once the chains were broken (or the veil of illusion was lifted) in the

44 Ibid 12:112b. This is a phrase coined by Georg Voigt.

45 Ibid 12:112c.



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14th century, it was only natural that the human spirit rushed to reclaim

what it lost, namely, its individual sense of existence. For Burckhardt this

was the essence of the Renaissance, namely, the reclamation of the

individual spirit of the human personality.

17. Summary: Contemporary reactions to the Renaissance. Not all

scholars and historians in the 19th and 20th century believed that

Renaissance culture was really superior to Medieval culture. The

Romantic school (composed of thinkers like F. Chateaubriand and F.

Schlegel) held up Medieval culture as superior to the culture of Greek and

Roman antiquity because it believed that Christianity offered a more

accurate (i.e. realistic) understanding of humanity and the world.46

Similarly, 20th century historians (e.g. C.H. Haskins, J. de Ghellink, L.Thorndike, . Gilson and C. Dawson) studied closely the culture of the

medieval period and concluded that it cannot be truly considered a

period of darkness; the medieval period was not a period of the Dark

Ages because the intellectual leaders of the period had a keen

knowledge about the world and themselves. Hence, they debunked

Burckhardts thesis that only Renaissance man was able to discover

objective truths about humanity and the world; Medieval thinkers were

clearly as self-aware and enlightened as the Renaissance thinkersclaimed to be, even if Medieval culture did not emphasize individualism

and reason as much as the Renaissance did. Therefore, for the 19th

century Romantics and 20th century Christian scholars and historians

such as Gilson and Dawson, it is an exaggeration to say that the

Renaissance mind could have discovered the world and man on its own

without the foundations of medieval culture. According to them, the

Renaissance owes much more to Medieval culture than thinkers like

Voltaire and Burckhardt believe.

Bibliography

Dawson, Christopher.

1967 The Dividing of Christendom. Originally published in 1965

(Sheed and Ward). Reprint. Garden City, New York: Image Books.

46 Ibid 12:112d-113a.



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Ong, W. J.

2003 Humanism. New Catholic Encyclopedia (2nd edition) 7:182-

193.

Wilkinson, W. W.

2003 Renaissance. New Catholic Encyclopedia (2nd edition)

12:109-120.

Renaissance Art

The 'realism' of the Renaissance period is easily seen in works of art as well.

Consider the sculpture David (originally called The Giant), which Michelangelo

took three years to complete and was unveiled in 1504. Michelangelo captures

David in a pose carrying the slingshot he uses to kill Goliath. But the details of

the statue bear emphasis on proportionality and outline that represents a real

man as closely as possible.47

47 The statue is 17 ft or 5.17m tall. It was struck by lightning in 1512 and had its arm broken off in 1527; a new one

was made. In 1814, it was covered in wax and around 30 years later the statue had a 'hydrochloric acid bath', whichleft it scratched and porous (i.e. full of little holes). In 1991, a jealous artist smashedDavid's toe.



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A History of Modern Philosophy Lecture 2. Renaissance & ChristianHumanism

LECTURE 2.

RENAISSANCE AND CHRISTIAN HUMANISM

Scope & Outline

18. Introduction: The quest for anew way.

The cultural awareness of 14th

century underwent transformation and change.Renaissance thinkers sought to give a direction to this transformation byeducating society about true human values. Their cultural program is known ashumanism.

19. Philosophy and theology:Different approaches to truth.Most medieval theologians emphasized philosophy as a tool or handmaiden oftheology; philosophy was not really an independent discipline. Renaissancethinkers believed that philosophy was not subject to theology, but with theologyit could lead to more universal learning.

20. Studia humanitatis(humanistic studies).Renaissance humanism was based on the studia humanitatis or humanisticstudies, which was similar to scholastic learning but emphasized intellectualdevotion to ancient Greek and Roman sources. Humanistic learning blendedknowledge of the religious and secular aspects of humanity.

21. Secularism and Enlightenment.Political and intellectual secularization was important to the Renaissance.Without civic freedom there could be no opportunity and space for theenlightenment of society. Civic humanism worked for the creation of politicalfreedom, which in turn allowed intellectual secularism to implement thehumanistic system of education.

22. Renaissance humanism and modern research.Study of ancient sources led to the creation of new textual and historicalmethods to read, study, and interpret collected manuscripts. Even the sacredbible became subject to the modern research methods of the Renaissancehumanists. Modern research led to a publication boom, which createdinstitutions for the archive of manuscripts (i.e. libraries).

23. Christian Humanism:Grace works through nature.Renaissance humanism stressed the natural progress of humanity via human,

cultural, and scientific knowledge. This gave humanism a very secular or



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worldly face. There were Christian humanists, however,who tried the show thatGods grace builds upon, works with, and perfects nature.

24. Conclusion: The historical roots of religious (Christian) andsecular humanism.Humanism prevails as a living attitude in philosophy today, but with twoperspectives: The religious (Christian) humanist is open to transcendental actionwithin human culture and history, while the secular humanist is closed to suchaction and emphasizes humanity as being responsible for its own future.

-------------------------------------------------------

Introduction: The quest for a new way.

1. The previous lecture tried to describe the spirit of the Renaissancemovement in the 14th century. The Renaissance was a movement thatgrew out of a society that was undergoing tremendous transformation:States were discovering new found political freedom and used thisfreedom to expand their power against a crumbling Church (seeintroductory lecture); this gave rise to political secularization. Such atransformation of politics had a significant impact on the intellectuals atthe time of the 14th century. It made them aware that the values of

society were changing and that society could no longer depend on theold ways or traditional structures of existing. So, if human civilization isnot to become more corrupt and crumble upon itself, then it must find anew model or structure of social existence. This political and socialquestion became an urgent problem for Renaissance thinkers. It was animportant question because it had practical consequences for the welfare(the good) of humanity.

2. The problem for the Renaissance thinkers was that no such new model or

structure existed. The Medieval social and intellectual structure wasdeveloped and used for about 1,000 years (one millennium), so everyonein the 14th century still lived with a medieval mindset. In this sense, itwas quite impossible for the Renaissance intellectuals to come up withanother framework. So, they did the next best thing. If they could notconstruct their own model, they would revisit the past and inquire if therewere human civilizations or cultures that succeeded in creating the idealhuman society. These civilizations would have had their own human andintellectual virtues. The Renaissance would emphasize the study of thesepast civilizations and revive these virtues; it would do this with one



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specific aim, namely, to restore these values into contemporary societywith the hope of renewing humanity and society. Hence, the keywords tounderstanding the spirit of the Renaissance is, revive, restore, andrenew. For this purpose, Renaissance thinkers worked out an intellectualdiscipline for their cultural program. This discipline is known today ashumanism or, specifically, Renaissance humanism.48 It is the purposeof this lecture to describe the intellectual movement known asRenaissance humanism.

Philosophy and theology: Different approaches to truth.

3. The Renaissance thinkers were not outstanding thinkers as intellectualssuch as Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, or Aquinas, Descartes, Kant, and soon.49 Renaissance thinkers did not create any new philosophy. In fact,most of them were transmitters of past ideas and knowledge rather thancreators of new philosophies. Nevertheless, the Renaissance thinkersremain essential to history. They are unique because they were the firstto emphasize (as a group) the need for a more human approach tounderstanding the world, humanity, and God. Theirs was a morehumanistic approach to traditional Christian problems such as God, thesoul, morality, predestination and free will.50 They chose not to rely ontraditional methods or explanations to answer questions about theirexistence or faith. On the contrary; they began by studying the humancondition and they provided explanations using models of humanexperience. Renaissance thinkers understood how to use abstract orlogical arguments; their main objective now was to use the power of theirintellect (reason) to help their fellowmen understand truth (natural aswell as divine truth).

4. Hence, Renaissance thinkers had a different approach from the medievalscholars. Medieval theologians (including Albert the Great and Thomas

48 Humanism is a broad term. It can apply to any aspect of human activity (e.g. politics, science, philosophy,

history, etc.). As a historical movement, it is practiced and defined in different ways depending on the period (i.e.ancient, modern, contemporary) in question. Since the period at hand is the period of the Renaissance, humanism

here specifically refers to the intellectual movement that arose during the 14th century. This is, therefore, referred toas Renaissance humanism.

49 D. J. Fitzgerald, Renaissance Philosophy, theNew Catholic Encyclopedia (2nd edition) 12:120c: There is nosingle philosopher of this time [during the Renaissance] who compares in importance to Plato, Aristotle, Augustine,

and Aquinas, or Descartes, Hume, and Kant.

50 Ibid.



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Aquinas) were experts in using technical theological arguments todemonstrate truth. They tried to be as logical and technical as possible.The problem with this approach (as seen in the introductory lecture and

first lecture of this course) is that such technical and abstract reasoningcould seldom be understood by ordinary and intelligent people. Indeed,these theologians were not writing for ordinary intelligent men; they werewriting to and against other theologians for the sake of winningintellectual arguments. For them, philosophical reasoning (philosophy)was a tool for theological argument; philosophy was seen as thehandmaiden of theology, not universal knowledge. Therefore, thesetheologians seldom used or employed philosophical reasoning to explainother kinds of truth to laymen.

5. Therefore, medieval theologians generally accepted philosophy (humanreasoning) as a tool used to explain the truths of Christian faith, and thisrestricted philosophy to one function alone. On the other hand,Renaissance thinkers thought of philosophy differently. For them humanreason was not merely a tool or handmaiden of theology; philosophy hasa wider function of providing universal knowledge about truth tohumanity as a whole. It is not the handmaiden of theology but themouthpiece of natural and divine wisdom. Neither did they believe thatphilosophy was opposed to theology.51 They understood philosophy as anindependent and autonomous source of knowledge from theology, butthis did not mean that human reason was opposed to divine revelation.On the contrary, Renaissance thinkers believed that philosophy andtheology were different but complementary. During the Renaissance,philosophy developed a more secular face; it became increasingly freedfrom the shadows of theology.

Studia humanitatis (humanistic studies).

6. The Renaissance thinkers developed a method to educate others to usetheir reasoning more independently. In other words, they developed theirown intellectual formation or curriculum, which was called, humanisticstudies (or studia humanitatis). This system of humanistic educationwas basically similar to medieval learning: Both Medieval and humanisticstudy included subjects like grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history and moral

51 Ibid.



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philosophy;52 both used the official language of the time, that is, Latin.53So, humanism had common elements with medieval education and therewas a sort of intellectual continuity between both approaches.

7. However, both were also different: Medieval theologians liked to engagein logic, natural science, and metaphysics. These were subjects thatinvolved very technical, theoretical, and abstract thinking, which themedieval thinkers were very good at. Humanists, on the other hand,disliked these subjects; they knew about logic, science, and metaphysics,but they believed that such knowledge meant nothing if the studentcould not transmit wisdom to ordinary intelligent laymen. In other words,the technical knowledge of scholars was useless if such knowledge did

not speak with relevance to the common experience of humanity.Therefore, the Renaissance humanists stressed the importance oftraditional medieval scholarly study as well as a wider knowledge ofsecular (worldly) human values found in the writings of ancient literature(i.e. poetry, plays, etc.) and art. For the humanists, secular knowledgeshould complement religious knowledge.

8. For example, St. Thomas More (1478-1535) was an English humanist whoattacked Medieval Scholasticism, saying that it was not appealing orrelevant enough to the living human experience. For humanists likeMore, religious ideas are nothing if they do not provide meaning for realhuman experiences.54 Like other Renaissance humanists, More thoughtthat medieval theology (Scholasticism) lacked what is called religiousimmediacy: Scholasticism spoke of truth in a language that theintelligent layperson could not understand and, therefore, could not applyin life. Scholastic knowledge, therefore, was not directly concerned withhuman existence. This is why humanists generally kept aloof (i.e. stayedaway) from Scholasticism. Instead, they concentrated on the study ofthe ancient and classical thinkers (i.e. before the 4th century) of Greece

and Rome, because humanists believed that the culture of ancientGreece and Rome had much more to say about the worldly or secularaspect of human experience. This was the main difference betweenRenaissance humanism and Medieval Scholasticism: Humanism considersit important to broaden its scope of knowledge by studying the ideas andvalues of ancient cultures. For them, education should not be restricted

52 W. J. Ong, Humanism,New Catholic Encyclopedia (2nd edition) 7:182d.

53 Ong, Humanism, 7:184b-184c. Ong elaborates that at this time the vernacular languages were undergoing

development as well and Greek was becoming important to the new learning, that is, humanism.

54 Ong, 7:191c-d.



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to religious knowledge alone. Humanist believed that human reason hadto be secularized through more universal learning, which is what thestudia humanista strived for.

9. The studia huumanista reformed the education system of in the 14th and15th century. It offered society a different or alternative system ofeducation. Because of this, the Renaissance humanists came to beregarded as reformers of education and their system of humanisticstudies came to be known as the new learning. However, it was not anentirely new way of learning.55 As mentioned above, humanistic studiesshared common elements with Medieval learning. Nevertheless,Renaissance humanism did have a new approach or direction: They

cultivated an intellectual devotion to the study of ancient literature (i.e.study of antiquity).56 However, for the humanists, the study of antiquitywas not merely an intellectual exercise. They believed that, by studyingancient culture and values, they could renew humanity and restore itsnature. Therefore, the study of antiquity was necessary for the sake ofmodern cultural progress. This becomes the most essential characteristicof Renaissance humanism. For the humanists, the study of antiquitywould provide humanity with the enlightenment it needed to progresstoward universal happiness. With more universal knowledge comes thepossibility of universal fulfillment.

Secularism and Enlightenment.

10. The humanists also understood thatenlightenment and happiness would not be possible without anatmosphere of freedom. This aspect of freedom is important for theRenaissance, and it was discussed last lecture. Essentially, two kinds offreedom were necessary for the Renaissance humanist: (i) political

freedom and (ii) individual freedom. During the 14th century, politicalfreedom meant the secularization of the state (i.e. autonomy from thepolitical influence of the Church); individual freedom consisted of thefreedom of individual thought and expression (i.e. autonomy of theintellect from any external influences). Hence, humanists fought hard forthe secularism of the state (civic humanism) and the human intellect.

55 Ibid 7:182b.

56 Ibid 7:184c. As will be explained below, the study of antiquity involved more than the reading of past

literature. It involved the revival of ancient languages (Greek, Hebrew and classical Latin) and a deeperappreciation for cultural history, linguistics, textual analysis, geography and other aspects.



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Both political secularization and the secularization of reason areimportant but, of these two, the autonomy or freedom of the intellect ismore fundamental for the Renaissance humanist. Civic humanism is

important because it creates the ideal environment (politics, education,and so on) for the intellectual development of a people. However, it isthe freedom of the intellect that enables people to explore independentlyand acquire more universal knowledge. Such freedom allowed people toextend their horizons of knowledge about the world and humanexperience.

11. So, Renaissance humanists believed in the secularization of reason.With this conviction, humanism freely embraced knowledge of the

secular world; it had enormous respect for human experience, culture,language, and morals. Humanists immersed themselves in the humancondition, hoping to help humanity improve by providing a better pictureand understanding of what the world was really like; they tried tounderstand what present human experiences meant for the future ofhumanity. Using literature and art they attempted to express theirknowledge in a way that intelligent laypeople could understand. Hence,humanism sought to educate people about the meaning of humanexistence so that people could become self-aware. The objective ofhumanist education was the awakening of humanity to their nature andpurpose. In fact, as mentioned above, the education of humanity wasthe basic intention of the Renaissance humanism. This is why the studiahumanista should be understood as humanisms quest for a moreenlightened (i.e. knowledgeable) humanity. Through humanism, thesecularization of reason provided society with better opportunities forself-enlightenment. Humanism tried to do this by providing a morehumane or humanistic discipline of study, which involved the historicalstudy of ancient culture (intellectual, moral, artistic, and so on).

Renaissance humanism and modern research.

12. In order to study the ancient works of Greeks and Romans, humanistsneeded to have access to those works. They needed to search formanuscripts of these works in order to translate (from ancient Greek andLatin), read, and re-interpret those works for the present generation.

This project created the need for humanist scholars to update themselves



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with two important things: (i) the Greek language: The lingua franca(common language) of society in the 15th century was Latin and fewscholars knew Greek.57 If humanists wanted to study ancient Greek

culture, they needed to have knowledge of the Greek language. Thiswould make it easier for humanists to (ii) further develop methods oftextual criticism, which was important if the humanists wanted tounderstand what the ancient texts say about the original intention andmeaning of the author.

13.Today, study of any literature or source (including the Bible) involves themethods of textual criticism begun in the 15th century by the Renaissancehumanists. It was the humanists (Petrarch and his successors) who paid

attention to how texts were originally written. In the Renaissance, for thefirst time in European scholarship, scholars had to imagine andconceptualize literature as historical; humanists gradually came to realizethat the ancient Greek and Roman authors had different manners ofexpressions and ways of thinking that were alien to the 15th century. Thisrealization motivated humanists to study manuscripts with a newhistorical awareness, a historical consciousness about the past asdifferent from the present. Hence, the restoration of ancient learning andvalues would not be a straightforward exercise; it would involvepainstaking research about every aspect of ancient culture. From suchresearch the humanists arrived at the fundamental principles for themodern scientific study of history, literature, language, politics, sociology,and religion.58 These principles remain the bedrock or foundation ofmodern scientific research in historical and religious studies.

14. The Renaissancehumanists also established the basic rules for textual analysis of theBible. To most of them in the 15th century, scripture was still largelyunderstood as a divinely inspired text. However, for humanists, it was

also becoming clear that the Bible was a work of literature that had rootsin the past. In other words, they began to conceive of the Bible as ahistorical text. Being historical, the Bible was a product of a different wayof thinking and expression; it became for them something less familiarand, therefore, something that needed to be studied like any otherancient manuscript. In the 15th century, the Bible was printed in Latinand many assumed that the Bible had always been written the way it was

57 Ibid 7:185c, 186d. Besides Latin and Greek, Hebrew was the third of the major ancient languages revived by

the humanists.

58 Ibid 7:187c.



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(i.e. arranged and composed in its Latin version, the Vulgate). However,Renaissance humanists no longer assumed that the original meaning ofthe Bible could be understood without proper study about its cultural and

linguistic origins. Therefore, the Bible came under very close scientificscrutiny or examination of the Renaissance humanists, who studied theBible in order to be better able to express its original intention to all ofhumanity. In a sense, this meant that a divinely revealed text could (andshould) come under the criticism of human reason if the meaning ofscripture was to be authentic. Renaissance humanists understood this tobe something beneficial for all humanity. On the other hand, the Churchoften perceived this situation unfavorably.

15.The collection of manuscripts became an intellectual obsession for manyhumanist scholars and many ancient texts were translated by humanistsfrom ancient Greek and Latin to languages like modern Latin, Italian, andGerman. Such immense research and translated works led to anexplosion of modern writings that were published in collections ofmanuscripts. Eventually, these manuscripts were collected and stored inplaces reserved for the safekeeping and access of these works. Suchplaces are known today as libraries, and the first modern Europeanlibraries began in 15th century Europe. Even the Vatican Library (i.e. theofficial library of the Roman Church) finds its beginnings in theRenaissance period: Pope Nicholas V (1447-55) and his successors werepassionate patrons of Renaissance humanist learning, literature and art.59Hence, Renaissance humanism created a culture of modern and scientificlearning that is still sustained till today; such a culture is epitomized bythe prolific (many) books that continue to make up the great libraries ofknowledge in Western Europe today.

Christian Humanism:Grace works through nature.

16. It becomes obvious that Renaissance humanistsvalued greatly the value of human knowledge not just religious ortheological knowledge but knowledge that included worldly or secularexperience and values. Hence, Renaissance humanists actively soughtthe expansion of what can be called, universal knowledge. This questfor universal knowledge is precisely the humanistic value that modernuniversities today base their existence on. Universities have more thanone discipline or department in their institution; they include as many

59 Ibid 7:185d.



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different departments and disciplines as possible, and they do this inorder to bring together (collect) all kinds of knowledge about everyaspect of human experience. This creates a wide variety and scope of

human learning, which is not limited in terms of sources orinterpretations. On the contrary, universities always strive to expandtheir resources for the sake of expanding scientific knowledge. Thisperpetual expansion of knowledge may be called the process ofuniversalizing knowledge. It is a humanistic value that finds its origin inthe modern mentality of the Renaissance humanists. Furthermore, justlike modern universities today, Renaissance humanists strive afteruniversal knowledge for the sake of a fundamental or ultimate concern:The education of humanity. For Renaissance humanists the best sort of

education is universal learning, and universal learning encompasses(includes and integrates) knowledge of things that are of nature (i.e.worldly) as well as knowledge of things that are divine (i.e. of God).Universal knowledge can also be called integrated knowledge (of thedivine and worldly).

17. However, it is true that humanists generally emphasize knowledge aboutthe secular or worldly aspect of experience. As politicians, educators, orintellectuals, Renaissance humanists worked for the cultural and scientificimprovement (or progress) of human society. In this sense, all humanistsshared a world view [that] in some way centered on man rather than onthe suprahuman or the abstract.60 This point is essential: Renaissancehumanism placed strong emphasis on the study and knowledge ofhumanity. Humanism is essentially a natural (worldly) worldview thatemphasizes humanity without over-emphasis on religious faith or belief.61This does not mean that humanists did not consider the role of religiousfaith in their work. On the contrary, a common characteristic of allhumanists is their stress on the need to pay attention to both the secularand religious aspects of society as a whole. However, while some

humanists did place more emphasis on the secularaspect of humanisticstudies, other humanists prioritized the religious (Christian) element. Theconsequence was that some humanists had greater regard for nature(and reason), while others held divine revelation (grace) to be higherthan nature and reason. In this sense, a general intellectual problemarose within Renaissance humanism itself; it was a question about the

60 Ibid 7:182b. According to Ong humanism may have in fact arisen during the Middle Ages in personalities likethe 8th century English theologian and education, Alcuin (735-804), and the English prelate and scholar, John of

Salisbury (1115-1180).

61 See also Christopher Dawson, The Dividing of Christendom (Image, New York, 1967) 46.



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relationship between nature and grace or reason and faith, state andChurch, humanity and God, the human and the divine). This tensionbetween nature and grace was not only felt in intellectual circles; it was a

tension that was felt at every level of Renaissance society and culture. Itwas a sign of the times.

18. Some humanists were convinced that religious faith and theology wereimportant in order to understand divine revelation, but they also believedthat human reason or philosophy was important in order to understandhow Gods grace is revealed in the world. Such humanists did not opposenatural reason (nature) and faith (grace); they tried to reconcile the twothings. In this spirit, Renaissance humanists such as Thomas More

believed that there was a positive relationship between divine grace andcreated nature.62 More (like the great Medieval theologian, St. ThomasAquinas) believed that grace works with (or builds upon) nature and notagainst it in order to demolish nature. This was a major principle ofMedieval theology, particularly the theology of Thomas Aquinas (whoarrived at this understanding by studying the philosophy of Aristotle).The complementary relationship between nature and grace alsocontinues to be a spiritual principle in the Roman Catholic Church today.

19.This principle emphasizes that Gods grace is given to the world for thegood of the world. In this sense, human reason or natural philosophy isable to comprehend or know the truth of revelation independently and, indoing so, reason can help humanity understand revelation better in termsof human logic and expression. It is true that humanists like More had ahigher respect for the Christian faith; for them no knowledge would couldbe perfected wi

Notes to Modern Philosophy

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