215

Notes

Introduction

1. The term ‘humanitarian war’ was first coined by Adam Roberts. See his,‘Humanitarian War: Intervention and Human Rights’, International Affairs,69(2), 1993 and, ‘NATO’s Humanitarian War Over Kosovo’, Survival, 41(3),1999.

2. The issue of intra-alliance politics is discussed throughout Pierre Martin andMark R. Brawley (eds), Alliance Politics, Kosovo, and NATO’s War: Allied Forceor Forced Allies? (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000).

3. Formally recognised by the EU and UN as the Former Yugoslav Republic ofMacedonia (FYROM) but referred to as Macedonia throughout.

4. The idea of the ‘court of world opinion’ was put to me by Nicholas Wheeler.See Nicholas J. Wheeler, Saving Strangers: Humanitarian Intervention inInternational Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).

5. Trotsky is cited by Noel Malcolm, Kosovo: A Short History (London: Papermac,1999), p. 253.

6. Ibid.7. Ibid., pp. 324–6. For a general overview of the key aspects of the conflict

see Arshi Pipa and Sami Repishti, Studies on Kosova (New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press, 1984), Robert Elsie (ed.), Kosovo: In the Heart of the PowderKeg (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997).

8. See Lenard J. Cohen, Broken Bonds: Yugoslavia’s Disintegration and BalkanPolitics in Transition, 2nd edn (Oxford: Westview, 1995), p. 33.

9. Article 4 of the Constitution of the Socialist Autonomous Province ofKosovo, 1974. See Marc Weller, The Crisis in Kosovo 1989–1999: From theDissolution of Yugoslavia to Rambouillet and the Outbreak of Hostilities(Cambridge: International Documents and Analysis, 1999), p. 58.

10. Article 6 of the Kosovo Constitution, 1974.11. Article 217 of the Kosovo Constitution, 1974.12. Provisions for economic autonomy can be found in Article 292 of the

Kosovo Constitution, 1974. The political status of Kosovo is principallyarticulated in Articles 300, 301 and 339.

13. Gazmend Zajmi, ‘Kosova’s Constitutional Position in the FormerYugoslavia’, in Ger Duijzings, Dusan Janjic, and Shkelzen Maliqi (eds),Kosovo/Kosova: Confrontation or Coexistence (Nijmegen: Peace Research Centreof the University of Nijmegen, 1996), p. 98.

14. See Mihailo Crnobrnja, The Yugoslav Drama, 2nd edn (London: I. B. Tauris,1994), pp. 75–6, 225. Crnobrnja was formerly Ambassador of Yugoslavia tothe European Communities.

15. Miranda Vickers, Between Serb and Albanian: A History of Kosovo (London:Hurst and Co., 1998), p. 181.

16. See Amnesty International, Yugoslavia: Prisoners of Conscience (London:Amnesty International, 1985), p. 6.

17. Vickers, Between Serb and Albanian, p. 182.18. See Ivanka Nedeva, ‘Kosovo/a: Different Perspectives’, in Thanos Veremis

and Evangelos Kofos (eds), Kosovo: Avoiding Another Balkan War (Athens:Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy, 1998), p. 104.

19. Branka Magas, ‘Yugoslavia: The Spectre of Balkanization’, New Left Review,174, March–April 1974.

20. Dennison Rusinow, Yugoslavia: A Fractured Federalism (Washington, DC:Wilson Centre Press, 1988), p. 70.

21. Ivanka Nedeva, ‘Kosovo/a: Different Perspectives’, p. 104.22. Fred Singleton, A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1985), p. 273.23. For a detailed analysis on the student unrest in 1981 see Julie A. Mertus,

Kosovo: How Myths and Truths Started a War (Berkeley: University of CaliforniaPress, 1999), pp. 17–95.

24. Malcolm, Kosovo, p. 335.25. Vjesnik (Zagreb), 16 April 1981.26. Mertus, Kosovo, p. 33.27. Ibid., p. 33.28. Tanjug cited by Vickers, Between Serb and Albanian, p. 201.29. Vickers, Between Serb and Albanian, p. 198.30. See Mertus, Kosovo, pp. 56–91.31. Pajazit Nushi, ‘The Phenomenon of Military-Police Violence in Kosova in

the Years 1981–1992’, in Jusuf Bajraktari, Lefter Nasi, Kristaq Prifti, FatmirSejdiu, Edi Shukriu and Pellumb Xhufi (eds), The Kosova Issue – a Historic andCurrent Problem (Tirana: Institute of History – Pristina and Institute ofHistory – Tirana, 1996), p. 150.

32. Amnesty International, Yugoslavia: Prisoners of Conscience (London: AmnestyInternational, 1985), p. 12.

33. Christine von Kohl and Wolfgang Libal, ‘Kosovo: The Gordian Knot of theBalkans’, in Robert Elsie (ed.), Kosovo: In the Heart of the Powderkeg (Boulder:East European Monographs, 1997), p. 75.

34. Mertus, Kosovo, p. 43.35. Oskar Gruenwald, ‘Yugoslavia’s Gulag Archipelago and Human Rights’,

in Oskar Gruenwald and Karen Rosenblum-Cale (eds), Human Rights inYugoslavia (New York: Irvington Publishers, 1986), p. 19

36. Malcolm, Kosovo, p. 339.37. Ibid., p. 339.38. Mertus, Kosovo, p. 107. A favoured Ottoman method of execution was to

impale the victim on a stake driven through the anus, up the back and outagain at the neck. The victim would be impaled in public and would die aslow and painful death. Most Serbs are very familiar with the horrors ofimpalement thanks to the graphic description of such an execution in IvoAndric, The Bridge on the Drina (London: The Harvill Press, 1995).

39. Speech by Vuk Draskovic, 7 April 1986. Cited by Robert Thomas, Serbia underMilosevic: Politics in the 1990s (London: Hurst and Co., 1999), p. 39.

40. Cited in ibid., p. 41.41. Malcolm, Kosovo, pp. 344–5.42. Esat Stavileci, ‘Constitutional Changes and the Abolition of Autonomy’, in

Jusuf Bajraktari et al. (eds), The Kosova Issue, p. 155.

216 Notes

43. On the extent of the parallel state see: Richard Caplan, ‘InternationalDiplomacy and the Crisis in Kosovo’, International Affairs, 74(2), p. 451.

44. Guardian, 26 July 1994. For more on Rugova’s political platform see: IbrahimRugova, La Question du Kosovo (Paris: Fayard, 1994).

45. von Kohl and Libal, ‘Kosovo’, p. 93.46. Ibid.47. See International Crisis Group, Kosovo Briefing, 17 February 1998, p. 5.48. von Kohl and Libal, ‘Kosovo’, p. 93.49. Ibid., p. 94.50. Behlull Beqaj cited by International Crisis Group, Kosovo Spring, part 1,

20 March 1998.51. Elez Biberaj, ‘Kosova: The Balkan Powder Keg’, Conflict Studies, 258, February

1993, p. 7.52. Human Rights Watch, Humanitarian Law Violations in Kosovo (London:

Human Rights Watch, 1999), p. 66.53. International Crisis Group, Kosovo Spring, p. 8.54. Vickers, Between Serb and Albanian, p. 284.55. See International Crisis Group, Kosovo Spring, p. 9.56. Amnesty International, Kosovo: The Evidence (London: Amnesty International,

1998), p. 29.57. Ibid.58. These observations and figures are cited in International Crisis Group,

Kosovo Briefing, pp. 16–17.59. Rilindja, 12 November 1995.60. Malcolm, Kosovo, p. 345.61. International Crisis Group, Kosovo Briefing, p. 6.62. International Crisis Group, Kosovo Spring, p. 34.63. Ibid.64. International Herald Tribune, 20 January 1994.65. Guardian, 19 September 1994.66. Ibid.67. Ibrahim Rugova, Impact International, 10 April–7 May 1992, p. 10.

Chapter 1: Kosovo and the Dissolution of Yugoslavia

1. See Patrick F. R. Artisien and R. A. Howells, ‘Kosovo, Albania and the KosovoRiots’, The World Today, November 1981; Mark Baskin, ‘Crisis in Kosovo’,Problems of Communism, March–April 1983; and Viktor Meier, ‘Yugoslavia’sNational Question’, Problems of Communism, March–April 1983. Specificallyon the 1981 student riots see Jens Reuter, Die Albaner in Jugoslawien (Munich:R. Oldenbourg, 1992); Kjell Magnusson, ‘The Serbian Reaction: Kosovo and Ethnic Mobilization Among the Serbs’, Nordic Journal of Soviet and EastEuropean Studies, 4(3), 1987.

2. Daily Telegraph, 27 February 1990.3. The Times, 23 March 1990; The Daily Telegraph, 7 September 1990; The

Financial Times, 6 September 1990.4. On the European Parliament visit see FBIS, Daily Survey: Eastern Europe

(FBIS-EEU-89-125), 30 June 1989, pp. 74–6.

Notes 217

5. EC Bulletin 3-1991, p. 70.6. International Herald Tribune, 24 November 1991.7. Section 862 of House Resolution 2655, 29 June 1989. Congressional Record,

29 June 1989.8. For example see, Laura Silber and Allan Little, The Death of Yugoslavia

(London: Penguin for the BBC, 1995); Viktor Meier, Yugoslavia: A History ofIts Demise (London: Routledge, 1999); Mihailo Crnobrnja, The YugoslavDrama (London: IB Tauris, 1994).

9. FBIS, Daily Report: Eastern Europe (FBIS-EEU-89-131), 11 July 1989, p. 61.10. The Times, 13 April 1990.11. The Financial Times, 4 September 1990.12. See Susan Woodward, Balkan tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War

(Washington: The Brookings Institution, 1995), p. 151.13. International Herald Tribune, 29 November 1990.14. Woodward, Balkan Tragedy, pp. 160–1.15. The Financial Times, 22 May 1991.16. Wayne Bert, The Reluctant Superpower: United States’ Policy in Bosnia, 1991–95

(London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1997), p. 136.17. Independent, 29 March 1991.18. The Times, 7 December 1991.19. Zeljan Suster, Historical Dictionary of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

(Lanham: Scarecrow, 1999), p. 392.20. For a persuasive critique of Resolution 713 and its impact on the war in

Bosnia see, Michael A. Sells, The Bridge Betrayed: Religion and Genocide inBosnia (London: University of California, 1996); and Ed Vulliamy, Seasons in Hell: Understanding Bosnia’s War (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994).

21. USIA: European Wireless File, 9 December 1991.22. Ibid.23. International Herald Tribune, 19 March 1991.24. USIA: European Wireless Brief, 18 October 1991.25. See Thomas Halverson, ‘American Perspectives’, in Alex Danchev and

Thomas Halverson (eds), International Perspectives on the Yugoslav Conflict(London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1996), pp. 4–6.

26. The German position is well documented. For example see, Jean-Marie Calic,‘German Perspectives’, in Danchev and Halverson (eds), InternationalPerspectives on the Yugoslav Conflict for a first-hand perspective on this seeMichael Libal, Limits of Persuasion: Germany and the Yugoslav Crisis:1991–1992 (London: Praeger, 1997). For a xenophobic Serbian view of theAustrian and Hungarian positions see John Zametica, ‘The Dissolution ofYugoslavia’, Adelphi Paper, 270, 1992. For a more judicious assessment seeChristopher Cviic , Remaking the Balkans (London: Royal Institute ofInternational Affairs, 1991), pp. 97–9.

27. The Financial Times, 31 May 1990.28. The Financial Times, 20 March 1990.29. Independent, 20 March 1991.30. See Lenard J. Cohen, Broken Bonds: Yugoslavia’s Disintegration and Balkan

Politics in Transition, 2nd edn (Boulder: Westview, 1995), p. 72.31. International Herald Tribune, 6 and 9 November 1991, International Herald

Tribune, 3 December 1991.

218 Notes

32. See James Gow, Triumph of the Lack of Will: International Diplomacy and theYugoslav Wars (London: Hurst and Co., 1997), p. 53.

33. EPC Statement, 3 September 1991, EC Bulletin 9-91, p. 63.34. Ibid., p. 65.35. Paragraph Four of the Introductory Part of the Constitution of the Socialist

Autonomous Province of Kosovo, 1974. Like many documents used in thisbook, I take this from Marc Weller, The Crisis in Kosovo 1989–1999: From the Dissolution of Yugoslavia to Rambouillet and the Outbreak of Hostilities(Cambridge: Cambridge Documents and Analysis Part 1, 1999), p. 58.

36. See Steve Terrett, The Dissolution of Yugoslavia and the Badinter ArbitrationCommission: A Contextual Study of Peace-Making Efforts in the Post-Cold WarWorld (Dartmouth: Ashgate, 2000), pp. 78–9.

37. European Parliament Resolution, 11 September 1991, EC Bulletin 9-1991, p. 48.

38. For an excellent account of Kosovar Albanian responses to Serb oppressionsee Howard Clark, Civil Resistance in Kosovo (London: Pluto, 2000)

39. Author’s interview with Lord Carrington, Bledlow, 15 December 2000.40. Author’s interview with Lord Owen, London, 5 October 2000.41. Cited by Laura Silber and Allan Little, The Death of Yugoslavia (London:

Penguin for the BBC, 1995), p. 213.42. IWPR Balkan Crisis Report, No. 209, 15 January 2001, p. 4.43. Libal, Limits of Persuasion, pp. 29–30.44. EPC Press Release, P. 128/9145. Uti Posseditis is a legal principle formulated during the decolonisation

process. It states that existing borders cannot be changed during thedecolonisation process, unless by consent of the parties involved. See SKNBlay, ‘Self-Determination Versus Territorial Integrity in Decolonisation’, New York University Journal of International Law and Politics, 18, 1985–86.

46. See Marc Weller, ‘The International Response to the Dissolution of the SFRY’,American Journal of International Law, 86, 1992.

47. Guardian, 18 January 1992.48. See ibid.49. For an outline of the principle of territoriality as a basic element of state-

hood see Joseph Frankel, International Relations in a Changing World (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 20.

50. Declaration by the Twelve on Yugoslavia (Extraordinary EPC Ministerialmeeting, Brussels, 16 December 1991), Sp. St/LON/164/91. Text from theFrench Embassy in London.

51. See Vickers, Between Serb and Albanian, p. 251.52. Letter from Dr Ibrahim Rugova to Lord Carrington, Peace Conference on

Yugoslavia, 22 December 1991. Reproduced in Weller, The Crisis in Kosovo1989–1999, p. 81.

53. Interview with Lord Carrington, Bledlow, 15 December 2000.54. Terrett, The Dissolution of Yugoslavia, p. 121.55. Ibid., p. 124.56. Ibid., p. 125.57. See Michael Craven, ‘The European Community Arbitration Commission on

Yugoslavia’, British Yearbook of International Law, 66, 1995.58. Terrett, The Dissolution of Yugoslavia, p. 125.

Notes 219

59. Quoted by ibid., p. 143.60. Para. 2c of Opinion no. 1 of the Arbitration Commission on the former

Yugoslavia, 11 January 1992.61. Para 3, ibid.62. First opinion of Opinion no. 2 of the Arbitration Commission on the former

Yugoslavia, 11 January 1992.63. Opinion 2, ibid.64. Tim Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge (London: Yale University Press,

2000), p. 92.65. Letter from Lord Carrington, Chairman, Conference on Yugoslavia, to

Cr. I. Rugova, 17 August 1992. From Weller, The Kosovo Crisis, p. 86.66. Robert Thomas, Serbia under Milosevic : Politics in the 1990s (London: Hurst

and Co., 1999), pp. 121–9.67. Silber and Little, The Death of Yugoslavia, p. 289.68. More on the Mission’s terms of reference are included below. The expulsion

of the Mission is dealt with in the following chapter.69. Weller, The Kosovo Crisis, pp. 76–7.70. London International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia, Work Pro-

gramme, 27 August 1992. From Weller, The Kosovo Crisis, p. 89.71. RFE/RL Research Reports, 2(44), 1993.72. Report of the Secretary-General on the International Conference on the

Former Yugoslavia, 11 November 1992. From Weller, The Kosovo Crisis, p. 90.73. Author’s interview with Hydajet Hyseni, former political prisoner, LDK

activist and subsequent Kosovar delegate at Rambouillet, Pristina, 7 January2001.

74. For the reaction of the Serbian delegation see Miodrag Perisic , ‘On the Stateof Affairs in Kosovo and Metohija’, CSCE/91-07-17.DOC/3. The report of theCSCE meeting of experts is reprinted in Arie Bloed, The Conference on Securityand Cooperation in Europe: Analysis and Basic Documents (London: Kluwer LawInternational, 1993), pp. 593–602.

75. See Stefan Troebst, Conflict in Kosovo: Failure of Prevention? An AnalyticalDocumentation, 1992–1998 (Brussels: ECMI Working Paper 1, 1998), p. 12.

76. Committee of Senior Officials Statement on the Former Yugoslavia, 20 May1992. The Yugoslav response is included in this text as an interpretive state-ment. From Weller, The Crisis in Kosovo, p. 94.

77. Report of the Conflict Prevention Centre Fact-Finding Mission to Kosovo, 5 June 1992. From Weller, The Crisis in Kosovo, pp. 102–4.

78. Decisions of the Committee of Senior Officials, Helsinki, 8/10 June 1992.From Weller, The Crisis in Kosovo, pp. 94–5.

79. Declaration on the Yugoslav Crisis, Adopted by the CSCE Summit, Helsinki,10 July 1992. From Snezana Trifunovska, Yugoslavia Through Documents:From Its Creation to Its Dissolution (London: Martinus Nijhoff, 1994), p. 648.

80. The Helsinki Final Act, which is a statement of common principles thatunderlie the CSCE consists of three ‘baskets’ on politico-military aspects ofsecurity (basket 1), co-operation in economics, sciences etc. (basket 2), andco-operation in humanitarian affairs, including human rights (basket 3). SeeOrganisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe Handbook, 3rd edn (Vienna:OSCE, 2000), p. 10.

81. Decisions of the Committee of Senior Officials, Prague, 13–14 August 1992.

220 Notes

82. Tore Bøgh, ‘Interim Report from the Head of Mission to Kosovo, Sandzakand Vojvodina’, Belgrade, 27 September 1992.

83. Ibid.84. Interim Report from the Head of the Mission of Long Duration,

27 September 1992.85. Philip E. Auerswald and David P. Auerswald (eds), The Kosovo Conflict:

A Diplomatic History Through Documents (The Hague: Kluwer Law International,2000), p. 65.

86. Text from the Washington Post, 18 April 1999.87. Written answers from Thomas Niles, Assistant Secretary, Bureau of European

and Canadian Affairs (1991–March 1993) to the author, 28 December 2000.88. Author’s interview with Sylejman Selimi, Pristina, 7 January 2001.89. A similar previous attempt to confiscate arms by the Yugoslav authorities

had provoked conflict in Kosovo immediately after the Second World War.Malcolm, Kosovo: A Short History, pp. 320–1.

90. Supplemental written answer to the author by Thomas Niles, 29 December2000.

91. Written answers to the author by Thomas Niles, 28 December 2000.92. Ibid., and written answers to the author from Nicholas Rostow, National

Security Committee Member at the time, 15 December 2000.93. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, pp. 73–4.

Chapter 2: The Absence of Prevention

1. Cited in The Times, 13 May 1993.2. See Abiodun Williams, Preventing War: The United Nations and Macedonia

(Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000).3. A body that did not survive the transition from CSCE to OSCE. See the OSCE

Handbook 2000 (Vienna: OSCE, 2000), p. 194.4. Testimony of Daniel Plesch, Director of the British–American Security

Information Council, to the United States Congress Armed Services Com-mittee, House of Representatives, on ‘Bosnia and the former Yugoslavia’, 26 May 1993.

5. CSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, ‘Final Report of the CSCE Elections Mission to Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)’, 7 January 1993, p. 1.

6. Ibid., p. 4.7. CSCE Mission to Kosovo, Sandzak, and Vojvodina, ‘Special Report: Kosovo: –

Problems and Prospects’, 29 June 1993.8. Ibid.9. International Herald Tribune, 19 May 1993.

10. Other NGOs involved included Médecins du Monde, Médecins sansFrontières, and Mercy Corps. See Clark, Civil Resistance in Kosovo, p. 90.

11. United Kingdom House of Commons Select Committee on Foreign Affairs,Appendices to the Minutes of Evidence. Supplementary Memorandum sub-mitted by the British Council, 7 June 2000.

12. Author’s interview with Lord Owen, 5 October 2001 and Geert Ahrens, 27 October 2001.

Notes 221

13. Lenard J. Cohen, Serpent in the Bosom: The Rise and Fall of Slobodan Milosevic(Boulder, Westview, 2000), p. 167.

14. Ibid. and Thomas, Serbia under Milosevic , p. 143.15. Savovic reported by Tanjug. Recorded in BASIC Reports, 32, 9 July 1993, p. 1.16. Quoted in Ibid.17. Ibid.18. Ibid.19. I am grateful to Stuart Griffin for bringing this to my attention. See Arie

Bloed (ed.), The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe: BasicDocuments 1993–1995 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1997), pp. 57–9.

20. Independent, 15 October 1993.21. Ibid.22. Guardian, 8 December 1993.23. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 11 August 1993.24. Guardian, 2 September 1993.25. Ibid.26. Guardian, 8 December 1993.27. The Times, 10 April 1993.28. USIS Reference Center, European Wireless File, 14 April 1993.29. The Times, 8 October 1993.30. Daily Telegraph, 5 November 1993.31. See Holbrooke, To End a War, p. 88.32. According to Holbrooke, ‘… Milosevic hated the sanctions. They hurt his

country, and he wanted them lifted’ ibid. Also see Thomas, Serbia underMilosevic , ch. 17 in particular, pp. 176–87.

33. See, ‘Working Group on Ethnic and National Communities and Minorities’,Background Briefing on 6 October 1992 by Ambassador Geert Ahrens, in B. G. Ramcharan (ed.), The International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia:Official Papers (The Hague: Kluwer International Law, 1997), Volume 2, p. 1603.

34. Chairman’s report of 14 September 1993 to the steering committee on theformer Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, in ibid., p. 1607.

35. Ibid., p. 1613. Also see Thanos Veremis and Evangelos Kofos (eds), Kosovo:Avoiding Another Balkan War (Athens: ELIAMEP and University of Athens,1998), pp. 164–5.

36. Ibid.37. Ibid.38. BASIC Reports, 32, 9 July 1993.39. Author’s interview with Lord Owen, 5 October 2001.40. S/PV.3662. 9 August 1993.41. UN Security Council Resolution 855 (1993).42. International Herald Tribune, 3 March 1993.43. Warren Christopher, transcript of 10 February 1993 news conference,

European Wireless File News Alert, 11 February 1993. Emphasis added.44. Statement by Warren Christopher to the North Atlantic Council, 11 June

1993. European Wireless File News Alert, 12 June 1993.45. Testimony of Stephen Oxman at a CSCE Commission hearing on 21 July

1993. European Wireless File News Alter, 22 July 1993.46. See Ivo Daalder, Getting to Dayton (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institu-

tion, 2000).

222 Notes

47. Robert D. Kaplan, Balkan Ghosts: A Journey Through History (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993).

48. President Clinton remarks at a ‘Town Meeting’, Southfield, Michigan, 10 February 1993, in United States Information Centre: London, Yugoslavia: A Document Collection, 1993 (pages are unnumbered).

49. Bosnet, 18 November 1993.50. David Warsawski, ‘Will to Disaster: Interview with Tadeusz Mazowiecki’, in

Index on Censorship, 5, 1995.51. Ibid.52. Fabian Schmidt, ‘Strategic Reconciliation in Kosovo’, Transitions, 1(15),

1995.53. Guardian, 1 June 1994.54. Delegation of the CSCE Parliamentary Assembly Report to the Third Annual

Session, Vienna, 5–8 June 1994, para. 1.3.1.55. Report of the Special Rapporteurs and Representatives, UN General

Assembly, A/49/641.S/1994/1252, 4 November 1994.56. They were: United States, Russia, United Kingdom, France, Germany, and

Italy. Italy was not an original member of the Group but successfully lobbiedfor inclusion in 1995. The Contact Group was formed at the beginning ofthe Bosnian war to provide a focal point for international peace efforts.

57. USIA, European Wireless File News Alert, 16 February 1995.58. Bøgh was interviewed by the independent Pristina daily, Koha Ditore,

9 March 1995.59. General Assembly Resolution 1994/204, A/RES/49/204, 23 December 1994.60. Warsawski, ‘Will to Disaster: Interview with Tadeusz Mazowiecki’.61. See Alex J. Bellamy, ‘Human Wrongs in Kosovo 1974–99’, in Ken Booth (ed.),

The Kosovo Tragedy: The Human Rights Dimensions (London: Frank Cass,2000).

62. Letter from the Permanent Representative of Albania to the President of theUnited Nations Security Council, 15 August 1995. S/1995/700. Also see, The Times, 22 August 1995; Independent, 16 August 1995 and the InternationalHerald Tribune, 12 August 1995.

63. Letter from the Permanent Mission of the FRY to the Chairman of theCommission on Human Rights, 19 April 1996. E/CN.4/1996/167 and Letterfrom the Ambassador of the FRY to the Chairman of the Commission onHuman Rights, 9 March 1995. E/CN.4/1995/171.

64. Malcolm, Kosovo, p. 353.65. Peter Koijmans, ‘The Sole Solution’ in Ger Duijzings, Dusan Janjic and

Shkëlzen Maliqi (eds), Kosovo–Kosova: Confrontation or Coexistence (Nijmegen:University of Nijmegen, 1997), p. 212.

66. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 138.67. Ibid., p. 124.68. Ibid.69. Holbrooke, To End a War, p. 234.70. The Financial Times, 29 December 1995.71. Guardian, 23 November 1995.72. International Herald Tribune, 23 October 1995.73. Recommendation 1288 of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of

Europe, 24 January 1996.

Notes 223

74. Troebst, Conflict in Kosovo, p. 44.75. The Financial Times, 15 March 1996; Tanjug, 6 March 1996; Tanjug, 14 July

1996.76. Tanjug, 14 July 1996.77. Tanjug, 13 July 1996.78. OMRI, 1(6), 13 February 1996.79. Ibid.80. Author’s interview with Geert Ahrens, 27 October 2001.81. Tanjug, 5 March 1996.82. Balkan Peace Team, Kosovo after the Dayton Agreement, April/May 1996, p. 1

(www.peacebridges.org).83. Ibid.84. International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights, The Situation in the

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Vienna, 1996.85. Shinasa A. Rama, ‘The Serb–Albanian War and the Miscalculations of the

International Community’, International Journal of Albanian Studies, 2(1),1998, p. 9.

86. Ibid.87. Troebst, Conflict in Kosovo, p. 59.88. Tanjug, 29 February 1996 and 9 July 1996.89. Reported by Politika Ekspress, 16 July 1996. Similar views were expressed by

Klaus Kinkel and Bill Clinton. See Ben Lombardi, ‘Kosovo – Introduction toYet Another Balkan Problem’, European Security 5(2), 1996.

90. OMRI, 1(41), 15 October 1996.91. Reported by Reuters, 6 June 1996.92. The use of the centre for covert intelligence gathering was highlighted to

the author in private conversation with undisclosable sources. Its use foropen source information gathering is discussed by Vickers, Between Serb andAlbanian, p. 297.

93. OMRI, Special Report, 3 September 1996.94. The translation of the agreement can be found in Philip Auerswald and

David Auerswald (eds), The Kosovo Conflict, p. 79.95. Independent, 8 July 1996.96. AIM, Belgrade, 11 October 1996.97. United Nations General Assembly, Report of the Secretary-General,

A/52/502, 12 December 1996.98. Mr. Roseta, ‘The Peace Process in the Balkans’, report submitted to the

Assembly of the Western European Union, 15 October 1996, Document 1540.99. Tanjug, 15 January 1997.

100. Cited by Troebst, Conflict in Kosovo, p. 61.101. Ibid.102. Auerswald and Auerswald, The Kosovo Conflict, p. 85 and pp. 86–9.103. Tanjug, 10 April 1997; Alex Heraclides, ‘The Kosovo Conflict and its

Resolution: In Pursuit of Ariadne’s Thread’, Security Dialogue, 28(3), 1998;European Action Council for Peace in the Balkans and Public InternationalLaw and Policy Group (of the Carnegie Endowment for InternationalPeace), Kosovo: From Crisis to a Permanent Solution, 1997, p. 7.

104. This, and the following account of the descent into anarchy in Albania, istaken from Miranda Vickers, The Albanians, pp. 244–8.

224 Notes

105. Troebst, Conflict in Kosovo, p. 51.106. Final Communiqué of the Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic

Council, Brussels, 16 December 1997, para. 17.107. RFE/ERL, 31 December 1997.108. Nasa Borba, 1 December 1997. The initiative is also discussed by Troebst,

Conflict in Kosovo, p. 70.

Chapter 3: Towards Intervention

1. This argument was put forward throughout the BBC’s landmark documen-tary on the Kosovo crisis, Moral Combat, first broadcast on 27 March 2000.

2. The dilemmas confronting international society with regards to Kosovo at the outset of 1998 are outlined in S. C. Chopra, ‘Kosovo – Will NATOIntervene to Break Up Serbia’, USI Journal, 533, 1998.

3. On the upsurge of violence in March 1998 see, ‘A Balkan intifada inKosovo?’, IISS Strategic Comments, 4(2), 1998 and Jonathan Steele, ‘Learningto Live with Milosevic’, Transitions, 5, September 1998.

4. For an excellent history of the UÇK see Maj. Ben Farrell, The UÇK: A Casefor the Second Transformation, Defence Research Paper, 2001, held at theLibrary of the Joint Services Command and Staff College. Also see, RobertThomas, ‘Choosing the Warpath’, The World Today, May 1998. Accordingto Veton Surroi, ‘the Drenica uprising [1998] and the war that followeddemonstrated two basic things to the Kosovar Albanians. It became clear,first, that the self-illusion of a state was not sufficient to create one, partic-ularly since the Dayton agreement precluded any further advance withoutviolence …’. See Veton Surroi, ‘Kosovo Political Life: Past as Prologue?’, TheInternational Spectator, 35(1), 2000, p. 30.

5. According to Bill Clinton, lessons were learned from Bosnia. ‘We learnedthat if you don’t stand up to brutality and the killing of innocent people,you invite the people who do it to do more of it. We learned that firmnesscan save lives and stop armies. Now we have a chance to take the lessonswe learned in Bosnia and put them to work in Kosovo before it’s too late …’cited by Rhiannon Vickers, ‘Blair’s Kosovo Campaign: Political Communi-cations, the Battle for Public Opinion and Foreign Policy’, Civil Wars, 3(1),2000, p. 56.

6. On the importance of containment for Western policy-makers see, R. CraigNation, ‘US Policy and the Kosovo Crisis’, The International Spectator, 33(4),1998; Alice Ackerman, ‘Macedonia and the Kosovo Conflict’, TheInternational Spectator, 33(4), 1998.

7. Richard Caplan’s ‘International Diplomacy and the Crisis in Kosovo’,International Affairs, 74(4), 1998, and Catherine Guicherd’s, ‘InternationalLaw and the War in Kosovo’, Survival, 41(2), 1999, pp. 19–34 are two notableexceptions.

8. The massacre at Donji Prekaz and similar attacks in Likosane and Cirez arereported in detail by Human Rights Watch, Humanitarian Law Violations inKosovo (London and New York: Human Rights Watch, 1999). The events atRacak will be discussed at greater length in Chapter 4.

Notes 225

9. See Thanos M. Veremis and Dimitrios Triantaphyllo (eds), The South-EastEuropean Yearbook 1997–8 (Athens: Hellenic Foundation for European andForeign Policy, 1998).

10. Statement by the Contact Group, 25 February 1998.11. The Times, 1 March 1998.12. Ivo H. Daalder and Michael E. O’Hanlon, Winning Ugly: NATO’s War to Save

Kosovo (New York: The Brookings Institution, 2000), p. 27.13. Weller, The Kosovo Crisis 1989–1999, p. 21.14. On Gelbard’s statement in Pristina see Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge,

p. 138. The State Department reiterated Gelbard’s argument in Departmentof State Press Statement, 2 March 1998.

15. Views privately expressed to the author.16. Excerpts from Press Briefing by Secretary of State Albright and Italian

Foreign Minister Dini, 7 March 1998.17. The Times, 3 March 1998.18. See James Pettifer in The Times, 3 March 1998. Pettifer is an internationally

renowned authority on the southern Balkans. See James Pettifer (ed.), TheNew Macedonian Question (London: Macmillan, 1999) and James Pettifer, The Southern Balkans (London: Minority Rights Group, 1994).

19. On the problems confronting Macedonia see Pettifer, The New MacedonianQuestion, Lt Col. Martin Van de Lande, The Macedonian Question, dissertationfor the degree of MPHIL, Cambridge University, 1999 and Gordana Icevska,‘Macedonia’s Open Wounds’, Transitions, 10(5), 1998.

20. UNPREDEP was the first preventive military mission undertaken by the UN.See Abiodun Williams, Preventing War: UNPREDEP in Macedonia (London:Rowman and Littlefield, 2000) and Alice Ackerman, Making Peace Prevail:Preventing Violent Conflict in Macedonia (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press,2000).

21. See Chapter 1: Alex J. Bellamy, ‘Human Wrongs in Kosovo 1974–99’, in KenBooth (ed.), The Kosovo Tragedy.

22. These reports are discussed in ibid. Also see Tim Judah, ‘Kosovo’s Road toWar’, Survival, 41(2), 1999.

23. The Times, 6 March 1998.24. Ibid.25. Reuters, 6 March 1998.26. See Thomas W. Lippman, Madeleine Albright and the New American Diplomacy

(Boulder: Westview, 2000), p. 214.27. Press briefing by Secretary of State Madeleine K. Albright and Foreign

Minister Lamberto Dini, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Rome, 7 March 1998.28. Albright in answer to questions, ibid.29. Klaus Kinkel, German Foreign Minister, press briefing with Secretary of State

Madeleine K. Albright, Bonn, 8 March 1998.30. Statement by the Contact Group, London, 9 March 1998.31. British Foreign Secretary Robin Cook in answer to Steve Erlanger from the

New York Times, 9 March 1998.32. See Lawrence Freedman and Efraim Karsh, The Gulf Conflict (London: Faber

and Faber, 1993), pp. 52–4.33. The Times, 11 March 1998.34. Quoted by Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 145.

226 Notes

35. Statement by the Contact Group, 25 March 1998, Bonn.36. See S/PV 3868 and SC/6496, 31 March 1998. Also see The Times, 27 March

1998.37. Statement by the Spokesman of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the

Russian Federation, 2 April 1998.38. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1160, 31 March 1998.39. Statement by the Federal Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Yugoslavia, 1 April

1998.40. See Statement by the Spokesman of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the

Russian Federation, 2 April 1998 and Memorandum by the RussianFederation, 14 April 1998.

41. Report of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, 20 April1998.

42. European Union Report, 21 April 1998. Annex to the United Nations PressRelease [S/1998/361] 30 April 1998.

43. RFE/ERL, 24 April 1998.44. The Times, 25 April 1998.45. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 153.46. For the best account of domestic politics in Serbia in the 1990s see Thomas,

Serbia under Milosevic .47. The Times, 26 April 1998.48. Report of the United Nations Secretary-General, Kofi Annan, to the Security

Council, 30 April 1998.49. The Times, 25 April 1998.50. Holbrooke interviewed by Ivo H. Daalder and Michael E. O’Hanlon, Winning

Ugly, pp. 38–9.51. Ibid.52. Comments taken from the Joint Press Conference by President Clinton and

Italian Prime Minister Prodi, Washington, DC, 6 May 1998.53. This story is recounted by Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, pp. 153–4.54. See Richard Caplan, ‘Christopher Hill’s Road Show’, The World Today,

January 1999.55. Jonathan Steele, ‘Learning to Live with Milosevic’, Transitions, 5(9), 1998

and Janusz Bugajski, ‘Close to the Edge in Kosovo’, The Washington Quarterly,21(3), 1998.

56. This idea was expressed to the author by Gordana Ciric from Novi SadUniversity.

57. Michael Ignatieff spent time travelling with Hill’s diplomatic team. SeeMichael Ignatieff, Virtual War: Kosovo and Beyond (London: Chatto andWindus, 2000).

58. Weller, The Crisis in Kosovo 1989–1999, p. 348.59. See Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 171.60. Opinions expressed to the author by UÇK regional commanders,

Selimi, Remy, and Leka. Similar views were expressed to the author byHydajet Hyseni, a former political prisoner and subsequent delegate atRambouillet.

61. A more detailed analysis of the Hill plan can be found in Marc Weller, ‘LegalOpinion on the Draft Proposal for a Settlement for Kosova’, Journal ofHumanitarian Assistance, October 1998.

Notes 227

62. Part II of the First [Hill] Draft Agreement for a Settlement of the Crisis inKosovo, 1 October 1998.

63. Chapter III of ibid.64. See chapter on Rambouillet.65. On the need for an OSCE contribution see OSCE Report, Annexed to the UN

Secretary-General’s report, 3 October 1998. In Marc Weller, The Crisis inKosovo 1989–1999, p. 350.

66. Figures taken from Briefing Notes provided for the Office of the UN HighCommissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Available at the UNHCR’s website(www.unhcr.org).

67. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge.68. Department of State Fact Sheet, 8 July 1998.69. Report by the United Nations Secretary-General, Kofi Annan, to the Security

Council, 4 June 1998.70. Letter from the President of the United States of America to Congress,

10 June 1998.71. Annex 5 to the Report by the United Nations Secretary-General, Kofi Annan,

to the Security Council, 2 July 1998.72. The Times, 4 June 1998.73. Decision of the North Atlantic Council, 1 June 1998.74. See Georgias Kostakos, ‘The Southern Flank: Italy, Greece, Turkey’, in

Albrecht Schnabel and Ramesh Thakur (eds), Kosovo and the Challenge ofHumanitarian Intervention: Selective Indignation, Collective Action andInternational Citizenship (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 2000).

75. See David Haglund, ‘Kosovo and the Case of the (not so) Free Riders:Portugal, Belgium, Canada and Spain’, in Schnabel and Thakur (eds), Kosovoand the Challenge of Humanitarian Intervention.

76. Kostakos, ‘The Southern Flank’.77. The Times, 6 June 1998.78. Private email to the author from a source in Whitehall.79. Washington Post, 6 June 1998.80. New York Times, 8 June 1998.81. New York Times, 5 August 1998.82. The Times, 8 June 1998.83. The Times, 9 June 1998.84. Ibid.85. Preamble to Security Council Resolution 1199, 23 September 1998.86. Statement by Secretary of State Albright, 23 September 1998.87. Remarks to the Press by Secretary of State Albright and Secretary of Defense

Cohen, Washington, DC, 1 October 1998.88. Statement by Russian Ambassador to the United Nations, Sergei Lavrov,

23 September 1998.89. Tim Youngs, ‘Kosovo’, House of Commons Research Paper, 98/73, 7 July 1998,

p. 26.90. The Times, 10 June 1998.91. Richard Holbrooke emphasises this point throughout his account of the

negotiations that brought about peace in Bosnia. See Richard Holbrooke, To End a War.

92. Ibid.

228 Notes

93. The Times, 11 June 1998.94. Guardian, 12 June 1998.95. Independent, 6 June 1998. Quoted by Youngs, ‘Kosovo’, p. 26. Editing is

Youngs’.96. Independent, 13 June 1998.97. UN Press Release, SG/SM/6583, 5 June 1998.98. Yurrii Davydov argues that Russian foreign policy is, ‘made not for external

but for internal use. In fact, it serves not the national interests of Russia onthe world stage but the interests of various political groups within Russia’spolitical elite’. The outburst of anti-NATO sentiment owed more to legit-imising political elites than to genuine concern about either Kosovo orRussian–NATO relations. See Yurrii Davydov, ‘The Kosovo Problem in theRussian Internal Political Context’, in Dmitri Trenin and YekaterinaStepanova (eds), Kosovo: The International Aspects of the Crisis (Moscow:Gandalf Press, 1999). Another account of Russia’s internal dilemmas inregard to the Kosovo crisis can be found in, Pavel K. Baev, ‘Russia’s StanceAgainst Secessions: From Chechnya to Kosovo’, International Peacekeeping, 6(3), 1999.

99. The Times, 9 June 1998 and The Economist, 13 June 1998.100. The Times, 3 June 1998.101. Ibid.102. RFE/ERL, 18 June 1998103. Ibid.104. Youngs, ‘Kosovo’, p. 28.105. The Times, 30 June 1998.106. The Times, 23–27 September 1998.107. According to Ted Galen Carpenter, ‘The arrogance of the United States and

its allies in bypassing the United Nations Security Council was especiallyinfuriating to critics’, in ‘Introduction’ to, Ted Galen Carpenter, NATO’sEmpty Victory: A Postmortem on the Balkan War (Washington, DC: The CatoInstitute, 2000).

108. In a profile of Milosevic , the Serbian writer Aleksa Djilas noted that,‘Milosevic is now one of the most mistrusted politicians in the world’.Aleksa Djilas, ‘A Profile of Slobodan Milosevic ’, Foreign Affairs, summer1993, p. 95.

109. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 182110. Ibid.111. Richard Holbrooke gave a similar account to the BBC documentary,

Moral Combat. This version is taken from Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 183.

Chapter 4: The Kosovo Verification Mission

1. The Times, 8 October 1998.2. See Holbrooke, To End a War, pp. 101–8.3. Atlantic News, 9 October 1998.4. Quoted in ibid.5. The Times, 8 and 9 October 1998.

Notes 229

6. Washington Post, 16 October 1998.7. Newsnight, 22 August 1999. Background details are taken from interviews

with Holbrooke and Short screened on the BBC’s Moral Combat.8. Ibid.9. This discussion is reported by Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 186.

10. Statement by the Secretary-General of NATO, Javier Solana, following thedecision on the Activation Order, 13 October 1998.

11. The Times, 12 October 1998.12. Richard Holbrooke in reply to questions, Department of State Press Release,

28 October 1998.13. Guardian, 15 October 1998 and Washington Post, 15 October 1998.14. President Milosevic announces accord on peaceful solution, Belgrade,

13 October 1998. Marc Weller, The Crisis in Kosovo, p. 279.15. Letter from the Ambassador of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the

Secretary-General of the United Nations, 23 October 1998.16. Ibid. Also see ‘Serbian Government Endorses Accord Reached by President

Milosevic, Belgrade, 13 October 1998’, in Weller, The Crisis in Kosovo, p. 279.17. Massimo Calabresi, ‘Third Time Lucky?’, Time, 26 October 1998.18. Yugoslav Daily Survey, 13 October 1998.19. Press Points by the NATO Secretary-General, 15 October 1998.20. NATO/FRY Kosovo Verification Mission Agreement, 15 October 1998.21. Agreement between the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Organization

for Security and Cooperation in Europe, 16 October 1998.22. These views were privately expressed to the author by British Foreign Office

officials.23. OSCE Newsletter, 5(10), October 1998.24. William Walker, ‘OSCE Verification Experiences in Kosovo’, in Booth (ed.),

The Kosovo Tragedy.25. Weller, The Kosovo Crisis, p. 187, n. 16.26. Paragraph 5, United Nations Security Council Resolution 1203, 24 October

1998.27. Remarks by Ambassador Richard Holbrooke, State Department Press Release,

28 October 1998.28. Ibid.29. Transcript of William Walker interview, 8 January 1999. USIS Washington

File.30. Diana Johnstone, ‘Humanitarian War: Making the Crime fit the Punishment’,

in Tariq Ali (ed.), Masters of the Universe? NATO’s Balkan Crusade (London:Verso, 2000).

31. Walker, ‘OSCE Verification Experiences’, pp. 128–9.32. Ibid.33. Ibid., p. 117.34. Walker, ‘OSCE Verification Experiences in Kosovo’, p. 131.35. Hansard, 19 October 1998, Line 962.36. Electronic Telegraph, 17 October 1998.37. Guardian, 27 October 1998.38. Tim Youngs, ‘Kosovo: The Diplomatic and Military Options’, House of

Commons Research Paper, 98/93, 1998, p. 20.

230 Notes

39. Electronic Telegraph, 21 October 1998.40. Ibid.41. Ibid.42. Electronic Telegraph, 29 October 1998.43. ‘War Suspended in Kosovo’, IISS Strategic Comments, 4(9), November 1998.44. James Gow, ‘Kosovo after the Holbrooke–Milosevic Agreement. What now?’,

The International Spectator, 33(4), 1998, pp. 21–2.45. Ibid.46. Brigadier General J. R. Michel Maisonneuve, ‘The OSCE Kosovo Verification

Mission’, Canadian Military Journal, 1(1), 2000.47. Ibid.48. Weller, The Crisis in Kosovo, p. 350. Remember that the first draft had left

Kosovo’s status within Yugoslavia undefined, on the principle that anautonomous Kosovo would not need a strong presence in Belgrade.

49. Ibid.50. Ibid.51. Ibid.52. Interview with President Slobodan Milosevic , 13 December 1998. Text

provided by Yugoslav Ministry of Foreign Affairs.53. Ibid.54. Kosova Press Release, 1 December 1998.55. Kosova Press Release, 8 December 1998.56. Kosova Press Release, 11 December 1998.57. Ibid.58. Gow, ‘Kosovo after the Holbrooke–Milosevic Agreement’, p. 22.59. Ibid.60. Electronic Telegraph, 12 November 1998.61. Electronic Telegraph, 10 November 1998.62. KVM Report to the UN Secretary-General, 4 December 1998.63. Ibid.64. This story was reported by Electronic Telegraph, 11 December 1998.65. Electronic Telegraph, 16 December 1998. These events were also reported in

detail in the UN Inter-Agency Update on Kosovo Humanitarian Situation, 24 December 1998.

66. Electronic Telegraph, 25 December 1998.67. Kosova Information Centre daily report, 25 December 1998.68. Guardian, 5 January 1999.69. Ibid.70. Ibid.71. International Herald Tribune, 6 January 1999.72. Guardian, 7 January 1999.73. Ibid.74. Much of the following is derived from reports by the OSCE KVM, ‘Massacre

of Civilians in Racak’ (www.osce.org), Helsinki Human Rights Watch(www.hrw.org), International Committee of the Red Cross (www.icrc.org),Society for Threatened Peoples, Amnesty International (www.amnesty.org)and the Finnish EU pathologists report written by Helena Ranta, the head ofthe team. The pathology report can be seen in Weller, The Kosovo Crisis,

Notes 231

p. 333. It is important to go into such detail because the incident at Racakhas been the source of much debate in the West relating to the merits ofAllied Force.

75. Walker, ‘OSCE Verification Experiences in Kosovo’, note 10, pp. 141–2.76. Washington Post, 17 January 1999.77. Report of the Independent Pathologists, in Weller, The Kosovo Crisis, p. 333.78. It is interesting to note that the professional credibility of the Finnish

pathologists has never been questioned by the Serbs.79. This insights from various sources have been collated by the Society for

Threatened Peoples at www.gfbv.de80. See Johnstone, ‘Humanitarian War’, p. 163 and Edward Herman and David

Peterson, ‘CNN: Selling NATO’s War Globally’, in Philip Hammond andEdward S. Herman, Degraded Capability: The Media and the Kosovo Crisis(London: Pluto Press, 2000), pp. 117–19.

Chapter 5: From Rambouillet to Paris

1. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 1972. UK House of Commons Defence Committee Report, para. 47.3. The Times, 18 January 1998.4. Briefing at NATO HQ, Brussels, 17 January 1998.5. This insight comes from the author’s discussions with KVM verifiers.6. UK House of Commons Defence Committee report, para. 47.7. Ibid.8. Sandy Vershbow, BBC, Today, 19 January 1999. Transcript edited by author.9. The Times, 20 January 1999.

10. Daalder and O’Hanlon, Winning Ugly, p. 70.11. Ibid.12. Ibid.13. Le Figaro, 7 April 1999.14. In Le Monde, 14 April 1999.15. See Gunter Hofmann, ‘Wie Deutschland in den Krieg geriet’, Die Zeit, 20,

1999, pp. 17–21.16. According to sources in the British Ministry of Defence.17. UK House of Commons Defence Committee Report, para 40.18. Excerpts from remarks by Secretary of State Albright, 4 February 1999.19. Author’s discussions with State Department official.20. The Times, 25 January 1999.21. See Barton Gellman, ‘The Path to Crisis: How the United States and Its Allies

went to War’, Washington Post, 18 April 1999, A. 31.22. See Le Monde, 31 January 1999.23. These insights were provided in reports by the Carnegie Moscow Centre. See

www.carnegie.ru. Also see Mark Smith and Henry Platter-Zyberg, Kosovo:Russia’s Response (Camberley: Conflict Studies Resource Centre, 1999).

24. Statement by the Contact Group, 29 January 1999.25. Quoted in Guardian, 29 January 1999.26. United Nations Press Release (S/PRST/1999/5).

232 Notes

27. UK House of Commons Defence Committee Report, para 48.28. See ibid. and para 49.29. Washington Post, 1 February 1999.30. Danas, 1 February 1999.31. Letter from Yugoslav Foreign Minister Jovanovic to the President of the

United Nations Security Council, 1 February 1999.32. The Times, 3 February 1999.33. Independent, 3 February 1999.34. Tanjug, 6 February 1999.35. Tanjug, 5 February 1999.36. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 199.37. This story was widely recounted in the media, see Guardian, 7 February 1999

and New York Times, 7 February 1999.38. Marc Weller, ‘The Rambouillet Conference on Kosovo’, International Affairs,

75(2), 1999, p. 228.39. International Herald Tribune, 12 February 1999.40. Robin Cook, press conference, Rambouillet, 11 February 1999.41. The resident Serb delegation consisted of Cerim Abazi, Sokolj Cuse, Faik

Jasari, Ljuan Koka, Zejnclabidin Kurejs, Vladin Kutlesic , Ratko Markovic ,Guljbehar Sabovic , Nikola Sainovic , Kefik Senadovic , Vladimir Stambuk,Ihro Vait, and Vojislav Zivkovic . The Kosovar Albanian delegation consistedof Fehmi Agani, Idriz Ajeti, Ramë Buja, Bujar Bukoshi, Mehmet Hajriri,Xhavit Haliti, Hyadajet Hyseni, Bajram Kosumi, Jakup Krasniqi, RexhepQosja, Ibrahim Rugova, Blerim Shala, Veton Surroi, Azem Syla, Edita Tahiri,Hashim Thaçi. List taken from Weller, The Crisis in Kosovo 1989–1999.

42. Cited by ibid.43. See Georgios Kostakis, ‘The Southern Flank: Italy, Greece, Turkey’, in

Schnabel and Thakur (eds), Kosovo and the Challenge of HumanitarianIntervention (Tokyo: UN University Press, 2000).

44. UK House of Commons Defence Committee, para. 51.45. Weller, ‘The Rambouillet Conference’, p. 228.46. Author’s interview with Hydajet Hyseni and Sulejman Selimi, Pristina, 4 and

5 January 2001. Also, The Times, 8 February 1999.47. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 206.48. Robin Cook on BBC Radio 4, 9 February 1999.49. RFE/ERL 10 Feb 1999.50. Albright in interview on France 3, 11 February.51. Statement by the Serbian Delegation to Rambouillet, 11 February 1999.52. Statement by Serbian President Milutinovic , 12 February 1999.53. International Herald Tribune, 13 February 1999.54. The Times, 12–14 February 1999.55. Le Monde Diplomatique, 16 February 1999.56. New York Times, 9 and 11 February 1999.57. International Herald Tribune, 16–17 February 1999.58. Weller, ‘The Rambouillet Conference’, p. 229.59. Authors interview with Hydajet Hyseni, Pristina, 4 January 2001.60. Weller, ‘The Rambouillet Conference’, p. 230.61. See Bellamy, ‘Reconsidering Rambouillet’.62. The Times, 19 February 1999.

Notes 233

63. Press Release Issued by the Co-Chairs to the Serbian Media, 18 February1999.

64. Author’s interview with Sulejman Selimi, 4 January 2001.65. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 214.66. See Weller, The Kosovo Crisis, p. 452. It was reported on the BBC’s Moral

Combat that Albright had personally delivered and signed the message. Theauthor’s interviews with delegates at Rambouillet suggests that this was notthe case.

67. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 217.68. Ibid.69. Full text provided in Philip Auerswald and David Auerswald, The Kosovo

Conflict, p. 592.70. Federal Government of Yugoslavia Press Statement, 25 February 1999.71. The Washington Post, 26 February 1999.72. Ibid.73. Koha Ditore, 25 February 1999.74. Politika, 2 March 1999.75. The Times, 3 March 1999.76. Letter from the OSCE Chairman-in-Office to the Secretary-General of the

UN, 20 March 1999. Reproduced in Weller, The Crisis in Kosovo, p. 338.77. Ibid.78. Independent, 11 March 1999.79. Tony Blair lecture to the Royal United Service Institute, 3 March 1999. This

speech was widely reported in the media. See for example, Guardian, 4 March1999 and New York Times, 6 March 1999.

80. Ibid.81. Der Speigel, 4 March 1999.82. The Times, 5 March 1999.83. Both quotes are taken from Daalder and O’Hanlon, Winning Ugly, p. 87.84. The Times, 14 March 1999.85. Quoted in Evening Standard, 16 March 1999.86. New York Times, 15 March 1999.87. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 223.88. Ibid., p. 222.89. Department of State Daily Press Briefing, Washington, DC, 18 March 1999.

In Weller, The Crisis in Kosovo, p. 491.90. Reuters, 18 March 1999.91. Milan Milutinovic Press Conference, Centre Kléber, Paris, 18 March 1999.92. Vecernje Nevosti, 17 March 1999.93. Operation Horseshoe is discussed in greater length in the following chapter.94. The Times, 21 March 1999.95. The Times, 23 March 1999.96. This interview was given to the BBC, for their documentary Moral Combat.

It is also cited in Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 227.97. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 227.98. General Wesley K. Clark, Waging Modern War (New York: Public Affairs,

2002), see ch. 6.99. Barry R. Posen, ‘The War for Kosovo: Serbia’s Political–Military Strategy’,

International Security 24(4), 2000, p. 39.

234 Notes

Chapter 6: NATO Goes to War

1. For a good evaluation of the war see Daniel L. Byman and Matthew C.Waxman, ‘Kosovo and the Great Air Power Debate’, International Security, 24(4), 2000.

2. General Wesley K. Clark, Waging Modern War (New York: Public Affairs,2001), p. 109.

3. Susan Woodward argues that it was the other way around. She argued that,‘the goal of the campaign seemed to narrow from forcing compliance with the Rambouillet accords … to putting a stop to the “ethnic cleansing”,“violence”, and “repression”’. Once the campaign started very few leadersjustified it in terms of the Rambouillet negotiations and NATO’s five waraims lay ending the humanitarian catastrophe rather than enforcing a par-ticular political settlement. Susan L. Woodward, ‘Should We Think BeforeWe Leap? A Rejoinder’, Security Dialogue, 30(3), 1999, p. 278.

4. Guardian, 24 March 1999; Independent, 24 March 1999, The Times, 24 March1999.

5. Cited by The Times, 25 March 1999.6. Clark, Waging Modern War, p. 203.7. Der Speigel, 4 May 1999.8. Ibid.9. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 266.

10. Washington Post, 21 September 1999.11. Washington Post, 24 March 1999.12. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 269.13. Clark, Waging Modern War, p. 206.14. See Ripley, Operation Deliberate Force.15. Paraphrase of the five objectives. Objectives taken from the Statement of the

North Atlantic Council, 12 April 1999 (NATO press release 99-51).16. Clark, Waging Modern War, p. 183.The following quotes are also from this

section, pp. 183–4.17. Daalder and O’Hanlon, Winning Ugly, p. 103.18. Ibid.19. Author’s conversation with a Royal Air Force pilot involved throughout

Operation Allied Force.20. Albright commented that, ‘I don’t see this as a long-term operation’ while

Solana predicted that the war would be over before the NATO summit at theend of April. See Sean Kay, ‘After Kosovo: NATO’s Credibility Dilemma’,Security Dialogue, 31(1), 2000, pp. 72–3.

21. The British Harriers hit the same target on nights three and four, despite the fact that bomb damage assessment showed the target to have beendestroyed. Over the duration of the campaign that same target was hit fivetimes by the RAF. This shows that being seen to be participating was in manyways more important that what was actually being hit.

22. See Michael Ignatieff, Virtual War: Kosovo and Beyond (London: Chatto andWindus, 2000).

23. Daalder and O’Hanlon, Winning Ugly, p. 123.24. See Dick Leurdijk and Dick Zandee, Kosovo: From Crisis to Crisis (Aldershot:

Ashgate, 2001), p. 84.

Notes 235

25. Clark, Waging Modern War, p. 201.26. ABC News, 7 April 1999.27. Libération, 15 April 1999.28. See Barry R. Posen, ‘The War for Kosovo: Serbia’s Political–Military Strategy’,

International Security, 24(4), 2000.29. General Mike Willcocks recounted this episode to Judah, Kosovo: War and

Revenge, p. 209.30. The case was reported widely. See CNN, 26 March, Tanjug press release

26 March 1999 and Guardian, 27 March 1999.31. The background to this move was covered in some detail by the Italian

newspaper, La Stampa, 1 April 1999.32. This information came from unnamed sources in the Croatian Ministry of

Defence.33. BBC World Monitor, 6 April 1999.34. RFE/RL, 7 April 1999.35. Le Monde, 8 April 1999.36. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 24037. Eric Herring, ‘From Rambouillet to the Kosovo Accords: NATO’s War Against

Serbia and its Aftermath’, in Booth (ed.), The Kosovo Tragedy.38. See www.unhcr.ch/ – accessed on 14 May 1999.39. Author’s discussion with Violeta Hamidi, who was forced from her home in

Prisstina.40. See Lenard J. Cohen, Serpent in the Bosom: The Rise and Fall of Slobodan

Milosevic (Boulder: Westview, 2001).41. Washington Post, 1 April 1999, New York Times, 4 April 1999, and International

Herald Tribune, 5 April 1999.42. The Times, 5 April 1999.43. RFE/RL, 25 March 1999.44. La Republica, 26 March 1999.45. La Republica, 12 April 1999.46. La Republica, 24 March 1999; La Gazzetta del Mezzogiorno, 24 March 1999.47. The Times, 26 March 1999.48. Ibid.49. Institute of War and Peace Reporting (IWPR), 26 March 1999.50. Hindustan Times, 25 March 1999. I am grateful to Maj. Rohit Sawhney of the

Indian Army for bringing this passage to my attention.51. This dilemma confronted many states and recurs throughout the excellent

case studies contained in Schnabel and Thakur (eds), Kosovo and theChallenge of Humanitarian Intervention.

52. A good definition of the different phases of Allied Force is offered is offeredby the official Dutch lessons learned report, Kosovo evaluatie, available at thewebsite of the Dutch Ministry of Defence. Wesley Clark outlined his visionof phase one in NRC Handelsblad, 6 May 2000. NATO’s operational plan consisted of five phases in total:

Phase 0: The deployment of air assets.Phase 1: Establishment of air superiority over Kosovo and degrade air

defence and command and control over the whole FRY.Phase 2: Attack military targets inside Kosovo and military targets in

Southern Serbia (south of 44 degrees latitude).

236 Notes

Phase 3: Expand air operations against military and security targetsthroughout the FRY.

Phase 4: Redeploy forces as required.

See, William Cohen and Harry Shelton, ‘Joint Statement on the KosovoAfter-Action Review’, Lessons Learned from the Military Operations Conductedas Part of Operation Allied Force, Senate Armed Forces Committee, 106Congress, I session (14 October 1999), pp. 7–8.

53. Clark, Waging Modern War, p. 211.54. See Guardian, 28–29 March. The story was also covered in all major Western

newspapers.55. Clark, Waging War, p. 224.56. Ibid.57. See ibid and Leudijk and Zandee Kosovo: From Crisis to Crisis, p. 76, and

Daalder and O’Hanlon, Winning Ugly, p. 118.58. Daalder and O’Hanlon, Winning Ugly, p. 120.59. New York Times, 17 April 1999.60. See for example, Washington Post, 5 April 1999 and The Times, 15 April 1999.61. Kenneth Bacon in answer to press questions in the Department of Defence

daily briefing, 14 April 1999.62. Interviewed in Time, 2 April 1999.63. General Michael Rose writing in The Sunday Times, 11 April 1999.64. IWPR, 17 April 1999.65. These debates were captured well by Le Monde, which itself described Allied

Force as a ‘just war’. Le Monde, 7 April 1999.66. The Times, 3 April 1999.67. The extra troops were announced by Tony Blair to parliament on 13 April 1999.68. RFE/RL, 13 April 1999.69. See BBC Monitor of World News, 10 April 1999.70. The Times, 13 April 1999.71. Clark, Waging Modern War, pp. 299–301.72. Ibid., p. 303.73. Washington Post, 17 April 1999.74. Guardian, 7 April 1999. This case was not investigated in depth by either

Amnesty International or the ICTY, both of which conducted extensiveinvestigations of the legality of Allied Force.

75. Reuters, 24 April 1999.76. RFE/RL, 10 April 1999; and IWPR, 13 April 1999.77. RFE/RL, 17 April 1999.78. James Rubin confirmed in a press statement that satellite imaging had

shown that Russia was not making shipments to Yugoslavia. State Depart-ment press conference, 15 April 1999.

79. REF/RL, 17 April 1999.80. Tanjug, 6 April 1999.81. See Thomas, Serbia under Milosevic .82. Accounts of the Oslo meeting can be found from the American perspective

in the Washington Post, 14 April 1999.83. Quoted in The Times, 15 April 1999.84. Joe Lockhart in answer to questions at the White House press conference,

13 April 1999.

Notes 237

85. Le Monde, 14 April 1999.86. Tony Blair speech to the Economic Club of Chicago, 22 April 1999. Text

available from www.fco.gov.uk.87. Remarks by Secretary of State for Defence Cohen and Chairman of the Joint

Chiefs of Staff Shelton, 12 April 1999. White House Press Release.88. New York Times, 25 April 1999.89. Author’s conversation with sources in the British Ministry of Defence. Also

see The Sunday Times, 25 April 1999.90. Der Speigel, 27 April 1999.91. Guardian, 26 April 1999; Independent, 26 April 1999.92. Daalder and O’Hanlon, Winning Ugly, p. 130.

Chapter 7: The Triumph of Diplomacy

1. NATO daily brief, 27 April 1999.2. Guardian, 27 April 1999, International Herald Tribune, 27 April 1999.3. RFE/RL, 27 April 1999.4. The Times, 26 April 1999.5. See www.carnegie.ru.6. Danas, 26 April 1999.7. The Times, 27 April 1999, Independent, 28 April 1999, and Guardian, 29 April

1999.8. Foreign and Commonwealth Office statement, 27 April 1999. Accessed from

www.fco.gov.uk on 23 September 1999.9. Victor Gobarev, ‘Kosovo Aftermath: Russia–NATO Relations after the Kosovo

Crisis: Strategic Implications’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 12(3), 1999.10. Statement to the press by the office of the president of Yugoslavia, Tanjug,

30 April 1999.11. Washington Post, 2 May 1999.12. RFE/RL, 6 May 1999.13. See Daalder and O’Hanlon, Winning Ugly, pp. 132–5.14. House debate on H.R. 1569 (Military Operations in the Federal Republic of

Yugoslavia Limitation Act of 1999), 28 April 1999.15. This was the view of Representative Dick Gephart (Democrat leader), see ibid.16. White House Press Release, 28 April 1999.17. Senate Joint Resolution 20 (Deployment of US Armed Forces to the Kosovo

region of Yugoslavia), 3–4 May, 1999.18. Washington Post, 4 May 1999.19. Cited by Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 275.20. Carl Bildt, Veckobrev, 22 March 1999.21. Daalder and O’Hanlon, Winning Ugly, p. 169 and Guardian, 5 June 1999.22. The Times, 6 May 1999.23. See the Statement by the Chairman on the Conclusion of the Meeting of the

G-8 Foreign Ministers, 6 May 1999. Paragraph 1 stated:

‘The G-8 Foreign Ministers adopted the following general principles on thepolitical solution to the Kosovo crisis:● Immediate and verifiable end of violence and repression in Koaovo.● Withdrawal from Kosovo of military, police and paramilitary forces.

238 Notes

● Deployment in Kosovo of effective international civil and security pres-ences, endorsed and adopted by the United Nations, capable of guarantee-ing the achievement of the common objectives.

● Establishment of an interim administration for Kosovo to be decided bythe Security Council of the United Nations to ensure conditions for apeaceful and normal life for all inhabitants in Kosovo.

● The safe and free return of all refugees and displaced persons and unim-peded access to Kosovo by humanitarian aid organisations.

● A political process towards the establishment of an interim politicalframework agreement providing for a substantial self-government forKosovo, taking full account of the Rambouillet accords and the principlesof sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Federal Republic ofYugoslavia and the other countries of the region and the demilitarisationof the KLA.

● Comprehensive approach to the economic development and stabilisationof the crisis region’.

24. Washington Post, 6 May 1999.25. The Times, 11 May 1999.26. Peter Gowan, ‘From Rambouillet to the Chinese Embassy’, from

www.igc.apc.org accessed on 16 February 2000.27. Guardian, 16 May 1999.28. Leurdijk and Zandee, Kosovo: From Crisis to Crisis, p. 85.29. Ibid., and see French Ministry of Defence, Les Enseignements du Kosovo,

November 1999. Available in French only from the Ministry’s website atwww.defense.gouv.fr.

30. Clark, Waging Modern War, p. 291.31. The Times, 13 May 1999.32. Cited in The Times, 9 May 1999.33. RFE/RL, 12 May 1999.34. Interfax, 9 May 1999.35. Independent, 11 May 1999.36. Statement by the Supreme Command of the VJ, 10 May 1999. Text from

the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia,www.mfa.gov.yu accessed on 23 September 1999.

37. Sabrina P. Ramet and Phil Lyon, ‘Germany: The Federal Republic, Loyal toNATO’, in Tony Weymouth and Stanley Henig (eds), The Kosovo Crisis: TheLast American War in Europe? (London: Pearson Education, 2001), p. 90.

38. RFE/RL, 12 May 1999.39. Bild, 11 May 1999. Quote edited by the author.40. See Leurdijk and Zandee, Kosovo: From Crisis to Crisis, p. 87.41. International Herald Tribune, 14 May 1999.42. La Republica, 15 May 1999.43. Remarks by Italian Prime Minister Massimo D’Alema, 20 May 1999, NATO

press release.44. Clark, Waging Modern War, p. 266.45. Newsweek, 16 May 1999.46. Remarks by Tony Blair to the press in Sofia, 17 May 1999. Accessed from

www.fco.gov.uk on 23 September 1999.

Notes 239

47. See Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, pp. 270 and Daalder and O’Hanlon,Winning Ugly, p. 169. The broad outline of the plan was gathered from infor-mal sources.

48. The British Ministry of Defence conducted several planning exercises andthe Pentagon began administrative preparations for a ground operation.

49. Posen, ‘The War for Kosovo’, p. 71.50. Clark, Waging Modern War, p. 337.51. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revenge, p. 284.52. General Mike Short interviewed on the BBC’s, Moral Combat documentary.53. Louise Richardson, ‘Britain’s Role in the Kosovo Crisis’, in Pierre Martin and

Mark R. Brawley (eds), Alliance Politics, Kosovo, and NATO’s War: Allied Forceor Forced Allies? (London: Palgrave, 2001), p. 151.

54. Ibid.55. Though there has never been official confirmation of this, the existence of

such plans is widely known. Also see, New York Times, 7 November 1999.56. See Daalder and O’Hanlon, Winning Ugly, p. 158.57. Tanjug, 27 March 1999.58. Marc Weller, ‘The Kosovo Indictment of the International Criminal Tribunal

of Yugoslavia’, in Ken Booth (ed.), The Kosovo Tragedy, p. 209. Also see Indictment by the International Criminal Tribunal for the FormerYugoslavia Against Yugoslav Leaders, 22 May 1999. Accessed fromwww.balkanaction.org and also available along with trial proceedings fromwww.icty.org

59. For more on the ICTY, and competing views about it see Geoffrey Robertson,Crimes Against Humanity: The Struggle for Global Justice (London: Penguin,1999).

60. Washington Post, 27 May 1999. Also see, International Herald Tribune, 28 May1999.

61. Daalder and O’Hanlon, Winning Ugly, p. 171.62. Kosovo Peace Plan, 3 June 1999. United Nations Press Release (S/1999/649,

Annex), 7 June 1999.63. Clark, Waging Modern War, p. 354.64. See Noel Malcolm, ‘Yes there were Mass Killings’, Spectator, 283 (8939), 1999.65. UN Security Council Resolution 1244, 10 June 1999.66. Though monumental obstacles remained. See David Rohde, ‘Kosovo

Seething’, Foreign Affairs, 79(3), 2000.67. This argument was put forward by Michael Mandelbaum, ‘A Perfect Failure:

NATO’s War Against Yugoslavia’, Foreign Affairs, 78(5), 1999.68. On the security challenges confronting KFOR see Espen Barth Eide, ‘The

Internal Security Challenge in Kosovo’, The International Spectator, 35(1),2000; Susan L. Woodward, ‘Kosovo and the Region: Consequences of theWaiting Game’, The International Spectator, 35(1), 2000; Mike Jackson, ‘KFOR:The Inside Story’, RUSI Journal, February 2000.

69. Javier Solana, ‘NATO’s Success in Kosovo’, Foreign Affairs, November/December 1999, p. 12.

70. I share Daalder and O’Hanlon’s view that there were two wars but disagreethat NATO ‘lost’ the war against Serb forces on the ground in Kosovo for rea-sons that I outline in the conclusion. See Ivo Daalder and Michael E.O’Hanlon, ‘Unlearning the Lessons of Kosovo’, Foreign Policy, 116, 1999.

240 Notes

Conclusion

1. See Roland Bleiker, Dissent, Human Agency and Global Politics (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2000).

2. Author’s interview with Lord Owen, London, 5 October 2001.3. Wheeler, Saving Strangers, p. 284.4. Ibid.5. Ibid.6. Karl W. Deutsch et al., Political Community in the North Atlantic Area:

International Organization in the Light of Historical Experience (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1957), p. 5.

7. Emanuel Adler and Michael Barnett, ‘Security Communities in TheoreticalPerspective’, in Emanuel Adler and Michael Barnett (eds), SecurityCommunities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 17.

8. Ibid., p. 50.9. Ibid., p. 56.

10. Ibid.11. Stephen Walt, ‘NATO’s Future (In Theory), in Martin and Brawley, Alliance

Politics, Kosovo, and NATO’s War, p. 15.12. See Chapter 4.13. Justin Morris, ‘Force and Democracy: UN/US Intervention in Haiti’,

International Peacekeeping, 2(3), 1995.14. Such arguments can be found throughout books such as N. W. Hutchings

and Larry Spargimino, Where Leads the Road to Kosovo? (Oklahoma:Heatherstone, 1999); Michael Parenti, To Kill a Nation: The Attack onYugoslavia (London: Verso, 2000), and throughout Tariq Ali (ed.), Masters ofthe Universe.

15. Jim Whitman, ‘The Kosovo Refugee Crisis: NATO’s Humanitarianism versusHuman Rights’, in Ken Booth (ed.), The Kosovo Tragedy, p. 164.

16. Cited by Wheeler, Saving Strangers, p. 267.

Notes 241

Activation Order (ACTORD)see North Atlantic Treaty

Organisation (NATO)Adams, Gerry, 136Adler, Emanuel, 208

see also Security CommunityAdriatic Sea, 98, 124, 151af Ugglas, Margaretha, 43Africa, 167Agani, Fehmi, 46, 51, 109, 133, 134Ahmeti family, 72Ahmeti, Xhavit, 61Ahrens, Geert, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 41,

45, 46, 47, 57, 58Ahtisaari, Martti, 185, 186, 192, 198Albania, 2–6, 10, 11, 25, 27, 51, 53,

54, 56, 62, 69, 70, 79, 86, 90, 121,141, 151, 154, 160, 169, 170, 171,184, 193, 203

Albanian Americans, 55Albanian army, 194Enver Hoxha’s Albania, 6, 64fall into anarchy, 63, 64, 65Kosovar exodus into, 34, 165, 169,

171language, 4nationalism, 4, 54post-communist, 63pyramid scheme, 63, 64support for Kosovar Albanians,

194Albania–Kosovo border, 86Albright, Madeleine, ix, 37, 48, 72, 73,

74, 75, 79, 80, 81, 87, 89, 93, 122,123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 132,135, 136, 139, 140, 141, 142, l55,156, 157, 161, 175, 176, 185

post-Racak plan, 125Aleksinac, 172Alliance Military Committee

see North Atlantic TreatyOrganisation (NATO)

Alliances

see North Atlantic TreatyOrganisation (NATO)

Allied Rapid Reaction Corps, 171see also Operation Agricola

American plan, 125, 127, 128American–Russian diplomatic process,

177American Special Forces, 168, 173, 184American–UCK discussion, 143Amnesty International, 5, 7, 10, 11,

37, 39, 43, 72Anglo-German argument, 209Annan, Kofi, 79, 85, 90, 127, 185Anti-war critics, 164Arbour, Louise, 116Arc de Triomphe, 146Arkan, 43

see also Raznatovic, Zeljko; TigersArmed international intervention, 67,

73, 86, 91, 93, 117, 126, 128, 129,136, 140

see also North Atlantic TreatyOrganisation (NATO)

Arms embargo, 20Asia, 167Assembly of the Serbian People of

Bosnia–Hercegovina, 28Associated Press, 114, 117Austria, 3, 21, 46, 164Australia, 3Autonomy, 25, 59

Bacon, Kenneth, 170Badinter, Robert, 21, 26Badinter Arbitration Commission, 21,

22, 26–9, 205Baghdad, 195Baker, James, 19Balkans, 1, 3, 45, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 56,

57, 58, 65, 76, 78, 101, 106, 192Balkans Wars Syndrome, 3, 69, 93,

205, 213First Balkan War, 1912–13, 3, 50

242

Index

Baqaj, Behlull, 9Bar, 180Barnett, Michael, 208

see also Security CommunityBasque separatists, 86Belarus, 103, 116, 174, 175Belgium, 57, 86Belgrade, 4–6, 23, 26, 28, 31, 33, 34,

35, 38, 39, 40, 42, 44, 51, 71, 72,74, 82, 85, 89, 97, 101, 115, 128,131, 137, 138, 139, 143, 145, 146,147, 148, 151, 152, 154, 163, 166,168, 173, 175, 178, 181, 182, 183,184, 188, 194, 196, 198, 199, 204,206

bombardment of, 195ambassador meetings, 42, 99see also Unilateral diplomatic initia-

tiveBerger, Sandy, 75, 81, 122Berisha, Sali, 53, 64Berliner Zeitung, 164Bildt, Carl, 57, 58, 59, 184, 185Blace camp, 171

see also MacedoniaBlair government, 88Blair, Tony, ix, 67, 72, 73, 86, 87, 89,

94, 124, 156, 157, 158, 161, 168,171, 176, 177, 178, 179, 192, 201,212, 214

Blue Book, 5Bogh, Tore, 32, 33, 35, 39, 42, 52, 53Bonn, 73, 83, 152, 176, 182, 185, 186,

192, 193, 198Borba, 6Borchardt, Berend, 115Boucher, Richard, 49Bosnia and Hercegovina, ix, 2, 10, 11,

13, 14, 16, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,34, 36, 42, 44, 46, 47, 52, 53, 54,55, 57, 58, 62, 63, 65, 70, 101,123, 138, 151, 154, 159, 162, 179,182, 185, 201

atrocities, committed against, 43,52, 56

Bosnian army, 143Bosnian-Muslims, 27, 52Bosnian-Serbs, ix, 14, 28, 44, 52, 53,

162, 163

Bosnia syndrome, 69, 93, 155Vance–Owen peace plan, 44, 46, 84,

162see also Vance–Owen peace planwar, 35, 37, 38, 40, 44, 47, 48, 50,

52, 54, 56, 65, 69, 80, 81, 87,151, 205

Britain, 54, 67, 71, 77, 87, 89, 94, 98,113, 124, 136–45, 152, 165, 170,172, 175, 176, 177, 178, 182, 184,186, 187, 189, 207

Chief-of-Staff, 171Conservative Party, 186Defence Secretary, 90embassy, 97, 186Foreign Ministry, 214Foreign Secretary, 72, 128, 135general elections, 2House of Commons, 86, 105Ministry of Defence, 87, 106, 178,

196Parliamentary Committee on

Defence, 121, 124, 133Representation at North Atlantic

Council, 127, 129Representation at Rambouillet, 132support for intervention, 87, 94,

176, 207troop deployment, 171, 196see also United Kingdom

British Broadcasting Corporation(BBC), 67–8, 97

Brussels, 17, 91, 98, 106, 121, 125,129, 152, 163, 174

Buchanan, Pat, 178Budestag, 123Bukoshi, Bujar, 37, 51, 59, 60Bulgaria, 3, 69Bunel, Commandant Pierre-Henri, 162Bureau of European and Canadian

Affairs, 34Bush administration, 20, 34, 35Bush, George, 19, 33, 34, 35, 48, 49,

170

Canada, 49, 90, 407Canadian OSCE contingent, 107Cardiff summit, 87, 88

see also European Union (EU)

Index 243

Carnegie Corporation, 63Carrington, Lord Peter, ix, 22, 24, 25,

26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 36, 65Carstenfeldt, Peter, 191Cassof, Alan, 63Ceasefire arrangements, 27, 105, 107,

108, 111, 149, 171, 211collapse of, 112, 113

Cekic, Agim, 195Central America, 103Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 18,

20, 34, 35, 60, 115, 165, 188, 189Centre Kleber, 146, 147

see also Rambouillet AccordsChechnya, 76Chernomyrdin–Ahtisaari–Talbott

troika, 211Chernomyrdin–Ahtisaari partnership,

185, 190, 198see also Ahtisaari, Martti;

Chernomydrin, ViktorChernomydrin, Viktor, 173, 174, 175,

176, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186,189, 192, 193, 194, 197, 198, 199,200

see also Talbott–Chernomydrinnegotiations

China, 3, 14, 48, 71, 76, 87, 88, 94,157, 166, 181

Chinese Embassy in Belgrade, bombing of, x, 162, 173, 181,186–90, 192, 194, 198

Chirac, Jacques, 92, 161, 176Christmas Ultimatum, the, 34–5, 48,

50, 70Christopher, Warren, 49, 53Churchill, 158Churkin, Vitali, 44Clark, General Wesley, 81, 99, 103,

106, 113, 120, 121, 153, 155, 156,157, 158, 160, 161, 167, 168, 169,170, 171, 172, 173, 178, 179, 180,188, 192, 194, 196, 199, 201, 202,203, 207, 208

Clinton administration, 34, 48, 50Clinton, Bill, 34, 48, 50, 64, 70, 74,

79, 80, 85, 87, 89, 124, 139, 146,150, 151, 158, 159, 161, 165, 170,177, 183, 184, 186, 201

Coalition of the willing, 193Coercive diplomacy, 14, 15, 119, 120,

121, 127, 130, 145, 153, 154, 156,203, 210

Cohen, William, 89, 122, 157, 178,192, 196

Cold War, 44Collective self-defence, 1Cologne Defence Ministry meeting,

194, 196Committee of Senior Officials (CSO)

see Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE)

Communist Party newspaper, Vjesnik, 6Comunita di Saint’Egldio, 60

Memorandum of Understanding,60, 61

Conflict prevention and resolution,49, 50, 55, 56, 58, 63, 65, 178

Conference for Security and Co-opera-tion in Europe (CSCE), 12, 13, 17,18, 31, 32, 33, 35, 39, 41, 42, 43,44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 52, 104

Committee of Senior Officials(CSO), 31, 32, 38, 42

Conference on Yugoslavia, 21harassment of local staff in Kosovo,

43, 44Helsinki summit, 32High Commissioner for Minorities,

38, 65Memorandum of Understanding, 38Mission of Long Duration to

Yugoslavia, 13, 17, 30, 31–3, 37,38, 39, 40, 41–2, 45, 46, 47, 49,50, 56, 65

Monitors, 30, 31, 32, 38, 39Vienna headquarters, 42withdrawal from Kosovo, 42, 47, 48,

59Yugoslavia status, 41, 42see also Organisation for Security

and Cooperation in Europe(OSCE)

Constitutional settlement, 8, 16Contact Group, 15, 52, 64, 67, 69, 72,

73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 83, 85, 88,90, 91, 119, 124–42, 146, 148,149, 153, 179, 206, 211

244 Index

Contact Group – continuedsee also Lancaster House; Paris

Negotiations; RambouilletAccords

Containment, 50Contras, 103Cook, Robin, 72, 73, 74, 75, 87, 93,

106, 128, 131, 132, 133, 135, 139,142, 146, 151, 165, 168, 178

Cossutta, Armando, 166Craven, Michael, 27Crédit Suisse First Boston Bank, 75Crimes against humanity, 116–18,

159, 214Croatia, ix, 2, 6, 10, 13, 16, 19, 20, 21,

22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 34, 42, 44,46, 47, 53, 54, 55, 102, 123, 138,151, 180

atrocities against, 43Croatian army, 143Krajina Crisis, 25reintegration of Serb-held

territories, 44Serb communities in, 28, 53war, 35, 36, 38, 44, 50

Croat-Muslims, 53Czechoslovakia, 23

Daadler, Ivo, 145, 160D’Alema, Massimo, 166, 178, 182,

183, 191, 192Danube, 180Davos summit, 57, 205Dayton Peace Agreement (DPA), 1, 10,

11, 13, 38, 46, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58,59, 61, 69, 70, 78, 81, 82, 96, 121,133

Debating intervention, 67, 69, 80, 95Decani, 82DeConcini, Dennis, 18Delegation of Kosovo, 142Demaci, Adem, 5, 18, 39, 59, 110,

128, 129, 133, 134, 140, 141, 143,147

Democratic elections, 131Democratic Party of Kosovo (LDK), 12,

51, 77, 108, 109, 133Der Speigel, 191Desert Storm, 161

Determined Falcon air exercises, 90see also North Atlantic Treaty

Organisation (NATO)Deutsch, Karl, 208

see also Security communityDimitrijevic, Aleksander, 147Dini, Lamberto, 73, 80, 87, 173Diplomacy, 3, 69, 73, 77, 82, 87, 89,

98, 124, 137, 148, 150, 175, 191,202

limits of, 73, 153international, 211renewed, 181–6triumph of, 180–203

Djakovica, 172, 173Djakovica refugee envoy bombing,

130Djindjic, Zoran, 204Djukanovic, Milo, 78, 163Dole, Robert, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 89,

159Donji Prekaz massacre, 12, 14, 69, 71,

72, 80Downing Street, 87Dragobilje, 111Draskovic, Vuk, 7, 129, 175, 181Drenica Valley, 12, 70, 83, 85, 107,

121Droulers, Daniel, 38Dubrovnik, 21Dulje, 114Dutch, 162

Eagleburger, Lawrence, 34Economic Aid, 18

see also Nickles AmendmentEconomic Club of Chicago, 214Egypt, 109El Salvador, 103Ethnic and National Communities

Working Group, 30Ethnic cleansing, 3, 12, 34, 35, 71, 82,

88, 151, 154, 155, 156, 157, 160,162, 164, 165, 167, 170, 180, 202,214

Ethnic groups, 11, 18, 30, 50, 132oppression, 10see also Minority issues

EUKDOM, 105

Index 245

Europe, 17, 34, 35, 42, 56, 72, 103,105, 123, 124, 214

Allies, 143, 149, 151, 198Military power (NATO), 196Security Community, 208see also Security community

European Broadcasting Union, 173European and Canadian Affairs, 49European Community (EC), 16, 20,

21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 31, 210trade policy, 21, 22Yugoslav Constitution demands,

17European Community Conference on

Yugoslavia (EECY), 22, 23, 24, 25,36

Hague convention, 22, 24, 77London conference, 24, 29–31

European institutions, 210, 211European Parliament, 17, 18, 23, 28,

96European Union (EU), 54, 58, 59, 62,

67, 72, 73, 77, 78, 88, 135, 176,180, 185, 198, 210, 212

aid package to Yugoslavia, 135Commissioner for Foreign Affairs,

l45Council of Ministers, 176leaders, 177monitoring Mission of Former

Yugoslavia, 59, 62oil embargo, 180, 181presence in Kosovo, 62, 63regional envoy, 126special envoy, 75, 185see also Parliamentary Assembly of

the Council of EuropeEU–OSCE mission, 85EU–Russian initiative, 210EU–US summit, 65

Family Planning, 10Federal Procurement and Supply

Directorate, 187, 188Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY),

14, 28, 32, 48, 59, 101, 128, 132,138, 197

international recognition of, 59Feniks, 58

Feridle, Memeilo, 99Finland, 185

President, 185, 210Finnish pathology investigators

see Racak massacreFirst World War, 3, 50Fischer, Joschka, 145, 164, 176, 190,

191, 198Fleiner-Gerster, Thomas, 31

Fleiner-Gerster mission, 31Foley, Robert, 149Foreign media, 114, 115, 119, 187Four levels of governance, 83, 88France, 44, 57, 65, 79, 81, 86, 93, 94,

102, 123, 124, 125, 130, 136, 137,149, 156, 161, 162, 167, 171, 176,177, 180, 188, 192, 196, 200, 201,208

Foreign Minister, 75Greens, 170Representation at Rambouillet, 132Socialist Party, 170

France Channel 3, 135

G7, 3, 211G8, 3, 175, 176, 184, 185, 186, 187,

189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 198,199, 211, 212

Gaullists, 123Gazzetta del Mezzogiorno, 166Gelbard, Robert, 64, 70, 71, 74, 81,

122Generalised System of Preferences, 20Geneva, 46, 57Geremek, Branislaw, 101Germany, 21, 24, 25, 30, 44, 45, 46,

56, 64, 65, 72, 73, 81, 86, 87, 94,123, 126, 129, 136, 137, 145, 154,161, 163, 164, 171, 176, 177, 181,186, 190, 191, 192, 200, 207, 208,209

Chancellor, 176Defence Minister, 145, 164Democratic Lefts, 191Foreign Minister, 64, 73, 145, 191government coalition, 123, 154, 186Green Party, 123, 154, 190, 191, 207Social Democratic Party, 178, 207

Gioia del Colle airbase, 124

246 Index

Gligorov, 71Gonzalez, Felipe, 73, 75, 78, 85Gorani, 109, 152Gorbachev, Mikhail, 203Gore, Al, 184Goulden, Sir John, 127Gowan, Peter, 187Grand summitry, 119Greece, 69, 86, 92, 94, 154, 159, 161,

163, 166, 168, 171, 177, 180, 182,192, 207, 208, 209

opposition to NATO, 133, 186ties with Serbia, 86

Gulf War, 160, 172, 195Guthrie, General Charles, 171

Hadri, Enver, 17Hahan, Philipp, 38Heathrow meeting airport, 86, 90, 92,

93, 125Helsinki, 192Helsinki Federation, 17Helsinki Final Act, 104, 140Helsinki Human Rights Watch, 11, 12Herring, Eric, 164Hill, Christopher, 78, 79, 81–4, 102,

109, 110, 112, 120, 126, 137, 138,139, 141, 145, 149, 206

Hill plan/process, 79, 80, 81–4, 95, 96,108, 109, 118, 119, 122, 123, 125,127, 130

Hindustan Times, 166Hitler, 158, 190HMS Invincible, 171HMS Trafalgar, 165Holbrooke, Richard, 45, 53, 54, 55, 65,

74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 84, 85,86, 87, 89, 93, 95–101, 102, 103,106, 112, 113, 121, 123, 145, 151,152, 153, 156, 159, 208

Holbrooke–Milosevic meeting, 78, 121

Holbrooke–Milosevic agreement, 95,96–101, 102, 104, 106, 108, 109,110, 113, 114, 121, 122, 146

Howard, Michael, 186Human Rights, 25, 31, 32, 39, 48, 51,

52, 55, 56, 57, 65, 70, 92, 104,140, 149, 167, 178

abuses of, 16, 17, 18, 19, 40, 43, 46,48, 50, 68, 70, 88, 197

monitors, 31, 39, 60, 79obligation, 212verification, 103

Human Rights Committee, 43Human Rights Council, 43Human Rights Watch, 37, 72, 114Humanitarian aid, 49, 76, 160Humanitarian catastrophe, 202, 205,

207, 211Humanitarian intervention, 1, 213Hungary, 21, 27, 180, 201Hussein, Saddam, 74, 150Hyseni, Hyjadet, 51, 133

IFOR, 123, 182, 193India, 166, 189Indonesia, 167Institutional engagement, 17, 36, 37,

45, 47, 84, 211Intellectual communities, 37International arbitration, 130International Committee of the Red

Cross (ICRC), 74, 89, 91International Conference on Former

Yugoslavia (ICFY), 13, 14, 22, 31,32, 33, 35, 36, 45, 46, 50, 65

Steering committee, 45, 46, 47International Criminal Tribunal for

Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), 115,116, 117, 118, 121, 125, 126, 131,132, 145, 163, 194, 197, 199

indictment for war crimes, 197International diplomacy, 126, 150International engagement, 13, 15, 16,

34, 37, 38, 47, 55, 62, 65, 67, 68,69, 77, 80, 84, 202, 204, 205

International Helsinki Federation forHuman Rights, 58

International intervention, 14, 15, 35,42, 69, 80, 89, 93, 196

International law, 28, 121International Monetary Fund (IMF),

21, 63International peacekeeping, 16, 17,

24, 55, 57, 65, 66, 68, 76, 102,104, 107, 128, 145, 152, 186, 189,196

Index 247

International perception, 13, 54, 55,57, 80, 93

International (security) presence, 16,37, 129, 132, 175, 200

opposition to, 45International pressure, 44, 47, 49, 89International Relations, 15, 154, 211International scrutiny, 32, 43, 52, 54,

68, 80, 85, 88, 118International Society, 1, 13–15, 16, 31,

35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 44, 47, 48, 50,53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 62, 65,66, 67, 68, 69, 77, 80, 82, 85, 94,109, 129, 132, 205, 206, 214

bilateral negotiations with Serbia,206

engagement of, 67, 68, 69, 120pluralist view of, 1

International support, 12, 15, 57, 62,87, 119, 125, 167

Ireland, 165, 180Islamic solidarity, 86Italy, 27, 72, 73, 80, 86, 87, 124, 125,

136, 149, 152, 154, 159, 161, 163,166, 168, 171, 173, 177, 180, 182,183, 186, 189, 191, 192, 196, 200,201, 207, 208, 209

bilateral relations with Yugoslavia,183

Communist Party, 73, 166Foreign Minister, 73, 173media, 166

Ivanov, Igor, 85, 93, 125, 126, 127,174, 175, 176, 181, 182, 185, 200,201

Izetbegovic, Alija, 54

Jackson, General Mike, 171, 185, 201Jackson, Reverend Jesse, 183Japan, 90, 167JAT

see Yugoslav AirlinesJerzt, Walter, 189Jeshari family, 69, 71, 72Jevtic, Atanasije, 7

see also Orthodox ArchimandriteJNA

see Yugoslav People’s ArmyJohnson, Ralph, 21

Johnstone, Diana, 102Jokanovic, Vukasin, 57, 58Jospin, Lionel, 170Jovanovic, Vladislav, 24, 44Jovanovic, Zivojin, 98, 128, 163Judah, Tim, 29, 35, 54, 75, 78, 92,

140, 141, 147, 152, 153, 158, 164,184, 195

Kadare, Ismail, 141Kalashnikovs, 184Kaldor, Mary, 21Kaler, Gabriel, 102Kaplan, Robert, 50Karacostanoglu, Veniamin, 38Keller, Gabriel, 123KFOR, 123, 127, 130, 136, 172, 177,

182, 183, 185, 193, 194, 199, 200,201, 203

peacekeeping forces, 138, 143, 171,193, 198, 201

Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, 4Kinkel, Klaus, 64, 65, 73, 75, 86, 87,

90, 93Kissinger, Henry, 197Koci, Petro, 171Koha Ditore, 10, 58, 107, 133Koijmans, Peter, 54Kontic, Radoje, 59Korac, Zarko, 25Kosova Information Centre, 112Kosovar Albanians, ix, 2, 4, 5, 7–11,

13–15, 16, 17, 19, 23, 24, 25, 26,28, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 36, 39, 45,51, 54, 57, 74, 75, 78, 80, 82, 89,91, 96, 107, 108, 109, 113, 123,132, 151, 154, 160, 164

armed resistance, 34, 68, 69, 71, 77,107, 110, 111, 122, 124, 194

communists, 5demand for independence, 68, 77demand for armed international

intervention, 135, 139, 140,141, 142

dialogue with Yugoslavia, 79, 82education, 9, 30, 40, 41, 45, 46, 51,

52, 57, 60, 72, 75healthcare system, 11, 51, 57independence, 110, 206

248 Index

Kosovar Albanians – continuedindigenous police force, 102international recognition, 33, 36,

50, 54, 58, 61, 66, 67, 72, 76,101, 106, 109, 110, 145, 159,206

involvement in ICFY, 31involvement in London conference,

29leadership, 74, 75, 76, 89, 101, 105,

109, 110, 112, 128, 206negotiations with Serbs, 183non-violent resistance, 8, 12, 24, 38,

39, 57, 58, 59, 62, 204Operation Horseshoe murders, 199oppression (economic, social,

violent), 10, 34, 37, 38, 48, 51,52, 58, 65, 67, 68, 70, 74, 75,76, 82, 113, 114, 154, 156, 160, 162, 164

parallel state, 12, 39, 40, 112, 148politics, 54refugees, 56, 86, 114, 151, 159, 160,

164, 169, 171, 172, 175, 179representation at Rambouillet,

128–43, 146, 147, 149, 206school children incident, 11separatism, 59unemployment, 10

Kosovar Serbs, 5, 7, 10, 25, 109, 112,148, 185, 193

KosovoAssembly, 8, 26, 28, 83, 84, 109, 110autonomy, 6, 75, 82, 91, 148, 149,

204Communist Party of, 4, 8Conflict, (and escalation of), 17–20,

37, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 54,55, 56, 59, 65, 67, 68, 71, 74,75, 76, 79, 80, 83, 85, 90, 93,95, 98, 105, 106, 111, 112, 120,128, 131, 149, 160, 179, 195,205, 207, 211, 214

1974 Constitution of SocialistAutonomous Province ofKosovo, 23, 28, 30, 31

Constitutional changes, 8, 138, 148cordon sanitaire, 164Coup, 8

de facto status, 148, 171economy, 5education, 9, 40, 41, 46, 52, 60, 61,

72, 75escalation of Serb violence, 151,

152, 155, 156, 157, 179, 195,197, 205

human rights, 57, 59, 77, 85independence, struggles for, 26, 27,

30, 31, 36, 50, 51, 61, 68, 83,109, 205

intercommunity relations, 46, 47,109

international administration, 185international engagement, 76, 77,

81, 88, 125, 126, 197, 204–14intervention, 123, 160, 171, 176Kosovan League of Communists, 6legislation, 148living conditions, 39, 51national communities, 4, 132Serb troop withdrawal from, 106,

107, 198, 200, 202settlement of, 80status, within Yugoslavia, 27, 33,

35, 36, 47, 48, 50, 53, 55, 57,75, 76, 77, 82, 83, 86, 93, 99,108, 109, 119, 128, 130, 138,148, 204, 205

unemployment, 5, 6Kosovo Diplomatic Observer Mission

(KDOM), 79, 80, 84, 85, 111, 113

Kosovo ‘Last Chance for Peace’, 142Kosovo Liberation Army (UCK),

12–14, 34, 59, 62, 64, 66, 67, 68,69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77, 81,83, 85, 89, 91, 96, 99, 100, 104,105, 106, 107, 110, 111, 112,114–18, 119, 122, 125, 127, 129,130, 133, 134, 136, 138, 139, 140,141, 142, 143, 146, 160, 162, 163, 164, 173, 179, 195, 204, 205,206

demilitarisation, 142, 206funding, 141major offensive, 194strongholds, 113

Kosovo–Serbia border, 200

Index 249

Kosovo Verification Mission (VEM), x,14, 69, 84, 95–119, 120, 121, 122,123, 124, 125, 129, 151

Chief-in-Command, 102see also William Walkerthree challenges, 104see also Organisation for Security

and Co-operation in Europe(OSCE)

Kovacevic, Zivorad, 18Kouchner, Bernard, 185Krajina, 30, 33, 36, 44, 46Krajina Serbs, 27, 30

see also Serbian-KrajinaKrasniqi, Florin, 141Krasniqi, Jakup, 128, 129, 134, 143Kryeziu, Kadri, 43Kumanovo talks, 199, 200Kurdish community, 86Kuwait, 74, 162

Lafontaine, Oskar, 178Lancaster House, 126

see also Contact GroupLa Republica, 166Lavrov, Sergei, 89, 92, 93, 166LCY

see Yugoslav League of CommunistsLensinova, 189Le Monde, 164Leskovac, 172Lewinsky, Monica, 159Libal, Michael, 25Libal, Wolfgang, 7Liberal institutionalism, 212Libération, 162Light, Sonja, 21Likovac, 83Limited engagement, 13, 17, 29, 33,

35, 36, 45, 46, 47, 50, 65, 210Limited War, 15, 156, 203Little, Allan, 30Lockhart, Joe, 176London, 44, 72, 125, 126, 127, 152London Club, 57London Conference

see Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE)

Lukic, Sretan, 115

Macedonia, 3, 16, 24, 27, 28, 30, 37,46, 47, 49, 59, 69, 71, 73, 78, 95,105, 115, 124, 154, 156, 157, 160,162, 163, 170, 171, 183, 184, 193,199, 201, 203, 210

Albanian minority population, 71Kosovar asylum seekers, 59, 165, 171

Maisonneuve, Brigadier-General, 107Major, John, 87Malcolm, Noel, 7Malign non-engagement, 13, 14, 47,

50, 65, 66, 67, 70, 80Malisevo, 107Marazziti, Mario, 61Markovic, Ante, 19, 20, 21, 22Markovic, Mihailo, 51Markovic, Ratko, 130, 132Martinovic case, 7Mayorski, Boris, 126, 135, 136, 137,

138, 141, 146, 149, 150Maziowiecki, Tadeusz, ix, 50, 51, 52,

53, 56McLeod, Brigadier Ian, 113Measures of merit, 160Media controls, 9, 10, 30, 32, 58

Manipulation of, 39, 41, 58Mediation, international, 30, 31, 41,

46, 50, 54, 55, 57–8, 60, 78, 135,136, 137, 139, 141

see also Unilateral diplomatic initiative

Meksi, Aleksander, 57Mertus, Julie, 38, 56Mesic, Stipe, 19Metohija, 7, 78, 98Miles, Richard, 85Military annex, 138, 149, 202Military engagement, 50Military–technical agreement, 198,

199, 202, 203Military Professional Resources

Incorporated (MPRI), 143see also Bosnian ArmyCroatian Army

Milosevic, Slobodan, 2, 8, 9, 13, 14,18, 19, 22, 23, 30, 32, 34, 35, 38,40, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51,53, 55, 56, 59, 60, 62, 63, 65, 67,69, 70, 72, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80,

250 Index

Milosevic, Slobodan – continued81 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90,91, 92, 93, 95–103, 105, 106, 108,109, 110, 112, 118, 121, 122, 124,125, 126, 128, 129, 131, 136, 137,138, 139, 140, 145, 146, 147, 148,150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156,157, 159, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165,167, 169, 170, 171, 172, 176, 178,179, 183, 186, 187, 191–9, 202,203, 204, 205, 206, 208, 210

acquiesce to NATO, 194‘Albanian problem’, 210indictment for war crimes (ICTY),

194NATO ultimatum to, 122, 128, 135

Milutinovic, Milan, 65, 132, 133, 135,136, 138, 140, 149, 197

Ministry of Defence, 104Ministry of Interior (MUP), 68, 71, 83,

84, 85missile attack, 161special police units, 74, 76, 77, 79,

82, 91, 99, 104, 106, 107, 111,112, 113, 114–18, 119, 137,148, 151, 164, 172, 180, 181,182, 183, 185, 193, 197, 198,200, 202

Ministry of Justice, 71Minority issues, 2, 5, 13, 24, 28, 30,

31, 45, 46, 47, 57, 59, 65see also Ethnic groups

Montenegro, 8, 22, 27, 41, 55, 78,154, 161, 162, 163, 165, 167, 180

Morava River, 172Morris, Justin, 212Moscow, 76, 91, 125, 182, 191, 192, 197‘Mother Teresa’, Kosovar

humanitarian organisation, 11Mount Pastrik battle, 194, 195, 197, 202Multilateral action, 87Multinational zone, 200, 201MUP

see Ministry of InteriorMuslims, 3, 109Muslim Council of Sandzak, 57

National Community, 83, 84, 108,109, 110, 134, 138, 148

National Council, 83National Imagery and Mapping

Agency, 189Nationalist movement, 4, 57, 204Nationality, 27National Security Committee, 35Naumann, General Klaus, 106, 120,

121, 133, 145, 158, 181Nazis, 72Netherlands, 54New international community, 177,

214Nickles Amendment, 18, 19–20Niles, Thomas, 34, 35Non-Aligned Movement, 167Non-engagement, 13, 14, 16, 33, 36,

47, 205Non-Governmental Organisations

(NGOs), 1, 37, 39, 40, 43, 47, 58,63

Non-interference principle, 48, 211Non-violent resistance, 8, 12, 24, 38,

57, 58, 59, 204, 205North America, 128North Atlantic Council (NAC), 14, 49,

64, 69, 86, 90, 92, 93, 94, 97, 98,106, 121, 122, 127, 129, 134, 149,152, 155, 156, 157, 159, 161, 167,168, 172, 193, 200, 202, 207, 208,212

Activation Order (ACTORD), 98,103, 110, 112, 118, 120, 121,126, 127, 154, 156, 159, 193,207, 208

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation(NATO), x, 1–3, 14, 15, 35, 49, 64,67, 69, 74, 81, 83, 85, 86, 87, 89,90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99,102, 103, 105, 106, 108, 113, 114,117, 118, 120, 123, 124, 125, 126,128, 129, 130, 133, 135, 136, 138,142, 143, 145, 146, 147, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156–79, 182,183, 184, 186, 191, 192, 195, 198,199, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205, 208,211

see also KFOR;air strike targets, 151, 158, 186–9,

190, 194, 209

Index 251

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation(NATO) – continued

air strikes, 14, 53, 67, 80, 81, 85, 88,89, 93, 96, 106, 118, 121, 124,125, 146, 149, 150, 153, 155,157, 158, 159, 160, 162, 163,165, 166, 167, 172, 180, 186,192, 195, 199, 202, 206, 207,208

Alliance, 122, 124, 138, 143, 150,154, 157, 158, 159, 161, 165,167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172,173, 174, 177, 178, 179, 180,186, 188, 193, 196, 197, 200,202, 206–14

Alliance Activation Warning, 92, 93,94, 95, 96, 98

Alliance Military Committee, 106,108, 110, 118, 120, 145, 158, 180

Alliance’s Secretary General, 121Allied Command Europe Mobile

Force, 169Article 5, 1bombing, 15, 68, 152, 157, 159,

162, 167, 190, 195, 196Chair-of-Command, 193condemnation of Serbia, 91, 92division among allies, 183, 186,

187, 190, 206, 207end of war, 182fiftieth anniversary, 169, 177–9see also Washington summitheadquarters, 106, 125, 129, 162,

163, 174see also Supreme Headquarters

Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE)humanitarianism, 213intelligence, 113, 165, 180, 195intervention in Yugoslavia, 125,

196, 207, 213, 214legitimisation by UN, 212ground military force, 126, 129,

137, 141, 160, 169, 170, 171,172, 176, 177, 180, 202, 207

NATO–Yugoslav Accord, 104NATO zones, 201see also Multinational zonesNegotiations for withdrawal, 199peacekeeping force, 123, 126, 127,

130, 135, 136, 140, 183, 186,206

Operation Allied Force, ix, x, 2, 69,88, 97, 109, 118, 147, 153, 156,157, 158, 159, 160, 163, 165,173, 184, 186, 195, 200, 202,204, 205, 206, 212, 213, 214

Operation Allied Harbour, 169Operation Deliberate Force, 53, 86,

179Operation Eagle Eye, 95representation at Rambouillet, 133,

135Phase 1 – Air Campaign, 161, 165–7Phase 2 – Airwar, 167–73Secretary General, 98, 176Security community, 208–214see also Security communityStationed troops in Yugoslavia, 138,

159, 170, 193, 194, 202Status of Forces agreement, 138ultimatums to Milosevic, 122, 128,

135, 197, 206War aims (five objectives) 157, 159,

194, 197, 202, 203warships, 181

North Europe, 72North, Oliver, 103Norway, 47Novi, Pazar, 38Nushi, Pajazit, 6

Obradovic, Milorad, 163O’Brian, Jim, 82October agreement, 80, 149, 154October plus, 122, 125O’Hanlon, Michael, 145, 160Ognajonovic, Vuk, 57Ojdanic, General Dragoljub, 147, 150,

153, 197, 199Operation Agricola, 171, 201Operation Alba, 64;

see also United Nations (UN)Operation Allied Force;

see North Atlantic TreatyOrganisation (NATO)

Operation Desert Fox, 150Operation Horseshoe, 151, 164–5,

179, 199, 202

252 Index

Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE),12, 37, 45, 47, 56, 69, 73, 76, 77,78, 79, 84, 85, 92, 95, 98, 99, 101,102, 103, 104, 106, 112, 114, 130,131, 136, 147, 210, 212, 213

Chairman-in-Office, 101intimidation of staff, 105monitoring mission, 84, 101, 102,

103peacekeeping role, 104, 106Permanent Council, 101, 102, 103,

104, 108special envoy, 75;see also EU–OSCE missionsee also Kosovo Verification Mission

(VEM)OSCE–UCK Accords, 104OSCE–Yugoslav Agreement, 103, 105Orthodox religion, 7, 150Oslo meeting, 175, 176Osmani, Sadik, 114, 117Ottoman Turks, 3, 7Owen, Lord David, ix, 22, 24, 31, 41,

46, 47, 65, 205Oxfam, 40, 47Oxman, Stephen, 49

Pale, 52Panda café shooting, 112Pan-Slavic unity, 90, 157, 203Panic, Milan, 12, 13, 30, 32, 35, 37,

40, 41, 42, 47, 65, 204Pardo, Franchetti, 59Paris, 123, 137, 142, 146, 152Paris negotiations, 123, 130, 133, 143,

146, 148, 149, 150, 151, 153, 154,155, 156, 164, 214

see also Rambouillet AccordsParliamentary Assembly of the

Council of Europe, 56see also European Union (EU)

Partnership for Peace, 174Peace Conference, 31Peace Implementation Council, 56, 58

see also Dayton AgreementPec, 38, 75, 112Peel, Robert, 32

Peel mission, 32

Perisic, General Momcilo, 147Permissive environment, 172

see also Semi-permissive environment

Petritsch, Wolfgang, 112, 126, 130,137

Petrovo, 114Pettifer, James, 71PHARE programme, 62Phases of engagement, 12Physicians for Human Rights Watch,

72Plesch, Daniel, 38Poland, 50Poland ‘Solidarity’ movement, 50Police violence, 6, 11, 55, 58, 71Political prisoners, 7, 18, 59, 132Politika, 143Portugal, 46Posen, Barry, 153, 194post-Clausewitzian war, 157Prague, 42Presevo valley, 193Prevention, absence of, 37–66Prevlaka, 38Primakov, Yergeny, 90, 91, 152Prisoners of Conscience, 5Pristina, 5, 6, 9, 10, 16, 23, 33, 38, 40,

43, 57, 60, 62, 64, 68, 70, 71, 82,91, 107, 109, 115, 116, 121, 128,134, 148, 201

bomb explosion, 146increased violence, 140

Pristina Economic Institute, 10Prizren, 38, 43, 172Prodi, Romano, 80, 87Proximity negotiations, 82, 83

Qosja, Rexhep, 83, 109, 133

Racak massacre, x, 12, 14, 69, 114–18,119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 126, 128,129, 143, 156

Finnish pathology investigation of,116, 117, 118

Radical Party, 41Ralston, Joe, 157Rambouillet Accords, x, 15, 16, 78, 82,

83, 93, 105, 109, 120–55, 156,

Index 253

Rambouillet Accords – continued160, 171, 172, 177, 202, 203, 206,214

Chapter 1, Article 1(3), 148Chapter 1, Article 1(4), 148Chapter 1, Article 1(6), 148Chapter 1, Article 5(2), 148Chapter 3, Article 1(3), 140Negotiations, 126, 129, 131, 133,

145, 146Negotiations Week 1, 133–6Negotiations Week 2, 136–42see also Paris negotiations

Rankovic, Aleksander, 4, 6Ranta, Helena, 116, 117, 118Rape, 7Raznatovic, Zeljko, 43

see also Arkan; TigersReagan administration, 103Realpolitik, 213Referendum for independence, 12,

141, 142Referendum for international

intervention, 78Refugees, 3, 10, 14, 53, 64, 65, 84, 86,

89, 103, 107, 111, 159, 160, 165,171, 192, 193, 196, 212, 213

Refugees syndrome, 3, 53, 69, 155,205, 213

Regional Issues Working Group, 59

Rehn, Elizabeth, 53, 60, 61, 62Reith, General John, 169Remy, 128, 136Richardson, Louise, 196Rilindja, 9, 10Roberts, Ivor, 57Robertson, George, 90, 196, 207Rogovo killings, 128Roma, 132Romani, 109Romania, 201Rome, 182Rose, General Michael, 170Rostow, Nicholas, 35Rubin, James, 143, 145Rugova, Ibrahim, 8, 12, 13, 24, 26, 27,

29, 30, 31, 37, 38, 39, 43, 44, 46,51, 53, 54, 56, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63,64, 66, 75, 77, 78, 79, 82, 83,

88, 109, 128, 133, 183, 204, 205

Rupel, Dimitrij, 24Russia, 2, 3, 14, 44, 46, 48, 49, 67, 69,

74, 76, 77, 79, 82, 85, 87, 88, 89,90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 103, 120,122, 126, 127, 128, 136, 148, 150,153, 157, 166, 173, 174, 175, 176,179, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 197,198, 200, 203, 206, 212

ally of Serbia, 90, 137, 174, 179,194, 203

Communist Party, 174condemnation of NATO, 175, 211Defence Minister, 91Duma, 2, 174, 175Foreign Minister, 91, 125, 174Participation in KFOR, 193, 194,

198, 199, 201Prime Minister, 152, 174Relations with West, 174, 197, 211representation at Rambouillet, 126,

135, 146, 149response to airstrikes, 175

SACEUR, 103, 106, 113, 120, 153, 188,193, 201, 202

Sainovic, Nikola, 115, 137, 197Sakharov prize, 18Salzburg, 59sanctions, 14, 20–2, 44, 45, 52, 55, 57,

63, 70, 76, 79, 85, 90, 91, 145‘outer wall’, 55, 57, 63, 70

Sandzak, 30, 31, 32, 33, 38, 46Sarajevo, 53Sarin poisoning, 11

see also Kosovar Albanians; schoolchildren incident

Save the Children, 40, 47Savovic, Margit, 42Scharping, Rudolph, 145, 164Schroeder, Gerhard, 123, 176, 178,

182, 190Second World War, 4, 145Security Community, 208–214

see also North Atlantic TreatyOrganisation (NATO)

Sejdiu, Pleurat, 136, 146Self-determination, 10, 17, 27, 28, 51,

68, 82, 86

254 Index

Selimi, Sylejman, 34, 128, 140, 141Semi-confederal system, 4Semi-permissive environment, 172,

176Serb-Albanian relations, 4Serb Christmas Offensive, 112, 113Serb intelligence, 147Serb media, 139Serb police murder, 114Serb students killing, 112Serbia, 1, 3–5, 7–9, 13, 15, 16–22, 27,

42, 57, 123, 129, 139, 165, 206abuses, 1, 3, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 16–19,

24, 29, 35, 43, 52, 54, 68, 70,71, 72, 85, 88, 90, 91, 114–18,214

airstrikes againstsee Yugoslaviaally of Russia, 90Constitution, 148Counter-proposals for Kosovo at

Rambouillet, 148, 149democracy, 58, 78economic sanctions, 44, 55, 74, 91see also Sanctionseconomy, 204education, 4, 9, 30, 33, 41, 46, 47,

611992 elections, 39, 41Foreign Minister, 128‘greater Serbia’ policy, 45, 214international pressure/resistance,

49, 58, 72, 85, 91, 106, 108,123, 157, 159, 170, 195, 196,206

Kosovo, absorption of, 25, 29, 37,39, 47, 48, 50, 56, 57, 76, 90,106, 109, 119, 122, 128, 149,154, 155, 169, 204, 206

language, 4, 9, 61military presence in Kosovo, 8, 10,

11, 20, 55, 59, 71, 74, 112, 140,157, 158, 159, 173, 195, 197,205

Ministry of Defence, see Ministry ofDefence

Ministry of Interior, see Ministry ofInterior (MUP)

Ministry of Justice, see Ministry ofJustice

Parliament, 148, 151, 181, 199peace plan, 58, 152, 199political–military strategy, 153, 195provision for autonomy, 108representation at Rambouillet,

128–43, 146, 147, 148, 149riot police, 71‘security operations’, 42, 54, 85, 88,

114, 116Serbian Academy of Arts and

Sciences (SANU), 8Serbian forces, 14, 70, 73, 107, 123,

124, 127, 145, 147, 157, 159,168, 170, 185, 187

Serbian resettlement programs, 10territorial integrity, 52, 55, 99, 132,

135, 214Serbian Forensic Medicine Institute,

116Serbian-Krajina, 27, 30

see also Krajina SerbsSerbian League of Communists, 5Serbo-Croat language, 4Sergeyev, Igor, 91Sergodyna, 174Seselj, Vojislav, 41, 130, 204Seven phases of engagement, 12, 13SFOR, 162, 163, 182, 183, 201Shala, Blerim, 83, 134Shala, Shaban, 106Shea, Jamie, 171Shelton, General Hugh, 165, 169, 192Short, General Mike, 97, 158, 162,

168, 195Show trials, 7Shuttle diplomacy, 57Sibler, Laura, 30Singleton, Fred, 5Skopje, 71Slovenia, 2, 5, 16, 21, 24, 27, 36, 38,

102Socialist Federative Republic of

Yugoslavia (SFRY), 22, 23, 25, 27,28, 32

Six constituent nations, 27Yugoslav Army, see Yugoslav Army

(VJ)Yugoslav People’s Army, see

Yugoslav People’s ArmySocialist Party, 42, 51, 57, 63

Index 255

Solana, Javier, 98, 111, 121, 127, 153,161, 165–6, 168, 192, 203

Sorbonne, 12Soros Foundation, 40South Eastern Europe, 163South Korea, 167Sovereignty, 51, 57, 76, 82, 99, 167,

213Soviet Union, 1, 18Spain, 73, 86Specific communities, 29Spring, Dick, 59Srebrenica, 50, 52, 72, 212Srebrenica syndrome, 3, 155, 205, 214Stambolic, Ivan, 8Status of Forces agreement

see North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)

Stimlje, 107, 114Stojiljkovic, Vlajko, 197Stoltenberg, Thorwald, 46Subotica, 38Sudja Holdings, 64

see also Albania; Pyramid schemeSupreme Allied Commander Europe

(SACEUR), 96Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers

Europe (SHAPE), 127Surroi, Veton, 10, 83, 107, 133, 141,

142Sweden, 53, 184Switzerland, 56, 129

Taiwan, 187Talbott–Chernomyrdin negotiations,

194, 197Talbott, Strobe, 75, 81, 182, 184, 185,

192, 193, 197Talic, Momir, 163Tanjug, 6, 39, 151Task Force Hawk, 169, 170Tenet, George, 165Terrett, Steve, 23, 26Territorial integrity, 166, 167Territory, control of, 25Terrorism, 62, 64, 70, 71, 72, 74, 76,

89, 91, 122, 130, 140, 145, 166see also Kosovar Liberation Army

(UCK)

Thaci, Hashim, 83, 128, 133, 134, 136,140, 141, 142, 143, 146, 147

Three syndromes, 2, 3, 205, 209see also Balkan Wars syndrome;

Refugee syndrome; Srebrenicasyndrome

Theoretical statehood, 4Third World, 5Thomas, Robert, 30Tigers, 43Tirana, 53Tito, Josip, 4, 167Trade preferences, 63, 74

see also SanctionsTritten, Jurgen, 190Trotsky, Lenin, 3Tudman, Franjo, 19, 54, 78Turkey, 3, 4, 46, 69, 86, 109Turks, 132Tutwiler, Margaret, 20

Unarmed intervention, 95, 101, 118,119, 120, 130

UCKsee Kosovar Liberation Army

UKDOM, 105Ukraine, 103Unilateral diplomatic initiative, 137United Kingdom, 14, 57, 87, 123, 161,

168, 171, 182, 193, 200, 207, 208,209

see also BritainUnited Nations (UN), ix, 28, 37, 4, 50,

53, 56, 61, 67, 69, 76, 87, 92, 93,98, 99, 104, 111, 123, 177, 191,200, 208, 211, 213

Charter, 53, 68, 76, 88, 89, 101Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 11Commission on Human Rights, 51,

62Economic and Social Council, 45Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organisation (UNESCO), 45Envoy in Bosnia, 184Envoy in Kosovo, 185General Assembly, 45, 51, 52, 213High Commission for Refugees,

(UNHCR), 89, 91, 101, 151,165, 212

256 Index

United Nations (UN) – continuedhuman rights reporting, 48, 52, 56legitimising role, 212, 213mediation, 185monitoring, 48Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), 190,

198, 200, 212, 213Operation Alba, see Operation

Albapeace plan, 189Protectorate for Kosovo, 123Resolution 713, 20Resolution 855, 48Resolution 1160, 68, 76, 77, 78, 88,

91, 101Resolution 1199, 68, 88, 92, 93, 94,

95, 96, 101, 107, 159, 208Resolution 1203, 101, 105, 126Resolution 1244, 175, 200, 203Secretary General, 79, 127, 185Security Council, 2, 3, 14, 37, 44,

45, 48, 51, 52, 53, 73, 76, 77,79, 80, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89,90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 98, 127,136, 159, 166, 173, 182, 186,189, 191, 192, 206, 210, 211,212, 213

Security Council Resolution(s), 20,73, 86, 182, 192, 194, 197, 200

Special Rapporteurs, 48, 50, 52, 59,60

Special Representative to theSecretary General, 102

Special Representation in Bosnia, 57

support for international intervention, 90, 176, 207

toxicology report of Sarin incident,11

Transnational Authority in EasternSlavonia (UNTAES), 122, see also Slavonia

UN operations, 145, 176, 183, 186UNPREDEP mission, 71, 73see also MacedoniaUNPROFOR, 151, 170

United Serbia, 4United States Air Force, 97, 169, 173,

188, 189, 208

United States, 1, 13, 14, 16, 20, 24, 34,35,42, 44, 48, 49, 50, 52, 55, 56,63, 65, 67, 68, 70, 7l, 72, 77, 79,87, 98, 107, 113, 122, 123, 125,129, 135, 136, 137, 143, 149, 151,152, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163,168, 169, 176, 177, 179, 184, 187,198, 200, 207, 209

Ambassador to Baghdad, 74Ambassador to NATO, 122ambivalence towards UN, 212Chargé D’Affaires, 85Commander-in-Chief, 184Congress, 17, 18, 19, 178, 183, 184Democrat Party, 183embassy, 34, 97, 105, 186hegemony, 1, 209, 212House of Representatives, 18isolationism, 177Joint Chiefs of Staff, 165, 192leadership, 77media, 165, 177military force against Serbia, 34, 71,

72, 85, 89, 90, 97, 127, 136, 150,152, 159, 179, 193, 196, 208

NATO enlargement, 157Pentagon, 97, 122, 123, 124, 152,

157, 160, 169, 170, 189, 192, 200President’s National Security

Advisor, 75, 128Presidential elections, 1, 34representation at Rambouillet, 132role in unilateral diplomatic

initiative, 137 Republican party, 159Secretary of Defence, 89, 157, 178,

192Secretary of State, 37, 73, 81, 89,

122, 124, 125, 141Senate, 143, 157, 159, 183, 184Special envoy to Balkans, 49, 64, 70,

74, 75, 81Special envoy to Kosovo, 81State Department, 13, 19, 20, 21,

71, 73, 74, 110, 122, 123, 143,145, 149, 152, 189

White House, 122, 139, 152, 176,184

see also EU–US summit

Index 257

USKDOM, 105United States Information Centre in

Pristina, 60, 62USS Enterprise, 124, 160University of Pristina, 5, 6, 9, 30, 61

student protests, 6, 9, 16uti posseditus, legal principle of, 25, 28,

36

Vance, Cyrus, 22, 29Vance–Owen peace plan, 44, 46, 84

see also Bosnia and Hercegovinavan den Broeck, Hans, 59, 62, 96–97,

145Vedrine, Hubert, 65, 75, 86, 87, 93,

126, 131, 133, 139, 142, 146Vegh, General Ferenc, 171Veltroni, Walter, 191VEM

see Kosovo Verification MissionVercenje, Novosti, 42, 151Vershbow, Sandy, 122, 123VJ

see Yugoslav ArmyVienna, 42, 101, 108, 163Vietnam, 159Vickers, Miranda, 61Vllasi, Azem, 8Volleback, Knut, 47Vojvodina, 8, 22, 23, 26, 27, 30, 31,

32, 33, 38 Vojska, 163von Kohl, Christine, 7Voronstov, Yuli, 44Vukovar, 21

Walker, William, 102, 103, 104, 108,111, 113, 115, 117, 120, 121

see also Kosovo Verification MissionWalt, Stephen, 209War aims, 157–60Warsaw, 103Washington, 105, 143, 152, 161, 166,

169, 172, 178Washington Post, 115, 143Washington summit, 177–9, 180, 183

see also North Atlantic TreatyOrganisation (NATO)

Weller, Mark, 109, 133, 137

see also Kosovar Albanian representation at Rambouillet

Western Europe, 1, 21, 65, 68, 131,210, 211

Western European Union (WEU), 61military intervention, 73

West, The, 2, 13, 33, 35, 51, 53, 54, 56,57, 58, 60, 65, 67, 68, 85, 86, 91,95, 96, 99, 108,109, 112, 113, 117,118, 119, 120, 155, 167, 171, 173,174, 184, 185, 190, 205, 210, 212

Confrontation with Three syndromes, 205

see also Three syndromesdiplomats, 143, 147engagement, 211leaders, 44, 68, 74, 165, 203, 206media, 16, 52, 60, 74, 109, 164, 196military intervention, 90, 170, 205relations with Russia, 174, 211troops, 71, 103

Wheeler, Nicholas, 207Whitman Air Force Base, 186Whitman, Jim, 213Wilkinson, John, 105Willcocks, General Mike, 163World Bank, 55World Economic Forum, 57World Health Organisation, 11Wright–Patterson air force base, 54, 55

Yeltsin, Boris, 2, 44, 67, 86, 90, 91, 93,126, 139, 174, 175, 176, 179, 203,211

Yeltsin–Milosevic agreement, 67, 77,91, 211

Yugoslav Airlines (JAT), 72Yugoslav airspace infringements, 79Yugoslav Army, Vojna Jugoslavije (VJ),

68, 71, 77, 79, 82, 84, 85, 91, 99,104, 106, 107, 111, 113, 114–18,119, 147, 148, 151, 158, 163, 164,171, 172, 180, 181, 182, 183, 185,189, 190, 193, 197, 198, 202

Chief of Staff, 99war against Kosovar Albanians, 151war against NATO, 151

Yugoslav League of Communists(LCY), 4, 6

258 Index

Yugoslav People’s Army (JNA), 11, 20,21

Yugoslavia, ix, 4, 5–7, 10, 13, 16,16–19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 32,36, 47, 68, 104, 109, 175, 176

airstrikes against, 77, 92, 98, 105,122, 123, 153, 155, 160, 161,167, 169, 175, 179, 194, 196

Communist Party, 41974 Constitution, 2, 4, 5, 25, 27,

28Constitution, 148, 205, 206debt, 89dissolution of, 16, 18, 19, 20, 35,

38, 80economic aid, 18–22federal laws, 148international response to, 56, 57,

59, 73, 77, 89, 105

Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 108oil embargo against, 180response to West, 197sanctions against, see

SanctionsSocialist Yugoslav secret police

(UDBa), 4, 17territorial integrity of, 76, 82, 119,

131, 132, 138, 148, 206troops in Kosovo, 143, 198unemployment, 5Yugoslav League of Communists,see Yugoslav League of Communistssee also Federal Republic of

Yugoslavia; Serbia; SocialistFederal Republic of Yugoslavia

Zajmi, Gazmed, 4Zimmermann, Warren, 18

Index 259