NOTES TO ANDERSON, CHAPTER 8

PROFESSIONAL WRITING

DRAFTING YOUR TEXT

• Thinking in units• Books are made up of chapters• Chapters are made up of sections• Sections are made up of paragraphs• Paragraphs are made up of sentences

• Books, chapters, sections, paragraphs (and sometimes groups of sentences within a paragraph) can all be thought of in the same way• What is this segment of text about?• What purpose does it fulfill in the larger text?• How does it connect to the other segments of text?

DRAFTING YOUR TEXT

• Whether you are thinking about books or paragraphs, the same general strategies apply• Begin by announcing your topic• Present generalizations before details• Move from most important to least important• Adapt existing organizational strategies when in trouble

DRAFTING YOUR TEXT

• Whether you are thinking about books or paragraphs, the same general strategies apply• Begin by announcing your topic• Topic statements help focus the readers’ attention on what

you hope to accomplish in this segment of text• The initial focus helps readers understand why information is

included and what direction the discussion is taking

• The initial focus for the segment should not only focus the readers’ attention on your topic, it should also • Help them understand how this topic relates to earlier topics

(transitions) • Help them understand how this topic relates to the larger

argument of the section, chapter, or book

DRAFTING YOUR TEXT

• Whether you are thinking about books or paragraphs, the same general strategies apply• Present generalizations before details• Provide a context for details• Details without an explanation of what the details illustrate

lead readers to read without purpose (i.e. asking “Why is this here?” “Why is she telling me this?”)

• Shape the readers’ understanding of what the details illustrate

• In some cases, however, an indirect approach is necessary (i.e. leading a reader to the conclusion when the conclusion might be initially disagreeable)

DRAFTING YOUR TEXT

• Whether you are thinking about books or paragraphs, the same general strategies apply• Move from most important to least important• By putting the most important information first, you help

skimming readers find it• More persuasive information first prepares the reader to

accept your argument—less persuasive information first might lead them to distrust your claims

• In some cases, of course, other organizational schemes take precedence• Processes and procedures often must be presented in a

particular order• Historical events often must be presented in chronological

order

DRAFTING YOUR TEXT

• Whether you are thinking about books or paragraphs, the same general strategies apply• Adapt existing organizational strategies when in trouble• Don’t continually reinvent the wheel—use generic structures

(or superstructures) when appropriate• Consult past effective documents as a model—but don’t

necessarily follow the model slavishly; adapt it to your purposes

MAKING ORGANIZATION EXPLICIT

• Help readers “see” the organization by• Adding signposts that create a map of your organization• Smoothing the flow of thought from sentence to sentence

MAKING ORGANIZATION EXPLICIT

• Help readers “see” the organization by• Adding signposts that create a map of your organization• Forecasting statements• Transitions• Headings• Visual Arrangement

MAKING ORGANIZATION EXPLICIT

• Help readers “see” the organization by• Adding signposts that create a map of your organization• Forecasting statements

• Provide cues as to your organization.• The most obvious version of “forecasting” is metadiscourse (i.e.

“In the following paragraph . . .”)• Common though are statements that help a reader see how you

will organize your discussion:• “There are two reasons for this change: reduced income levels

and changing consumer demand.”• Readers would then expect you to discuss reduced income

levels and then changing consumer demand

MAKING ORGANIZATION EXPLICIT

• Help readers “see” the organization by• Adding signposts that create a map of your organization• Transitions

• Help readers understand how adjacent parts of your text are related

• Help readers understand the connection between parts of your text

• Often help readers see how parts connect to the whole• Provide the argument in miniature

MAKING ORGANIZATION EXPLICIT

• Help readers “see” the organization by• Adding signposts that create a map of your organization• Headings

• Common in some types of writing (technical, business, and so on); uncommon in others (certain kinds of academic and school writing)

• Function as “titles” for a chunk of text• Often communicate the main idea of the section• Usually use key words important to the section

• Designing Headings• Make them stand out visually• Different color• Boldface• Larger font size • Centered or set in the left margin

• Give the same visual treatment to headings at the same level• Give different visual treatments to headings at different levels

MAKING ORGANIZATION EXPLICIT

• Help readers “see” the organization by• Visual arrangement of text• Indent paragraphs lower in the organizational hierarchy

(outline style)• Leave extra white space at the end of sections• In long documents begin new chapters or major sections on

its own page• Use lists (numbered and bulleted)

• Remember that text items in lists should be parallel

MAKING ORGANIZATION EXPLICIT

• Help readers “see” the organization by• Smoothing the flow of thought from sentence to sentence• Use transitional words and phrases• Use echo words• Keep a steady focus from sentence to sentence• Consider how sentences tend to move from “old” information

to “new” information

MAKING ORGANIZATION EXPLICIT

• Help readers “see” the organization by• Smoothing the flow of thought from sentence to sentence• Use transitional words and phrases

• Signal time: after, before, during, until, while• Signal place: above, below, inside• Signal cause-and-effect: because, since, as a result• Signal similarity: as, furthermore, likewise, similarly• Signal difference: although, however, nevertheless, on the other

hand

MAKING ORGANIZATION EXPLICIT

• Help readers “see” the organization by• Smoothing the flow of thought from sentence to sentence• Use echo words

• Use words and phrases that recall to the readers’ mind some information they’ve already encountered

• “A flu vaccine can be developed. Development will take several weeks, however.”

• “We had to return the printer. Its frequent breakdowns tested everyone’s patience.”

MAKING ORGANIZATION EXPLICIT

• Help readers “see” the organization by• Smoothing the flow of thought from sentence to sentence• Keep a steady focus from sentence to sentence

• Keep what you are talking about in the subject position• Use passive voice if necessary to maintain a steady subject• Version A: After lunch on October 4, Tom took a shortcut back

to his workstation. Fifteen yards above the factory floor, a can of paint slipped off a scaffold and hit him on the left foot. He missed seventeen days of work.

• Version B: After lunch on October 4, Tom took a shortcut back to his workstation. He was hit on the left foot by a can of paint that slipped off a scaffold fifteen yards above the factory floor. Because of the injury he sustained, Tom missed seventeen days of work.