169

Notes

Introduction: Peacebuilding and War

1 See for example R. Paris, At War’s End: Building Peace After Civil Conflict(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004); D. Chandler, Empire inDenial: The Politics of State-building (London: Pluto Press, 2006); M. Duffield,Development, Security and Unending War (London: Polity, 2007); and GlobalGovernance and the New Wars (London: Zed Books, 2001); R. Mac Ginty, NoWar, No Peace (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006); R. Mac Ginty andO. Richmond (eds) ‘Myth or reality: The liberal peace and post-conflictreconstruction’, Global Society, Vol. 21, No. 4 (2007) pp. 491–497.

2 R. Fanthorpe, ‘On the limits of liberal peace: Chiefs and democratic decentral-ization in post-war Sierra Leone’, African Affairs, Vol. 105, No. 418 (2006) pp. 27–49; M. Moran, and M. Pitcher, ‘The “basket case” and the “posterchild”: Explaining the end of civil conflicts in Liberia and Mozambique’, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 3 (2004) pp. 501–519; I. Maoz, ‘Peace build-ing in violent conflict: Israeli-Palestinian post-Oslo people-to-people activities’,International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society, Vol. 17, No. 3 (2004) pp. 563–574.

3 South Asian Intelligence Review, http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/shrilanka/database/annual_casualties.htm, date accessed 8 March 2010.

4 See for example: H. Jeong (ed.) Approaches to Peacebuilding (Basingstoke:Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) pp. 171–196; E. Cousens and C. Kumar (eds)Peacebuilding as Politics: Cultivating Peace in Fragile Societies (London: LynneRienner Publishers, 2000); J. Goodhand and D. Hulme, ‘From wars to com-plex political emergencies: Understanding conflict and peace-building in the new world disorder’, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 20, No. 1 (1999) pp. 13–26; J. Lederach, Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in DividedSocieties (Washington D.C.: United States Institution of Peace Press, 1995);K. Kumar (ed.) Rebuilding Societies after Civil War: Critical Roles for Inter-national Assistance (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1997); and C. Crocker andF. Hampson, ‘Making peace settlements work’, Foreign Policy, No. 104 (1996),pp. 54–71.

5 W. Knight, ‘Evaluating recent trends in peacebuilding research’, InternationalRelations of the Asia-Pacific, Vol. 3, No. 3 (2003) p. 260.

6 The recurrent cycles of civil conflict and war-induced famine in the Horn ofAfrica during the 1980s highlighted the inadequacy of the typical inter-national response to humanitarian disasters. See in particular J. Macrae andA. Zwi (eds) War and Hunger: Rethinking International Responses to ComplexEmergencies (London: Zed Books in association with Save the Children (UK),1994) pp. 111–124.

7 L. Harbom and P. Wallensteen, ‘Armed conflicts, 1946–2008’, Journal ofPeace Research, Vol. 46, No. 4 (2009) p. 577.

8 J. Darby, ‘Borrowing and lending in peace processes’, in J. Darby and R. MacGinty (eds) Contemporary Peacemaking (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan,2003) pp. 245–255.

9 B. Reilly, Democracy in Divided Societies: Electoral Engineering for ConflictManagement (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); O. Richmond,The Transformation of Peace (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006) pp. 85–124; R. Paris, ‘Peacebuilding and the limits of liberal internationalism’,International Security, Vol. 22, No. 2 (1997) pp. 54–89.

10 M. Sollenberg and P. Wallensteen, ‘Armed conflict 1989–2000’, Journal ofPeace Research, Vol. 38, No. 5 (2001) pp. 629–644.

11 S. Stedman, ‘Introduction’, in S. Stedman, D. Rothchild and E. Cousens(eds) Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements (Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002) pp. 1–40.

12 J. Darby and R. Mac Ginty, ‘Introduction: What peace? What process?’, in J. Darby and R. Mac Ginty (eds) op. cit., pp. 3–5.

13 Ibid., p. 5.14 D. Chandler, Bosnia: Faking Democracy after Dayton (London: Pluto, 1999). 15 C. Arnson (ed.) Comparative Peace Processes in Latin America (Stanford

CA: Stanford University Press, 1999); J. Darby and R. Mac Ginty (eds) The Management of Peace Processes (Houndmills: Macmillan, 2000); J. Darbyand R. Mac Ginty (eds), op. cit.

16 F. Hampson, Nurturing Peace: Why Peace Settlements Succeed or Fail (WashingtonDC: USIP Press, 1996). See also B. Walter, Committing to Peace: The Suc-cessful Settlement of Civil Wars (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002).

17 C. Crocker, F. Hampson and P. Aall (eds) Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediationin a Complex World (Washington DC: USIP Press, 1999).

18 S. Stedman, ‘Spoiler problems in peace processes’, International Security, Vol. 22, No. 2 (1997) pp. 5–53; P. Regan, Civil Wars and Foreign Powers: Out-side Intervention in Intrastate Conflict (Ann Arbor: University of MichiganPress, 2002).

19 R. Poulton and I. Youssouf, A Peace of Timbuktu: Democratic Governance,Development and African Peacemaking (Geneva: UNIDIR, 1998).

20 P. Collier, ‘The political economy of ethnicity’, paper prepared for theAnnual World Bank Conference on Development Economics (WashingtonDC, 1998); P. Collier and A. Hoeffler, ‘Greed, and grievance in civil war’,World Bank Research Paper (Washington DC: World Bank, 2001); P. Collier,The Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy (Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press and World Bank, 2003).

21 S. Forman and S. Patrick, Good Intentions: Pledges of Aid for PostconflictRecovery (Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner, 2000); S. Woodward, ‘Economic priorities for successful peace implementation’, in S. Stedman, D. Rothchildand E. Cousens (eds) op. cit., pp. 183–214.

22 UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund), UNHCR (United Nations High Commission for Refugees) (United Nations Development Programme)UNDP and (World Health Organisation) WHO are all active in Sri Lanka.

23 ‘Preface from the Prime Minister’, in Government of Sri Lanka, ‘RegainingSri Lanka: Vision and strategy for accelerated development’ (December2002) (page not numbered).

170 Notes

24 CHA, ‘Building the foundation for peace and economic growth: Settingnational priorities’ (Colombo: CHA, 2003), p. 2. Paper prepared for the TokyoDonor Conference 2003.

25 Tokyo Donor Conference, ‘Tokyo declaration on reconstruction anddevelopment’, 10 June 2003.

26 BBC News, ‘Analysis: Politics and the tsunami’, 21 December 2005.http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4548832.stm, date accessed6 November 2005.

27 BBC News, ‘Rebel targets “hit” in Sri Lanka’, 1 November 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/world/south_asia/6104970.stm, date accessed7 November 2006.

28 C. Call and S. Cook, ‘On democratization and peacebuilding’, GlobalGovernance, Vol. 9, No. 2 (2003) p. 241.

29 Call and Cook cite J. Lederach, Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies (Washington, D.C.: US. Institute of Peace, 1997) andL. Reychler and T. Paffenholz (eds) Peacebuilding: A Field Guide (Boulder:Lynne Rienner, 2001).

30 C. Call and E. Cook, op. cit., p. 241.31 R. Mac Ginty and J. Darby, ‘Introduction’, in R. Mac Ginty and J. Darby

(eds) The Management of Peace Processes (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, 2000)p. 12.

32 R. Yin, op. cit., p. xiii.33 S. Stedman, D. Rothschild and E. Cousens (eds) Ending Civil Wars: The

Implementation of Peace Agreements (London: Lynne Rienner Publishers,2003).

34 R. Mac Ginty and J. Darby (eds) op. cit., 2000, p. 10.35 F. Hampson, Nurturing Peace: Why Peace Settlements Succeed or Fail (Washington

DC: USIPP, 1996).36 R. Paris, op. cit., 2004.37 C. Orjuela, ‘Building peace in Sri Lanka: A role for civil society?’, Journal of

Peace Research, Vol. 40, No. 2 (2003) pp. 195–212.38 The following authors have undertaken substantial quantitative research

into post-World War II conflicts: M. Doyle and N. Sambanis, ‘Internationalpeacebuilding: A theoretical and quantitative analysis’, American PoliticalScience Review, Vol. 94, No. 4 (2000) pp. 779–801; M. Marshall and T. Gurr, Peace and Conflict 2003: A Global Survey of Armed Conflicts, Self-Determination Movements and Democracy (Maryland: CIDCM, 2003); R. Licklider, ‘The consequences of negotiated settlements in civil wars,1994–1994’, American Political Science Review, Vol. 89, No. 3 (1995) pp. 681–690.

39 B. Walter, Committing to Peace: The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars (NewJersey: Princeton University Press, 2002) p. 16.

40 R. Mac Ginty, R. Wilford, L. Dowds and G. Robinson, ‘Consenting adults:The principle of consent and Northern Ireland’s constitutional future’,Government and Opposition, Vol. 36, No. 4 (2001) p. 484.

41 Take for example in June 2007 Daily News (Colombo) reported that ‘FiveLTTE cadres were killed and several others injured in a confrontation withthe Security Forces in Narakamulla, Thoppigala’, and ‘Three soldiers suf-fered minor injuries and were admitted to Maha Oya hospital’. Daily News

Notes 171

(Colombo), ‘Five terrorists killed, weapons recovered’, 8 June 2007. Tamil-net, the only broadcaster reporting from the North and East, and thereforeheavily censored by the LTTE, reported on the same story that ‘11 SriLankan troopers were airlifted to Polonnaruwa hospital, 2 more were beingsent from Batticaloa and another two admitted at Maha Oya hospital’ withno mention of any LTTE fatalities. Tamilnet, ‘Stiff resistance to SLA assaultin Batticaloa, 16 troopers wounded’, 8 June 2007. http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=22415, date accessed 14 June 2007.

42 M. Smyth, ‘Introduction’, in M. Smyth and G. Robinson (eds) ResearchingViolently Divided Societies: Ethical and Methodological Issues (London: PlutoPress, 2001) p. 9.

43 See P. Collier and A. Hoeffler, op. cit., 2001 and P. Collier, ‘Doing well out ofwar’, in M. Berdal and D. Malone (eds) Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendasin Civil Wars (London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000) pp. 91–112.

44 See K. Ballentine and J. Sherman (eds) The Political Economy of Armed Conflict:Beyond Greed and Grievance (Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner, 2003). Nafziger and Auvinen used different data sets and drew different conclusions toCollier. E. Nafziger and J. Auvinen, Economic Development, Inequality and War:Humanitarian Emergencies in Developing Countries (Houndmills: Palgrave, 2003).Elizabeth Picard’s research on Lebanon finds that causes of the war cannotbe explained solely through economic predation: ‘Though economic ana-lysis and rational choice theory throw new light on a conflict too oftendescribed as a “war of cultures”, these approaches do not diminish theimportance of the war’s subjective dimensions of creed, such as identity,faith and group solidarity’. E. Picard, ‘Trafficking, rents, and diaspora in theLebanese war’, in C. Arnson and I. Zartman (eds) Rethinking the Economics ofWar: The Intersection of Need, Creed and Greed (Baltimore: The John HopkinsUniversity Press, 2005) pp. 23–51.

45 Hoinville and Jowell estimated in 1977 that in order to survey 1,000 peoplein the UK it takes at least six months, and this included using 20 inter-viewers to carry out the survey. G. Hoinville and R. Jowell, Survey ResearchPractice (London: Gower, 1977) cited in C. Robson, Real World Research:A Resource for Social Scientists and Practitioner-Researchers (Oxford: Blackwell,1993) p. 122.

46 During the initial study period in 2001, access to the ‘uncleared’ areas wasdenied to foreigners unless they were undertaking humanitarian work. Itwas unusual for local humanitarian staff to be granted access, as it was poss-ible that they might assist the LTTE. The author was not granted access to this area. In 2006 access to the Vanni was denied to all foreigners andremains at the time of writing 2010.

47 The Situation Report for 31 January 2001 population information is takenfrom the report produced by the Vavuniya District Government Office.

48 M. Orkin, ‘The politics and problematics of survey research: Political attitudesduring the transition to democracy in South Africa’, American BehaviouralScientist, Vol. 42, No. 2 (1998) pp. 201–222 cited in R. Mac Ginty et al., op. cit.,p. 483.

49 Ibid., p. 483. They also cite problems of timing, ‘the level of cognitive burden’,survey respondents appearing more moderate to pollsters.

50 C. Robson, op. cit., p. 148.

172 Notes

51 See for example: BBC News, ‘Sri Lanka monitors hit by blast’, 14 January2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/world/south_asia/4612972.stm,date accessed 16 January 2006). On 17 June 2006 in Pesalai, a few milesoutside of Mannar Town, which I visited on a number of occasions in 2005,a group of men killed one woman and injured 47 others who were takingrefuge in the church. They then went to the beach where they lined up andshot four fishermen in the mouth, they killed another and burned hisremains in a fishing boat. They injured another man who escaped. Theyalso burned the fishing boats. This followed a clash between the LTTE SeaTigers and the Sri Lankan Navy that morning in waters just off Pesalai.Centre for Policy Alternatives, ‘Fact finding mission to Pesalai – 28th June2006’, 28 June 2006. http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/AMMF-6RDDZA?OpenDocument (12 September 2006).

52 B. Gillham, Case Study Research Methods (London: Continuum, 2000) p. 6.53 H. Nast, ‘Opening remarks on “Women in the Field”’, Professional Geographer,

Vol. 46 (1994) pp. 54–66.54 M. Smyth and J. Darby, ‘Does research make any difference? The case of

Northern Ireland’, in M. Smyth and G. Robinson (eds) op. cit., pp. 34–54.55 R. Scheyvens, B. Nowak and H. Scheyvens, ‘Ethical issues’, in R. Scheyvens

and D. Storey, Development Fieldwork: A Practical Guide (London: SagePublications, 2003) p. 149.

56 M. Gilkes had a similar experience researching in Vietnam. As a female,white, and British, she was seen as a ‘researcher whose research was per-ceived as a means to “international” money for female survivors of the conflict – despite numerous, and repeated explanations that [she] wasonly a student’. M. Gilkes, ‘Travelling light?’, in H. Brown, M. Gilkes and A. Kaloski-Naylor, White? Women: Critical Perspectives on Race and Gender(York: Raw Nerve Books, 1999) p. 86. See also B. Temple, ‘Watch yourtongue: Issues in translation and cross-cultural research’, Sociology, Vol. 31,No. 3 (1997) pp. 607–618.

57 S. Devreaux and J. Hoddinott, ‘The context of fieldwork’, in S. Devreaux andJ. Hoddinott (eds) Fieldwork in Developing Countries (New York: HarvesterWheatsheaf, 1992) p. 18 cited ibid., p. 151.

58 Pers. comm., Mannar, 9 May 2005.59 R. Scheyvens et al., op. cit., p. 151.60 B. Temple, op. cit. (1997) pp. 607–618; B. Temple and R. Edwards,

‘Interpreters/translators and cross-language research: Reflexivity and bordercrossings’, International Journal of Qualitative Methods, Vol. 1, No. 2 (2002)Article 1. http://www.ualberta.ca/~iiqm/backissues/1_2Final/html/temple.html, date accessed 24 April 2010.

61 Ibid., p. 609.62 Ibid.63 Ibid.64 ‘Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, aid as a share of donor countries’ wealth

remained stable at around half the UN’s target of 0.7%. Since then, however,the proportion has declined, reaching an all time low of 0.22% of grossnational income (GNI) in 2000. … this represents a decline in real termsbetween 1992 and 2000 of some US$8 bn, or around 12%.’ J. Randel andT. German, ‘Trends in the financing of humanitarian assistance’, in J. Macrae,

Notes 173

The New Humanitarianisms: A Review of Trends in Global Humanitarian Action,HPG Report (ODI, 2002) p. 19. It should be noted that while Western donorsmay have been reducing their ODA, there were other sources such as SaudiArabia and Iran which compensated.

65 The title of M. Smyth and G. Robinson’s book, op. cit.66 Ibid., p. 4.67 S. Barakat, M. Chard, T. Jacoby and W. Lume, ‘The composite approach:

Research in the context of war and armed conflict’, Third World Quarterly,Vol. 23, No. 5 (2002) pp. 992–994.

68 Ibid., p. 993. 69 See M. Israel and I. Hay, Research Ethics for Social Scientists: Between Ethical

Conduct and Regulatory Compliance (London: Sage Publications, 2006); I. Gregory, Ethics in Research (London: Continuum, 2003); and T. Beauchamp,R. Faden, R. Wallace and L. Walters (eds) Ethical Issues in Social ScienceResearch (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1982) pp. 101–124.

70 D. Warwick, ‘Types of harm in social research’, in T. Beauchamp, R. Faden,R. Wallace and L. Walters (eds) op. cit., pp. 101–124.

71 In March 2005 the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP) demanded that theWorld Bank withdraw a statement made by Peter Harrold, the CountryRepresentative of the World Bank in Sri Lanka, in an article published inthe Sunday Times (Colombo) which they believed undermined the sover-eignty of the country; if the statement was not, they recommended that heshould be removed. The Daily News reported that there were ‘posters onthe walls of Colombo and the suburbs calling for Peter Harrold’s expulsionfrom Sri Lanka’. Daily News, ‘Harrold gets a mauling in our arena’, 12 March2005.

72 D. Warwick, op. cit., p. 118.73 Ibid., pp. 119–120.74 Scheyvens et al. highlight this issue. R. Scheyvens et al., op. cit., p. 114.

Chapter 1 Peacebuilding and Economic Recovery

1 A peace won through military victory, where the victor exercises its powerover the vanquished.

2 ‘Peace’ ‘… freedom from war: cessation of war’. G. Davidson, M. Seaton andJ. Simpson (eds) Chambers Concise Dictionary (Edinburgh: W & R ChambersLimited, 1990) p. 716.

3 J. Galtung, Peace by Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development andCivilization (London: Sage, 1996).

4 For a discussion of this see H. Miall, O. Ramsbotham and T. Woodhouse,Contemporary Conflict Resolution: The Prevention, Management and Trans-formation of Deadly Conflicts (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1999) pp. 43–44.

5 O. Richmond, The Transformation of Peace (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan,2006) pp. 23–24.

6 M. Pugh, The Challenge of Peacebuilding: The Disaster Relief Model (Plymouth:International Papers, University of Plymouth, 2001) p. 2. See also J. Cockell,‘Peacebuilding and human security: Frameworks for international responses

174 Notes

to internal conflict’, in P. Wallensteen, Preventing Violent Conflicts (Uppsala:Uppsala University, 1998 Report No. 48).

7 The following authors all hold this view: W. Andy Knight, ‘Evaluatingrecent trends in peacebuilding research’, International Relations of the Asian-Pacific, Vol. 3, No. 2 (2003) pp. 241–266; P. White and L. Cliffe, ‘Matchingresponse to context in complex political emergencies: “Relief”, “develop-ment”, “peace-building” or something in-between?’, Disasters, Vol. 24, No. 4 (2000) pp. 314–342; and C. David, ‘Does peacebuilding build peace?Liberal (mis)steps in the peace process’, Security Dialogue, Vol. 30, No. 2(1999) pp. 25–41.

8 C. Call and E. Cook, ‘On democratization and peacebuilding’, GlobalGovernance, Vol. 9, No. 2 (2003), pp. 235–236.

9 C. Soanes and A. Stevenson (eds) Concise Oxford English Dictionary(eleventh edition) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) pp. 1052–1053.

10 S. Peou, International Democracy Assistance for Peacebuilding: Cambodia andBeyond (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007) p. 1.

11 J. Galtung, ‘Three approaches to peace: Peacekeeping, peacemaking andpeacebuilding’, in J. Galtung and C. Ejlers, Peace War and Defence: Essaysin Peace Research (Oslo: IPRI, 1975) pp. 282–304.

12 Ibid., p. 236.13 J. Galtung, in H. Miall et al., op. cit., p. 187.14 S. Ryan, Ethnic Conflict and International Relations (second edition) (Dartmouth:

Aldershot, 1995) p. 129.15 This is a theory that hostility between groups can be overcome through

‘getting the groups to engage in cooperative acts for common ends whichthey would not obtain on their own’. Ibid., p. 138.

16 Ibid., p. 151.17 J. Lederach, Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies

(Washington D.C.: USIPP, 1997) p. 20.18 B. Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace: With the New Supplement and Related

UN Documents (New York: United Nations, 1995) p. 11.19 Ibid., p. 11.20 Ibid.21 For example UN peacekeepers take responsibility for ‘disarmament’ and

‘restoration of order’, while the United Nations High Commission forRefugees (UNHCR) has responsibility for repatriation of refugees. E. Cousens,‘Introduction’, in E. Cousens and C. Kumar (eds) Peacebuilding as Politics:Cultivating Peace in Fragile Societies (London: Lynne Rienner Publishers,2000) pp. 5–8.

22 The UN’s budget for 2008–2009 was approximately US$4.2 billion. Theamount available for peacebuilding is unclear as many UN activities couldbe described as such. The Department of Political Affairs has a sub-programme on prevention, control and resolution of conflicts with abudget of $25,471,900 (around 19 per cent of the total annual budget)which ‘will promote more effective and cohesive action to help prevent,control and resolve conflicts and to address post-conflict peacebuildingchallenges’. UN General Assembly, ‘Presenting $4.2 Billion Budget for2008–2009 to Assembly’s Fifth Committee’, http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/gaab3818.doc.htm, date accessed 2 December 2006.

Notes 175

23 UN Peacebuilding Commission, ‘Questions and answers on the UN peace-building commission’, http://www.un.org/peace/peacebuilding/questions.htm, date accessed 2 November 2006.

24 R. Paris, ‘Peacebuilding and the limits of liberal internationalism’, Inter-national Security, Vol. 22, No. 2 (1997) p. 54.

25 Miall et al., op. cit., p. 22.26 World Bank, Post-Conflict Reconstruction: The Role of the World Bank

(Washington D.C.: World Bank, 1998) p. 4.27 Ibid., pp. 4–5.28 Ibid., p. 21.29 Ibid., p. 14.30 Ibid., p. 13. 31 Ibid., p. 8.32 Ibid., p. 3. Marjorie Lister, The European Union and the South (London:

Routledge, 1997) p. 1 argues that ‘Europe has developed a complex web of external relations but no common foreign policy’. She points out (in2000, before expansion) that ‘the EU operates an aid programme whichoverlaps with those of its member states. The member states subscribe to common development objectives in the Treaty of Maastricht, but notto a common competence to execute them. EU aid is thus a sixteenth aid programme, supplementing or complementing those of the fifteen EU member states.’ Ibid., p. 128.

33 Commission of the European Communities, Humanitarian Aid from theEuropean Community Annual Report 1992 (Luxembourg: Office for OfficialPublications of the European Communities, 1993) p. 5.

34 J. Sanahuja, The Dilemma of the European Union’s Development Policies (Madrid:Peace Research Center, 2004) p. 3. See also M. Lister, op. cit., pp. 125–129.

35 UN, ‘Support to peacebuilding: Examples of EU action’ (UN: Brussels,2005), http://www.europa-eu-un.org/articles/en/article_5015_en.htm, dateaccessed 12 September 2007.

36 J. Sanajuya, op. cit., p. 7.37 European Union, Working for Peace, Security and Stability – European Union

in the World (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the EuropeanUnion, 2005) pp. 6–7.

38 Ibid., p. 7.39 Ibid., p. 9.40 O. Richmond, op. cit., pp. 85–124.41 See M. Duffield, Global Governance and the New Wars (London: Zed Books,

2001); R. Paris, At War’s End: Building Peace After Civil Conflict (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2004); R. Mac Ginty, No Peace, No War (Basing-stoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006) pp. 33–57, and O. Richmond, op. cit. Allidentify significant shortcomings with the blanket application of liberalpeace to post-war scenarios.

42 B. Boutros-Ghali, op. cit., p. 11.43 UN General Assembly Resolution 60/180, 2005. 44 World Bank, op. cit., p. 8.45 M. Pugh, ‘Conceptualising peacebuilding: Human security and sustainable

peace’, in M. Pugh, Regeneration of War-Torn Societies (Houndmills: MacmillanPress, 2000) pp. 18–19.

176 Notes

46 B. Walter, Committing to Peace: The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars(New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2002).

47 Ibid., p. 4.48 B. Reilly, ‘Democratic validation’, in J. Darby and R. Mac Ginty, Contem-

porary Peacemaking (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003) p. 174.49 M. Doyle, ‘Liberalism and world politics’, American Political Science Review,

Vol. 80, No. 3 (1986) pp. 1151–1169.50 A. Prezeworski, M. Alvarez, J. Cheibub and F. Limongi, Democracy and

Development: Political Institutions and Well Being in the World, 1950–1991,Cambridge Studies in the Theory of Democracy (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 2000) pp. 14–17.

51 European Union, Working for Peace, Security and Stability – European Unionin the World, op. cit., pp. 6–7.

52 World Bank, Post-Conflict Reconstruction: The Role of the World Bank, op. cit.,p. 4.

53 B. Boutros-Ghali, op. cit., p. 11.54 B. Reilly, op. cit. (2003) p. 175. 55 R. Paris, op. cit. (2004) p. 44 cites H. Hegre, T. Ellingsen, S. Gates and

N. Gleditsch, ‘Towards a democratic civil peace? Democracy, political changeand civil war, 1816–1992’, American Political Science Review, Vol. 95, No. 1(2001) pp. 33–48.

56 J. Snyder, From Voting to Violence: Democratization and Nationalist Con-flict (New York: W. W. Norton & Company Inc, 2000) p. 16. See also D. Horowitz, ‘Democracy in divided societies’, in L. Diamond and F. Platter(eds) Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and Democracy (Baltimore: John HopkinsUniversity Press, 1994), pp. 35–55.

57 Ibid., p. 32.58 B. Reilly, Democracy in Divided Societies: Electoral Engineering for Conflict

Management (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001) p. 1.59 Ibid., p. 4.60 E. Cousens and C. Kumar, op. cit., p. 12.61 O. Richmond and J. Franks, Liberal Peace Transitions: Between Statebuilding

and Peacebuilding (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009) p. 4.62 T. Gurr, Why Men Rebel (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1970).63 P. Collier, The Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy (Oxford:

Oxford University Press and World Bank, 2003); P. Collier and A. Hoeffler,Greed and Grievance in Civil War (Washington D.C.: The World Bank,2001); P. Collier ‘Economic causes of civil conflict and their implicationsfor policy’, in C. Crocker, F. Hampson and P. Aall (eds) Turbulent Peace: TheChallenges of Managing International Conflict (Washington D.C.: US Instituteof Peace Press, 2001) pp. 143–162; and P. Collier, ‘Doing well out of war’,in M. Berdal and D. Malone (eds) Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas inCivil Wars (London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000) pp. 91–112.

64 D. Smith, ‘Dynamics of contemporary conflict: Consequences for develop-ment strategies’, in N. Græger and D. Smith (eds) Environment, Poverty,Conflict, PRIO Report, no. 2/94 (Oslo: PRIO, 1994) p. 59.

65 T. Gurr, op. cit.66 S. Blomberg and G. Hess, ‘The temporal links between conflict and econ-

omic activity’, Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 47, No. 1 (2002) p. 74.

Notes 177

67 See United Nations Development Program (UNDP) website page on ‘povertyreduction’ http://www.undp.org/poverty/, date accessed 28 November 2006.The UK’s Department for International Development’s (DfID) ‘easy guide to“eliminating world poverty”’ http://www.dfid.gov.uk/ wp2006intro/index.html, date accessed 28 November 2006. The World Bank’s own tag line is‘working for a world free of poverty’ which can be seen at the home page ofthe World Bank’s website http://www.worldbank.org (28 November 2006).‘The IMF is an organization of 184 countries, working to foster global mon-etary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade,promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reducepoverty [my emphasis].’ http://www.imf.org, date accessed 28 November2006.

68 D. Snook, Global Transition (London: Macmillan, 1999) p. 126.69 M. Blaug, Great Economists before Keynes: An Introduction to the Lives and

Works of One Hundred Economists of the Past (New Jersey: Humanities PressInternational, 1986) pp. 129–131 in ibid., p. 127.

70 Roland Paris (op. cit., pp. 45–46) points to research carried out by J. Walton and D. Sneddon, Free Markets and Food Riots: The Politics of GlobalAdjustment (Cambridge MA: Blackwell, 1994). Paris also cites another ninestudies published during the 1990s which have ‘described the apparentlydestabilising effects of liberal economic adjustment policies’.

71 E. Nafziger and J. Auvinen, Economic Development, Inequality and War:Humanitarian Emergencies in Developing Countries (Houndmills: Palgrave,2003) pp. 101–102 cites C. Mills, ‘Structural adjustment in sub-SaharanAfrica’, Economic Development Institute Policy Seminar, Report No. 18(Washington DC: World Bank, 1989).

72 Ibid.73 M. Kaldor, New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era (Cambridge:

Polity Press, 1999) p. 2.74 D. Keen, 1998 in J. Goodhand and D. Hulme, op. cit., p. 19. See also D. Keen,

‘Incentives and disincentives for violence’, in M. Berdal and D. Malone,op. cit., pp. 19–42.

75 Rational choice theory’s fundamental proposition is that ‘people are rational, self-interested, opportunistic, maximisers’ Larmour (1990) in M. Turner and D. Hulme, Governance, Administration and Development:Making the State Word (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997) p. 66.

76 J. Goodhand and D. Hulme, ‘From wars to complex political emergencies:Understanding conflict and peace-building in the new world disorder’, ThirdWorld Quarterly, Vol. 20, No. 1 (1999) pp. 19–20. Goodhand and Hulme attri-bute much of this discussion to Mark Duffield, David Keen and Alex de Waal.

77 ‘In 1999, in recognition of the devastating economic consequences of viol-ence in developing countries, the World Bank launched a large researchprogram in the Development Economics Research Group (DEC-RG) to study“The economics of civil war, crime and violence.” The project was co-managed by Paul Collier, director (DECRG), and Ibrahim Elbadawi, leadeconomist (DECRG).’ World Bank http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?menuPK=477971&pagePK=64168176&piPK=64168140&theSitePK=477960#economics_of_civil_war, date accessed 1 November 2006.

78 P. Collier, op. cit. (2000) p. 91.

178 Notes

79 M. Berger, ‘From nation-building to state-building: The geopolitics ofdevelopment, the nation-state system and the changing global order’,Third World Quarterly (2006), Vol. 27, No. 5, p. 13 cites K. Ballentine andJ. Sherman (eds) The Political Economy of Armed Conflict: Beyond Greed andGrievance (Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner, 2003).

80 C. Arnson, ‘The political economy of war: Situating the debate’, in C. Arnson and I. Zartman (eds) Rethinking the Economics of War: The Inter-section of Need, Creed and Greed (Baltimore: The John Hopkins UniversityPress, 2005) p. 12.

81 E. Nafziger and J. Auvinen, op. cit., p. 99.82 See P. Collier, op. cit., 2003 and P. Collier and A. Hoeffler, op. cit.83 A remark made by the Sri Lanka Country Director of the World Bank of

that time, Peter Harrold in P. Harrold and S. Sardesai, ‘The dynamics ofconflict, development assistance and peace-building: Sri Lanka 2000–05’,Social Development Notes, No. 23 (World Bank Conflict Prevention andReconstruction Unit, 2006) p. 3.

84 D. Barash (ed.) Approaches to Peace: A Reader in Peace Studies (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 2000) p. 199.

85 H. Miall et al., op. cit., p. 56.86 Ibid., p. 41.87 J. Lederach, Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided

Societies (Washington D.C.: United States Institution of Peace Press, 1995).

88 J. Rowntree, The Quaker Peace Testimony: An Anthology (Revised by H. Ford)(London: Friends’ Peace Committee, 1949) p. 7.

89 A. Curle, Making Peace (London: Tavistock, 1971) pp. 173–176.90 C. Sampson, ‘Religion and peacebuilding’, in I. Zartman and J. Lewis

Rasmussen (eds) Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (Washington D.C.: United States Institute for Peace, 1997)pp. 273–361.

91 Miall et al., op. cit., p. 1.92 Peacebuilding was coined by Galtung, a self appointed ‘founder of modern

peace studies’.93 P. Wallensteen, Understanding Conflict Resolution (London: Macmillan, 2002)

p. 10.94 Miall et al., op. cit., p. 21.95 Ibid., pp. 15–16.96 P. Wallensteen, op. cit. (2002) p. 34. 97 Ibid., p. 34.98 C. Mitchell, The Structure of International Conflict (New York: St Martin’s

Press, 1981); D. Pruitt and J. Rubin, Social Conflict: Escalation and Settlement (New York: Random House, 1986); and J. Galtung, op. cit.(1996).

99 Ibid.100 L. Coser, The Functions of Social Conflict (New York: Free Press,

1956).101 P. Wallensteen, op. cit. (2002) p. 39.102 E. Azar, The Management of Protracted Social Conflicts: Theory and Cases

(Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1990).

Notes 179

103 P. Wallesteen, op. cit. (2002) p. 44.104 I. Zartman, Ripe for Resolution: Conflict and Intervention in Africa (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1989); R. Fisher and W. Ury, Getting to Yes(Boston MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1981); and S. Stedman, Peacemaking in Civil War: International Mediation in Zimbabwe 1974–80 (Boulder CO:Lynne Rienner, 1991).

105 P. Collier, op. cit.106 See Andrew William’s chapter on ‘Reparations’, in A. Williams, Liberal-

ism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished (London: Routledge, 2006)pp. 71–95.

107 This revelation Kindleberger credits to Walt Rostow who was the AssistantChief in the US Division of German and Austrian Economic Affairs. C. Kindleberger, Marshal Plan Days (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987) p. 27.

108 Ibid., p. 34.109 ‘Participation’ in the current humanitarian discourse usually means a

‘people-centre’ or ‘grassroots’ approach, involving the local community inplanning and implementation. In the Marshall Plan it was at the statelevel and elite led.

110 In total, 16 countries were involved in the drafting of a scheme for therecovery of Europe: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Great Britain,Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway,Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and Turkey. M. Hogan, The Marshal Plan:America Britain and the Reconstruction of Europe (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1987) p. 60.

111 I. Wexler, The Marshall Plan Revisited: The European Recovery Program inEconomic Perspective (London: Greenwood Press, 1983) pp. 19–20.

112 D. Ellwood, Rebuilding Europe: Western Europe America and Postwar Recon-struction (London: Longman, 1992).

113 A speech given by the US Secretary of State, George C. Marshall, atHarvard University introducing to the US ideas of a European RecoveryPlan; hence the Marshall Plan.

114 S. Parrish, The Turn Toward Confrontation: The Soviet Reaction to theMarshall Plan, 1947 (Washington D.C.: Cold War International HistoryProject, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 1994).

115 Ibid., p. 4.116 Andrew Williams quotes from the papers of the American Governor,

Lehman, who administered the United Nations Relief and RehabilitationAdministration (UNRRA) (active between 1942 and 1946). A. Williams,op. cit., p. 114. The quote is made on page 121.

117 Ibid., p. 122.118 D. Fieldhouse, The West and the Third World: Trade, Colonialism, Dependence

and Development (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 1999) p. 36.119 M. Turner and D. Hulme, op. cit., pp. 4–6.120 G. Esteva, ‘Development’, in Wolfgang Sachs (ed.) The Development

Dictionary. A Guide to Knowledge as Power (London: Zed Books, 1992) p. 6.The Truman Doctrine was US President Truman’s (1945–1953) policy ofSoviet containment.

121 United Nations, ‘Preamble’, UN Charter.122 R. Paris, op. cit. (2004) p. 13.

180 Notes

123 Ibid., p. 15.124 D. Fieldhouse, op. cit., p. 235.125 The Bank provided its first non-European loans to Chile for the develop-

ment of electrical power in 1948.126 R. Paris, op. cit. (2004) p. 30.127 Ibid., p. 29.128 M. Latham, ‘Redirecting the revolution? The USA and the failure of nation-

building in South Vietnam’, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 27, No. 1 (2006) p. 28.129 J. Owen, ‘The foreign imposition of domestic institutions’, International

Organization, Vol. 56, No. 2 (2002) pp. 388–389.130 A. Henderson and D. Singer ‘Civil war in the post-colonial world,

1946–92’, Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 37, No. 3 (2000) pp. 275–296.131 W. Sachs, ‘The need for the home perspective’, in M. Rahnema and V. Bawtree

(eds) The Post-Development Reader (London: Zed Books, 1997) p. 290 refers toW. Kuhne, ‘Deutschland vor neuen Herausforderungen in den Nord-SudBeziehungen’, Aus Politik Und Seitgeschichte, Supplement to Das Parlament, No. 46 (1991) p. 6.

132 G. Esteva, op. cit., p. 4.133 J. Macrae, ‘The death of humanitarianism?: An anatomy of the attack’,

Disasters, Vol. 22, Issue 4 (1998) pp. 309–331.134 M. Pei and S. Kaspar, Lessons for the Past: The American Record on Nation

Building (Washington D.C.: Carnegie Endowment Policy Brief No. 24, 2003)pp. 3–4.

135 A. Sen, ‘Famines and failures of exchange entitlements’, Economic andPolitical Weekly (1976) No. 11, Special Number.

136 A. Sen, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981) p. 45.

137 J. Corbett, ‘Famine and household coping strategies’, World Development,Vol. 16, No. 9 (1988) pp. 1009–1012.

138 M. Anderson and P. Woodrow, Rising from the Ashes: Development Strategiesin Times of Disaster (Boulder CO: Westview Press, 1989).

139 Authors on this subject include Ken Hewitt, Piers Blaikie, Terry Cannon,Ian Davies and Ben Wisner.

140 D. Keen, ‘The functions of famine in southwestern Sudan: Implicationsfor relief’, in J. Macrae and A. Zwi (eds) War and Hunger: Rethinking Inter-national Responses to Complex Emergencies (London: Zed Books in associationwith Save the Children (UK), 1994) pp. 111–124.

141 Ibid.142 M. Pugh, op. cit. (2001) p. 12.143 R. Kent, Anatomy of Disaster Relief: The International Network in Action

(London: Pinter, 1987) p. 6 in Ibid., p. 14.144 UN General Assembly Resolution 46/182, 1991 (para. 40).145 Ibid.146 P. White and L. Cliffe, op. cit.147 UN General Assembly Resolution 46/182, op. cit.148 See H. Miall et al., op. cit., pp. 185–215 for further discussion of ‘post-

settlement peacebuilding’.149 World Bank, The World Bank’s Experience with Post-Conflict Reconstruction

(Washington D.C.: World Bank, 1998) p. 1.

Notes 181

150 Ibid., p. xi.151 See for example: I. Smillie, The Alms Bazaar: Altruism Under Fire – Non-

Profit Organisations and International Development (London: IntermediateTechnology Publications, 1995); D. Hulme and M. Edwards (eds) NGOs,States and Donors: Too Close for Comfort? (Basingstoke: Macmillan PressLtd, 1997); and T. Tvedt, Angels of Mercy or Development Diplomats: NGOsand Foreign Aid (Oxford: James Currey Ltd, 1998).

152 T. Tvedt, op. cit., p. 12. 153 A. Rogerson, A. Hewitt and D. Waldenberg, The International Aid System

2005–2010: Forces For and Against Change, Working Paper 235 (London:Overseas Development Institute, 2004) p. 5. http://www.odi.org.uk/public-ations/working_papers/wp235.pdf, date accessed 13 November 2006.

154 H. Jeong and D. Last, ‘Operational issues for peacebuilding: Organisationalimperatives’, in H. Jeong (ed.) Approaches to Peacebuilding (Basingstoke:Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) pp. 188–194.

155 These categories include ‘physical security’, ‘economic reconstruction’,‘human rights’, ‘institutional/civil capacity building’, ‘governance and demo-cratic development’. M. Llamazares and L. Levy, NGOs and Peacebuilding in Kosovo, Working Paper 13 (Bradford: Centre for Conflict Resolution,Department of Peace Studies, University of Bradford, 2003) p. 12.

156 Ibid., p. 12.157 M. Lange and M. Quinn, Conflict, Humanitarian Assistance and Peace-

building: Meeting the Challenges (London: International Alert, 2003) p. 13.158 S. O’Reilly, ‘The Contribution of Community Development to Peace-

building: World Vision’s Area Development’ (World Vision UK, November1998) p. 10. http://www.worldvision.org.uk/upload/pdf/Peace_ADP.pdf,page accessed 27 October 2003.

159 This approach fits the peacebuilding projects studied by Ifat Maoz in theMiddle East. I. Maoz, ‘An experiment in peace: Reconciliation-aimedworkshops of Jewish-Israeli and Palestinian youth’, Journal of Peace Research,Vol. 37, No. 6 (2000) p. 722.

160 UNRISD, Transition to What? Cambodia, UNTAC and the Peace Process (UnitedNations Research Institute for Social Development, 1993). http://www.unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/2f0008467c7d3ebc80256b67005b6556/$FILE/dp48.pdf#search=%222.8%20billion%20UNTAC%20Cambodia%22, data accessed 24 April 2010.

161 F. Hampson, Nurturing Peace: Why Peace Settlements Succeed or Fail(Washington D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1996) p. 194.

162 N. Warner, ‘Cambodia: Lessons of the UNTAC for future peacekeeping oper-ations’, paper presented to the International Seminar, UN Peacekeeping atthe Crossroads (Canberra: 21–24 March 1993) p. 3 quoted in K. Clementsand R. Ward, Building International Community (St. Leonards: Allen & Unwin,1994) p. 39.

163 M. Doyle, ‘Authority and elections in Cambodia’, in M. Doyle, I. Johnstoneand R. Orr, Keeping the Peace: Multidimensional UN Operations in Cambodia andEl Salvador (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997) pp. 151–152.

164 F. Hampson, op. cit., p. 195; S. Lithgow, ‘Cambodia’, in K. Clements andR. Ward, Building International Community (St. Leonards: Allen & Unwin,1994) p. 50; S. Peou, ‘Implementing Cambodia’s peace agreement’, in

182 Notes

S. Stedman, D. Rothschild and E. Cousens (eds) Ending Civil Wars: TheImplementation of Peace Agreements (London: Lynne Rienner Publishers,2003) p. 507. A. Griffith, Conflict and Resolution: Peace-building through theBallot Box in Zimbabwe, Namibia and Cambodia (Oxford: New CherwellPress, 1998) pp. 237–238.

165 E. Kato, ‘Quick impacts, slow rehabilitation in Cambodia’, in M. Doyleet al., op. cit., p. 195.

166 S. Lithgow, op. cit., p. 40.167 M. Doyle, ‘War and peace in Cambodia’, in B. Walter and J. Snyder (eds)

Civil Wars, Insecurity and Intervention (New York: Columbia UniversityPress, 1999) p. 188; S. Lithgow, op. cit., p. 52; S. Peou, op. cit., p. 508.

168 This is the conclusion of all analyses consulted for this section.169 United Nations, ‘El Salvador – ONUSAL’, http://www.un.org/Depts/DPKO/

Missions/onusal.htm, date accessed 24 April 2010. 170 Ibid.171 For an illustrative account of the difficulties faced in reforming the police in

El Salvador see C. Call, Ibid., pp. 399–402. See also G. Costa, ‘Demilitariz-ing public security: Lessons from El Salvador’, in M. Studmeister (ed.) El Salvador: Implementation of the Peace Accords (Washington D.C.: UnitedStates Institute of Peace, 2001) pp. 20–26.

172 K. Walter and P. Williams, ‘The military and democratization in El Salvador’,Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, Vol. 35, No. 1 (1993) p. 67 cited in F. Hampson, op. cit., p. 145.

173 C. Call, ‘Assessing El Salvador’s transition from civil war to peace’, inStedman et al., op. cit., pp. 393–396.

174 D. McCormick, ‘From peacekeeping to peacebuilding: Restructuring military and police institutions in El Salvador’, in M. Doyle et al., op. cit.,p. 293 refers to The New York Times, 6 and 7 January 1993.

175 G. del Castillo, ‘The arms-for-land deal in El Salvador’, in M. Doyle et al.,op. cit., p. 356.

176 The Ta’if Accord.177 T. Najem, Lebanon’s Renaissance: The Political Economy of Reconstruction

(Reading: Ithaca Press, 2000).178 A. de Soto and G. del Castillo, ‘Obstacles to peacebuilding in El Salvador’,

Foreign Policy, Issue 94 (Spring 1994) pp. 69–83.179 This is the conclusion from M. Doyle and N. Sambanis, ‘International

peacebuilding: A theoretical and quantitative analysis’, American PoliticalScience Review, Vol. 94, No. 4 (2000) pp. 779–801.

180 M. Duffield, op. cit., p. 22.181 European Union, Working for Peace, Security and Stability – European Union

in the World, op. cit., pp. 6–7.182 USAID, Status of Presidential Initiatives FY 2004 (Bureau for Policy and

Program Coordination, 2005) p. iii. http://www.usaid.gov/about_usaid/presidential_initiative/status_fy04.pdf, date accessed 19 September 2006.

183 United Nations, ‘The 2005 World Summit: An overview’ (United NationsDepartment of Public Information, 2005). http://www.un.org/ga/documents/overview2005summit.pdf, date accessed 19 September 2006.

184 See N. Feldman, What We Owe Iraq: War and the Ethics of Nation Building(New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2004); L. Jones and D. Klingner,

Notes 183

‘Learning from the Philippine occupation: Nation-building and insti-tutional development in Iraq and other high security risk nations’, PublicAdministration and Development, Vol. 25, No. 2 (2005) pp. 145–156; F. Fukuyama, Nation-Building: Beyond Afghanistan and Iraq (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2006).

185 See F. Fukuyama, ‘The end of history?’, The National Interest (Summer,1989) pp. 3–18.

186 O. Richmond, op. cit., pp. 85–123. See also O. Richmond, ‘UN peace oper-ations and the dilemmas of the peacebuilding consensus’, InternationalPeacekeeping, Vol. 11, No. 1 (2004) pp. 83–101.

187 Ibid., p. 87.

Chapter 2 Sri Lanka’s ‘Liberal’ War

1 E. Azar, The Management of Protracted Social Conflicts: Theory and Cases(Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1990).

2 Ibid., p. 7.3 Ibid. Credit is due to Oliver Ramsbotham’s efforts to highlight the ‘ori-

ginality and significance of Azar’s approach’. O. Ramsbotham ‘The ana-lysis of protracted social conflict: A tribute to Edward Azar’, Review ofInternational Studies, Vol. 31, No. 1 (2005) p. 109.

4 World Bank, World Bank Development Indicators (Washington D.C.: WorldBank, 2004). The World Bank reports Sri Lanka’s population in 2003 as19,193,000, http://www.worldbank.org/data/onlinedatabases/onlinedata-bases.html, date accessed 8 February 2005.

5 Sri Lankan census 1981 quoted in S. Tambiah, Sri Lanka: Ethnic Fratricideand the Dismantling of Democracy (London: I.B. Taurus & Co. Ltd, 1986)p. 4.

6 Indian Census 2001, http://164.100.167.45/census/religion.aspx, dateaccessed 8 February 2005.

7 Sri Lankan Census, 2001, http://www.statistics.gov.lk/census2001/data-base/index.asp, date accessed 1 November 2006.

8 Ibid. Many India Tamils have lived in Sri Lanka for generations.9 S. Poonambalam, Sri Lanka: The National Question and the Tamil Liberation

Struggle (London: Zed Books, 1983) p. 223.10 Ibid., p. 225.11 R. Cheran, ‘Diaspora circulation and transnationalism as agents for

change in the post conflict zones of Sri Lanka’ (Berlin: Berghof Foun-dation, 2004), http://www.berghof-foundation.lk/publications/diaspora.pdf, date accessed 20 February 2005.

12 Associated Press, ‘Tiny Sri Lanka has 800,000 refugees’, 13 June 2001quoted in UNHCR, ‘Background paper on refugees and asylum seekersfrom Sri Lanka’ (Geneva: UNHCR, 2004) p. 50.

13 Ibid., p. 51.14 K. de Silva, A History of Sri Lanka (Colombo: Vijitha Yapa Publications,

2003) p. 235.15 Jack Eller credits the success of the American Missionary Society estab-

lished in 1813 in ‘educating Jaffna Tamils in English, so much so that

184 Notes

Tamils began to outdistance Sinhalese in their command in the languageand therefore in their preparedness for service in colonial administrativeposts’. J. Eller, From Culture to Ethnicity: An Anthropological Perspective onInternational Ethnic Conflict (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002)p. 120.

16 Ibid., p. 100. See also K. de Silva, op. cit., pp. 122–129.17 A. Jeyaratnam Wilson, The Break-up of Sri Lanka (London: C. Hurst & Co.

Publishers Ltd, 1988) p. 5.18 ‘From 1871 to 1881, during the coffee boom, 24,000 Indians per year were

brought to Sri Lanka, and during the tea boom from 1891 to 1900, 34,000annually, adding 10 percent to the population of the island.’ During therubber boom of 1923–1928 ‘immigration averaged 60,000’. J. Eller, op. cit.,pp. 99–100.

19 Tamil populated North. 20 A. Jeyaratnam Wilson, op. cit., p. 5.21 D. Little, Sri Lanka: The Invention of Enmity (Washington D.C.: United

States Institute of Peace Press, 1994) pp. 21–36. 22 The missionaries viewed Buddhism and Hinduism as ‘idolatrous’, ‘heathen’

and ‘satanic’. Ibid., pp. 11–15.23 S. Jayaweera, ‘The ethnic conflict and Sinhala consciousness’, in A History

of Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka: Recollection, Reinterpretation & Reconciliation,Marga Monograph Series on Ethnic Reconciliation, No. 5 (Colombo:Marga Institute, 2001) p. 8. The nineteenth century Buddhist revival iswell served in Eller’s chapter on Sri Lanka, see particularly pages 109–119.See also S. Tambiah, op. cit., and D. Little, op. cit.

24 Eller credits Tambiah (op. cit.) for coining this term. J. Eller, op. cit.25 Ibid., p. 107.26 C. de Silva and T. Bartholomeusz, ‘The role of the Sangha in the reconcilia-

tion process’, A History of Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka: Recollection, Reinter-pretation & Reconciliation, Marga Monograph Series on Ethnic Reconciliation,No. 16 (Colombo: Marga Institute, 2001) p. 4.

27 Ibid., pp. 3–4.28 A. Jeyaratnam Wilson, op. cit., p. 1 quotes a despatch from the British

Secretary of State in 1801.29 Colbrooke visited Sri Lanka in 1831 producing the Colbrooke Cameron

Report. The Colbrooke reforms were implemented in 1833.30 Burghers are Sri Lankans descended from the first Portuguese colonists,

although Burgher is sometimes used to describe Sri Lankans of mixedparentage i.e. someone with Sri Lankan and European parents.

31 Ibid., p. 4.32 Jeyaratnam Wilson talks of a ‘new political awareness of the élites of both

the two major communities. Their activities were directed against the imper-ial ruler, and consisted essentially of demands for a modicum of consti-tutional reform.’ A. Jeyaratnam Wilson, Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism: ItsOrigins and Development in the 19th and 20th Centuries (New Delhi: PenguinBooks India, 2000) p. 41.

33 S. Ponnambalam, op. cit., pp. 48–49.34 J. Eller, op. cit., pp. 98–100.35 Ibid., p. 121.

Notes 185

36 According to Bullion, the first all Tamil party emerged as early as 1922, aresult of a ‘rupture along ethnic lines’ of the CNC called the Tamil MahajanaSabha. A. Bullion, India, Sri Lanka and the Tamil Crisis 1976–1994 (London:Pinter, 1995) p. 16.

37 Ibid., p. 123.38 S. Ponnambalam, op. cit., p. 74.39 Ibid., p. 78.40 Ibid., p. 77.41 K. Bush, The Intra-Group Dimensions of Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka: Learning

to Read Between the Lines (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003) p. 76.42 Ibid., p. 76.43 P. Ghosh, Ethnicity Versus Nationalism: The Devolution Discourse in Sri Lanka

(Colombo: Vijitha Yapa Publications, 2003) p. 228.44 V. Nithiyanandam, ‘Ethnic politics and Third World development: Some

lessons from Sri Lanka’s experience’, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 21, No. 2 (2000)p. 287.

45 K. de Silva, op. cit., p. 275.46 Ibid., p. 275.47 P. Ghosh, op. cit., p. 234.48 Ibid., pp. 227–235. See also K. de Silva, op. cit., pp. 272–296.49 UNHCR, op. cit., p. 47.50 D. S. Senanayake was succeeded by his son, Dudley Senanayake who won

the election with the UNP in 1952 only to resign in 1953 after a one daygeneral strike. Sir John Kotelawala (D. S. Senanayake’s nephew) replacedDudley Senanayake.

51 S. Jayaweera, op. cit., p. 6.52 S. Tambiah, op. cit., p. 68.53 Ibid., p. 82.54 Satyagraha emerged during India’s independence struggle as a peaceful

protest. Traditionally the police protected the protestors. S. Ponnambalam,op. cit., p. 105.

55 J. Eller, op. cit., p. 129.56 P. Ghosh, op. cit., p. 79.57 Ibid., p. 80.58 Ibid.59 P. Ghosh cites K. Loganathan, Sri Lanka: Lost Opportunities: Past Attempts at

Resolving Ethnic Conflict (Colombo: Centre for Policy Research and Analyses,1996) p. 26.

60 Ibid., p. 81.61 Ibid.62 P. Ghosh, op. cit., p. 81 cites K. Loganathan, op. cit., pp. 28–29.63 The UF was a coalition of the SLFP, the left-wing Lanka Sama Samaja Party

(LSSP) and the Communist Party (CP).64 K. Loganathan, Sri Lanka: Lost Opportunities: Past Attempts at Resolving

Ethnic Conflict (Colombo: Centre for Policy Research and Analyses, 1996)p. 38 quoted in P. Ghosh, op. cit., p. 86.

65 K. de Silva, op. cit., p. 131.66 See N. Nithiyanandam, op. cit., p. 294.67 Ibid., p. 126.68 Ibid., p. 541.

186 Notes

69 Ibid., pp. 541–542.70 See ibid., p. 542; S. Tambiah, op. cit., p. 14; and, S. Ponnanbalam, op. cit.,

p. 157.71 K. de Silva, op. cit., p. 137.72 Ibid., pp. 140–143.73 ‘Article 6 stated: “The Republic of Sri Lanka shall give Buddhism the fore-

most place and accordingly its shall be the duty of the state to protect andfoster Buddhism.”’ S. Ponnambalam, op. cit., p. 164.

74 K. de Silva, op. cit., p. 129.75 P. Ghosh, op. cit., p. 86.76 P. Chalk ‘The Liberation Tigers of the Tamil Eelam insurgency’, in R. Ganguly

and I. Macduff (eds) Ethnic Conflict and Secessionism in South and SoutheastAsia: Causes, Dynamics, Solutions (London: Sage, 2003) p. 130.

77 The LTTE emerged from the Tamil New Tigers (TNT). 78 P. Chalk, op. cit., p. 130.79 S. Ponnanbalam, op. cit., pp. 185–186.80 In the UNP election manifesto they pledged to ‘take all possible steps

to remedy the grievances in such fields as (1) Education (2) Colonization(3) Use of Tamil Language (4) Employment in the Public and Semi-PublicCorporations’. Quoted in S. Ponnambalam, op. cit., p. 190.

81 K. de Silva, op. cit. (1998), p. 162.82 J. Eller, op. cit., pp. 134–136. Jayawardene referred to himself as the 193rd

Sri Lankan head of state harkening to Sri Lanka’s ancient history of SinhaleseKings.

83 ‘Since Jayawardene came into power four years ago, a system of what hiscritics call “State Terrorism” has brought an Ulster-style situation in theTamil-majority areas of the North and East … Hundreds have beendetained without charge or trial. This year at least 156 Tamil youths havebeen detained and tortured, then released. Thirty-five are still held atColombo’s Panagoda Army Camp. Human rights workers, Sinhalese aswell as Tamil, told me that the most favoured tortures are hanging prison-ers upside down on heaps of burning chillies, and inserting needles undertheir finger nails.’ S. Ponnambalam, op. cit., p. 210 cites The Observer(London), 20 September 1981.

84 J. Eller, op. cit., p. 136. 85 S. Ponnambalam, op. cit., p. 194.86 J. Eller, op. cit., p. 137.87 S. Tambiah, op. cit., pp. 38–39.88 S. Ponnambalam, op. cit., p. 202.89 Presentation of Mr Kethesh Loganathan at Centre for Policy Alternatives

& Berghof Foundation for Conflict Studies, conference on ‘Peace anddevelopment: The road to Tokyo’, 26th–27th April 2003, Colombo.

90 L. Jayasuriya, Welfarism and Politics in Sri Lanka: Experience of a Third WorldState (Perth: University of Western Australia, 2000) p. 16.

91 Ibid., p. 9.92 P. Isenamen, ‘Basic needs: The case of Sri Lanka’, World Development, Vol. 8,

No. 3 (1980) pp. 237–258 quoted in D. Snodgass, ‘Economic development of Sri Lanka’, in I. Rotberg (ed.) Creating Peace in Sri Lanka: Civil War and Reconciliation (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1999), p. 91.

Notes 187

93 Ibid., p. 91.94 V. Nithiyanandam, op. cit., p. 293.95 D. Dunham and S. Jayasuriya, ‘Equity, growth and insurrection: Liberal-

ization and the welfare debate in contemporary Sri Lanka’, Oxford Develop-mental Studies, Vol. 28, No. 1 (2000) p. 97.

96 Ibid., p. 107.97 These observations were made by K. Loganathan, Interview, Colombo,

24 July 2004.98 S. Ponnanbalam, op. cit., pp. 203–225.99 Ibid., p. 225.

100 A. Patrap, Island of Blood: Frontline Reports from Sri Lanka, Afghanistan andother South Asian Flashpoints (Colombo: Vijitha Yapa Publications, 2001)p. 53.

101 SIPRI cites 1983 as the first year to exceed over one thousand war relatedfatalities.

102 S. Tambiah, op. cit., pp. 13–33.103 Figures taken from S. Tambiah, ibid., pp. 22–23.104 Ibid.105 Ibid., p. 27.106 A. Jeyaratnam Wilson, op. cit. (2000) p. 113.107 An extract from the Sixth Amendment to the Sri Lankan constitution

quoted in J. Eller, op. cit., p. 138.108 P. Ghosh, op. cit., p. 77.109 Ibid.110 N. DeVotta, ‘Illiberalism and ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka’, Journal of Demo-

cracy, Vol. 13, No. 1 (2002), p. 88 cites Ceylon Daily News, ‘Pact a racialdivision of Ceylon, Says Dudley’, 12 August 1957.

111 Ibid., p. 89.112 I. Zartman, ‘Dynamics and constraints in negotiations in internal conflicts’,

in I. Zartman (ed.) Elusive Peace: Negotiating an End to Civil Wars (WashingtonD.C.: Brookings Institute, 1995) p. 9.

113 Ibid., p. 89.114 S. Nadarajah and D. Sriskandarajah, ‘Liberation struggle or terrorism? The

politics of naming the LTTE’, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 1 (2005)pp. 87–100.

115 K. Stokke, ‘Sinhalese and Tamil nationalism as colonial political pro-jects from “above”, 1948–1983’, Political Geography, Vol. 17, No. 1 (1998)p. 101.

116 S. Nadarajah and D. Sriskandarajah, op. cit., p. 91.117 S. Ryan, Ethnic Conflict and International Relations, Second Edition (Aldershot:

Dartmouth, 1995) p. 63.118 S. Krishna, ‘India’s role in Sri Lanka’s ethnic conflict’, in A History of Ethnic

Conflict in Sri Lanka: Recollection, Reinterpretation & Reconciliation, MargaMonograph Series on Ethnic Reconciliation, No. 3 (Colombo: MargaInstitute, 2001) p. 3.

119 Ibid., p. 4.120 Ibid., p. 3. 121 These overtures included requesting military and financial assistance

as well as offering military bases to foreign powers other than India.

188 Notes

A. Bullion, op. cit., p. 78; S. Krishna, op. cit., p. 4; A. Shastri, ‘Governmentpolicy and ethnic crisis in Sri Lanka’, in M. Brown and S. Ganguly (eds)Government Policies and Ethnic Relations in Asia and the Pacific (CambridgeMA: Harvard University Press, 1997) p. 150.

122 M. Crenshaw, ‘Democracy, commitment problems and managing ethnicviolence: The case of India in Sri Lanka’, in D. Rapoport (ed.) TheDemocratic Experience and Political Violence (London: Frank Cass, 2001)pp. 139–140.

123 Ibid., p. 139.124 Sumatra Bose explains that after 1983, the Sinhalese government was

‘furiously expanding its armed forces from an assortment of countriesperceived to be hostile to Indian interests including Pakistan, China,South Africa, and Israel, not to mention a shadowy firm of professionalmercenaries operating out of the Channel Islands’. S. Bose, ‘Flawed media-tion, chaotic implementation: 1987 Indo-Sri Lanka peace agreement’, in S. Stedman, D. Rothchild and E. Cousens (eds) Ending Civil Wars: TheImplementation of Peace Agreements (London: Lynne Rienner Publishers,2002) pp. 633–634.

125 S. Krishna, op. cit., p. 6.126 P. Chalk, op. cit., p. 131.127 TULF, in contrast to the other mentioned organisations, is a political

rather than paramilitary organisation. 128 P. Ghosh, op. cit., p. 110.129 Ibid., p. 121.130 Ibid., pp. 122–123.131 S. Krishna, op. cit.132 A. Bullion, op. cit., pp. 60–63.133 The Indo-Sri Lanka Accord, 1987, Clause 2.2.134 Ibid., Clause 2.3.135 S. Bose, op. cit., 2003, p. 641.136 The Indo-Sri Lanka Accord, 1987, Clause 2.10. S. Bose refers to the issue of

land settlement, Ibid., p. 641.137 Ibid., p. 641.138 R. Edrisinha, ‘Trying times: Constitutional attempts to resolve the armed

conflict’, in J. Armon and L. Philipson (eds) Demanding Sacrifice: War andNegotiation in Sri Lanka (London: Accord, 1998).

139 S. Bose, op. cit., p. 642. See A. Bullion for Tamil and Sinhalese reactions tothe Accord, op. cit., pp. 110–115.

140 R. Edrisinha, op. cit., p. 1.141 R. Cooper and M. Berdal, ‘Outside intervention in ethnic conflicts’, in

M. Brown (ed.) Ethnic Conflict and International Security (Princeton, N.J.:Princeton University Press, 1993) pp. 181–205, p. 199.

142 A. Bullion, op. cit., cites The Independent newspaper, p. 110.143 Ibid., p. 634.144 A. Bullion, op. cit., p. 104 and p. 113. S. Krishna, op. cit., p. 7.145 S. Bose quotes Rajiv Ghandi as saying ‘India wants a settlement across

the table within the constitutional framework of Sri Lanka. We will notsupport the Eelam concept’. India Today, ‘Rajiv Gandhi, interview’,30 June 1987. op. cit., p. 637.

Notes 189

146 M. Crenshaw, op. cit., p. 141.147 S. Bose, op. cit., pp. 638–639; M. Crenshaw, op. cit., p. 141 cites J. Manor,

‘Politics: Ambiguity, disillusionment, and ferment’, in M. Marshall, Bouton[sic] and P. Oldenburg (eds) India Briefing, 1988 (Boulder: Westerview,1988) pp. 19–21. And K. de Silva and S. Samarasinghe (eds) Peace Accordsand Ethnic Conflict (London: Pinter, 1993) p. 127.

148 The Times (London), ‘Gandhi accused of arranging cover-up: Inquiry intoIndian corruption’, 28 July 1987.

149 Bullion cites India Today, ‘High stakes gamble’, 15 December 1987 inA. Bullion, op. cit., p. 110.

150 The Times (London) ‘Sri Lanka’s chance for peace’, 29 July 1987.151 The Indo-Sri Lanka Accord, 1987, Clause 2.9.152 A. Bullion, op. cit., pp. 122–124.153 Ibid., pp. 124–126.154 Ibid., p. 125.155 Ibid., p. 129.156 N. DeVotta, op. cit., p. 92.157 S. Krishna, op. cit., pp. 12–13. The same assertion is made by R. Edrisinha,

op. cit. and P. Chalk, op. cit., p. 133.158 When Sri Lanka sought external support against India following the Indian

air-drop of humanitarian supplies to Jaffna, none was forthcoming. S. Krishna,op. cit., p. 9. According to Bullion ‘The United Kingdom, the United States,Canada and Australia had all earlier signalled to Jayewardene and Rajiv Gandhithat they regarded the civil war as a conflict to be settled on a bilateral basisbetween India and Sri Lanka’, op. cit., p. 155. Bullion cites U. Phadnis, Ethnicityand Nation-Building in South Asia (New Delhi: Sage, 1990) p. 109.

159 I. Zartman, op. cit., p. 3.160 S. Ryan, op. cit., p. 66.161 A. Jeyaratnam Wilson, op. cit. (2000) p. 114.162 Ibid., pp. 126–130.163 R. Gunaratna, ‘International Dimensions of the Sri Lankan Conflict: Threat

and Response’, in A History of Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka: Recollection,Reinterpretation & Reconciliation, Marga Monograph Series on EthnicReconciliation, No. 27 (Colombo: Marga Institute, 2001) p. 5.

164 A. Chandrakanthan, ‘Eelam Tamil nationalism: An inside view’, in A. Jeyaratnam Wilson, op. cit. (2000) p. 167.

165 A. Jeyaratnam Wilson, op. cit., p. 132.166 UTHR(J) ‘Briefing No 1: Human rights and the issues of war and peace’,

August 1992. http://www.uthr.org/Briefings/Briefing1.htm#_Toc516680639,date accessed 21 March 2005.

167 P. Ghosh, op. cit., p. 142.168 Ibid., pp. 142–143.169 Ibid., p. 146.170 The Times (London), ‘Sri Lanka cancels Tamil talks after suicide blast’,

25 October 1994.171 P. Saravanamuttu, ‘Sri Lanka – The intractability of ethnic conflict’, in

J. Darby and R. Mac Ginty (eds) Contemporary Peacemaking: Conflict, Violence,and Peace Processes (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003) p. 204. TheTimes, ‘Tamil attack on navy leaves 11 sailors dead’, 20 April 1995.

190 Notes

172 The Times (London), ‘Colombo prepares to give Tamils regional self-ruleSri Lanka’, 4 August 1995.

173 P. Saravanamuttu, op. cit., p. 202.174 Toronto Star, ‘Tamils reject Sri Lankan peace plan’, 13 August 1995.175 R. Edrisinha, op. cit., p. 4.176 P. Ghosh, op. cit., pp. 201–214.177 BBC News, ‘Set back for Sri Lanka peace hopes’, 8 August 2000.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/870753.stm, date accessed14 March 2005. The Times of India, ‘Lanka delays constitution vote’,9 August 2000.

178 N. DeVotta, op. cit., p. 92.179 The Report of the Special Rapport from the UN Commission on Human

Rights provides a detailed description of just how serious the war situationwas in Sri Lanka in the years prior to the 2002 ceasefire. United NationsEconomic and Social Council, ‘Report of the Special Rapporteur, Mr. BacreWaly Ndiaye submitted pursuant to Commission on Human Rightsresolution 1997/61 – Addendum – Visit to Sri Lanka’ (Geneva: UnitedNations Commission on Human Rights, 1998).

180 C. Sriram, Peace as Governance: Powersharing, Armed Groups and Contem-porary Peace Negotiations (Houdmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008) p. 75.

181 USAID, ‘Anti-corruption needs assessment in Sri Lanka’ (Burlington, VT:ARD, 2006), pp. 1–2. http://www.ard-acp.com/resource/link/16/11_Sri_Lanka_ACP_Assessment_Report__Final_.pdf, date accessed 30 October2006.

182 Ibid.183 See for example Law & Society Trust, Presidential Election 1999 People’s

Choice? A Report on the Presidential Election of Sri Lanka (Colombo: Law &Society Trust, 2000).

184 Nithiyanandam notes that ‘Certain key regions of the country remaintruncated from the rest making a mockery of national-level economic statistics’, V. Nithiyanandam, op. cit., p. 303.

185 In 2003 the estimated population of the Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mannar,Vavuniya, Mullativu, Batticaloa and Tricomallee stood around two million.Department of Census and Statistics, Mid-Year Population/Vital Statistics by District (Colombo: Government of Sri Lanka, 2003).

186 UNDP, National Human Development Report 1998 Regional Dimensions ofHuman Development: Sri Lanka 1998 (Colombo: UNDP Sri Lanka) p. 30.

187 Ibid.188 Ibid., p. 11.189 Ibid., p. 31.190 Ibid., p. 31.191 Ibid., p. 39.192 V. Nithiyanandam, op. cit., pp. 283–311.193 USAID, op. cit.194 V. Nithiyanandam, op. cit., p. 285.195 N. Arunatilake, S. Jayasuriya and S. Kelegama, ‘The economic costs of the

war in Sri Lanka’, World Development, Vol. 29, No. 9 (2001) p. 1495.196 FIJ, ‘On the road to peace reporting conflict and ethnic diversity: A research

report on good journalism practice in Sri Lanka’ (USIP/IFJ in association

Notes 191

with CPA Sri Lanka) p. 8. http://www.cpalanka.org/research_papers/Road_to_peace_English.pdf, date accessed 30 October 2006.

197 KAPS, ‘For the sake of a just and lasting peace’, Draft Final Report(Colombo: Centre for Policy Alternatives, 2003) p. 34.

198 Ibid.199 Ibid., p. 23.200 USIP/IFJ, op. cit., pp. 8–11.201 J. Cockell, ‘Human security and preventative action strategies’, in

E. Newman and O. Richmond (eds) The United Nations and Human Security(Houndmills: Palgrave, 2001) p. 23.

Chapter 3 The 2002–2006 Sri Lankan Peace Process

1 See I. Zartman, Elusive Peace: Negotiating an End to Civil Wars (WashingtonD.C.: Brookings Institute, 1995).

2 Mitchell introduces the debate of whether an ‘outsider-neutral’ versus‘insider-partial’ mediator is most suitable when dealing with warring factions. He concludes, as is so often the case with civil wars, that ‘thereare circumstances in which one rather than the other is more likely to besuccessful, while the reverse is true in other circumstances’. C. Mitchell,‘Mediation and the ending of conflict’, in J. Darby and R. Mac Ginty (eds)Contemporary Peacemaking: Conflict, Violence, and Peace Processes (Houndmills:Palgrave Macmillan, 2003) p. 81.

3 A. Bullion, ‘Norway and the peace process in Sri Lanka’, Civil Wars, Vol. 4,No. 3. (2001) p. 77.

4 Agreement on a Ceasefire Between the Government of The DemocraticSocialist Republic of Sri Lanka and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.

5 I. Zartman, ‘The timing of peace initiative: Hurting stalemates and ripemoments’, in J. Darby and R. Mac Ginty, op. cit., p. 19.

6 A. Bullion, op. cit., 2001, p. 71.7 The Economist, ‘The Tigers pounce’, 28 July 2001.8 S. Samarasinghe, ‘Sri Lanka: Economy’, in J. O’Brien (ed.) South Asia 2007

(fourth edition) (London: Routledge, 2006) p. 510.9 Ibid., pp. 510–511.

10 P. Chalk, ‘The Liberation Tigers of the Tamil Eelam Insurgency’, in R. Gangulyand I. Macduff (eds) Ethnic Conflict and Secessionism in South and SoutheastAsia: Causes, Dynamics, Solutions (London: Sage, 2003) pp. 140–150.

11 K. de Silva, ‘Sri Lanka: History’, in J. O’Brien (ed.) op. cit., p. 503.12 This was Prabhakaran’s first public outing in 20 years.13 J. Uyangoda, ‘Peace in Sri Lanka: Prospects after Prabhakaran’s media con-

ference’, in J. Uyangoda and M. Perera (eds) Sri Lanka’s Peace Process 2002(Colombo: Social Scientists Association, 2003) pp. 19–24. These threepoints were identified during the Thimpu Talks during the 1980s; a pre-cursor to the Indo-Sri Lankan Peace Accord.

14 R. Ganguly, ‘Sri Lanka’s ethnic conflict: At a crossroads between war andpeace’, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 5 (2004) p. 909.

15 Ibid., p. 909.16 Ibid., p. 910.

192 Notes

17 ‘Both parties expressed their resolve to address the full range of issues per-taining to a lasting political settlement of the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka,fully realizing that this can best be achieved by pursuing a step-by-stepapproach to the negotiation process.’ Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs,‘Statement of the Royal Norwegian Government: Sri Lanka peace talks’, 19 September 2002.

18 Ibid.19 The Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ‘Statement of the Royal Norwegian

Government: Parties have decided to explore political solution foundedon internal self-determination based on a federal structure within a unitedSri Lanka’, Oslo, 5 December 2002.

20 The Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ‘Statement of the Royal NorwegianGovernment: Accelerated action on resettlement and humanitarianaction, progress on human rights’, Oslo, 9 January 2002.

21 WB News Release, ‘World Bank establishes Sri Lanka reconstruction fund’,20 March 2003; Daily News, ‘North East reconstruction fund from WorldBank’, 21 March 2003.

22 The Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ‘Statement of the Royal NorwegianGovernment: Press release’, Oslo, 8 February 2002.

23 J. Uyangoda, ‘Negotiations for dialogue’, in J. Uyangoda and M. Perera(eds) Sri Lanka’s Peace Process 2002 (Colombo: Social Scientists Association,2003) p. 64.

24 The Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ‘Statement of the Royal NorwegianGovernment: Consolidation of the ceasefire top priority, Sri Lanka mon-itoring mission to be strengthened’, Oslo, 21 March 2002.

25 SIRHN, ‘Joint appeal’, Oslo Peace Support Meeting 25 November 2002.http://www.peaceinsrilanka.com/insidepages/RRR/Appeal/Appeal.asp,date accessed 8 March 2005.

26 ‘Declaration in support of the peace process in Sri Lanka’, Oslo PeaceSupport Meeting, 25 November 2002. http://www.peaceinsrilanka.com/insidepages/Internationalsuppoer/OsloMeeting/Declaration.asp, date accessed8 March 2005.

27 R. Ganguly, op. cit., p. 911.28 S. Hattotuwa, ‘Overview of the Peace Process in Sri Lanka 2002–2003’,

paper presented at the conference on Strengthening Cooperation andSecurity in Asia Post 9/11 by the Bangladesh Enterprise Institute, 1–3 July2003, Dhaka, Bangladesh, p. 10.

29 For example, in an interview with Time Magazine in 2004, the interviewerasked Mrs Kumaratunga: ‘Where did all this animosity start?’ and shereplied ‘In the genes of Mr. Ranil Wickremesinghe. You can write thatdown’. Time Magazine, ‘Politics is a terrible game: Kumaratunga interview’,22 March 2004.

30 The LTTE have for some time been making the claim that they are thesole representatives of the Sri Lankan Tamils. As early as June 1987 theLTTE had asked the Indian government to ‘to recognize the L.T.T.E. as the sole representative of the Tamil people and Prabakaran as their leader’.R. Hoole The Broken Palmyra: The Tamil Crisis in Sri Lanka – An Inside(Claremont, CA: Sri Lanka Studies Institute, 1990). See also R. Gunaratna,‘International dimensions of the Sri Lankan conflict: Threat and response’,

Notes 193

in A History of Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka: Recollection, Reinterpretation &Reconciliation, Marga Monograph Series on Ethnic Reconciliation, No. 27(Colombo: Marga Institute, 2001) p. 3.

31 ‘The main opposition party in Sri Lanka has criticised the current peaceprocess – calling the Norwegian mediators partial and accusing the UKand America of planning to reward terrorism.’ BBC News, ‘Sri Lanka peacemoves attacked’, 15 November 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/world/south_asia/2480637.stm, date accessed 1 December 2007.

32 S. Hattotuwa, op. cit.33 R. Ganguly, op. cit., p. 911.34 T. Ferdinands, K. Rupesinghe, P. Saravanmuttu, J. Uyangoda and N. Ropers,

The Sri Lanka Peace Process at Crossroads: Lessons, Opportunities and Ideas for Principled Negotiations & Conflict Transformation (Colombo: Centre forPolicy Alternatives, Foundation for Co-Existence, Initiative for Political andConflict Transformation, Social Scientists Association, Berghof Foundationfor Conflict Studies Sri Lanka Office, 2004) p. 18.

35 ‘The proposal by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam on behalf of the Tamilpeople for an agreement to establish an interim self-governing authority for the northeast of the island of Sri Lanka’, http://www.peaceinsrilanka. org/peace2005/Insidepage/Proposals/Proposals.asp, date accessed 19 January2006.

36 The Sunday Observer (Colombo), ‘JVP goes East for awakening’, 5 September2005.

37 T. Ferdinands et al., op. cit., p. 19.38 Interview, Donor, Colombo, 20 June 2005.39 A. Ofstad, ‘Countries in violent conflict and aid strategies: The case of

Sri Lanka’, World Development, Vol. 30, No. 2 (2002) p. 165.40 Ibid.41 Ibid., pp. 170–171.42 Ibid., p. 168.43 Ibid., p. 171.44 Ibid., pp. 172–173.45 A lull in 2000 allowed UNHCR to relocate some families from Welfare

Centres. They did this with the help of NGOs. These ‘resettlement vil-lages’ were observed by the author in Vavunyia in 2001. This relocation is reported in UNHCR, ‘UNHCR Mid-Year Progress Report 2001 – SouthAsia’, http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/3e6e16220.pdf, date accessed 28 October 2006.

46 A. Ofstad, op. cit., pp. 175–176.47 Ibid., p. 167.48 Ibid., p. 166.49 Ibid., p. 166.50 Ibid., p. 167.51 Ibid., p. 167.52 Ibid., p. 170. The United Kingdom (UK) government spent almost

€56 million between 1997 and 2001 on peacebuilding projects in Sri Lanka.In a review of these projects in 2003, Ofstad’s observations are confirmed.The report concluded that ‘the UK did not have a peacebuilding strategyas such’ and ‘that confusion over terms such as peacebuilding and conflict

194 Notes

prevention, and lack of consistency in using policy markers, can lead tounder estimating the extent of the UK government’s efforts in this area’.S. Lawry-White, ‘Review of the UK government approach to peacebuildingand synthesis of lessons learned from UK government funded peacebuildingprojects 1997–2002’, August 2003, commissioned by the Evaluation Depart-ment of the United Kingdom department for International Developmentfor the Joint Utstein Study of Peacebuilding conducted with the EvaluationDepartments of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperationand Development, the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and theRoyal Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, pp. 3–10.

53 A. Ofstad, op. cit., pp. 172–173.54 UNP, ‘UNP manifesto 2001’ (Colombo: UNP, 2001).55 Ibid.56 Ibid.57 Sunday Times (Colombo), ‘Embargo relaxed as truce begins’, 23 December

2001.58 S. Bastian, ‘The economics of peace’, in Towards Peace in Sri Lanka, ORF Series

on Contemporary South Asia (New Delhi: Observer Research Foundation,2002) pp. 53–56. Eric Solheim also mentioned business as being a con-stituent for peace in his opening speech at the beginning of the peace talks.

59 S. Bastian, op. cit., p. 54.60 Few people from the South go to the North. One informant noted that

when in Colombo people did not know Mannar was not linked by rail.The railway line in the North West was destroyed in the 1980s. Before theceasefire the only way there was a 16-hour journey by road to Puttalamand then by boat to Mannar. After the MoU it was possible to make thejourney by bus, halving the journey time.

61 Mr Vidar Helgesen, Secretary of State, Norwegian Ministry of ForeignAffairs, ‘Address at the inaugural session of the Sri Lankan peace talks’,Sattahip. Thailand, 16 September 2002. www.peaceinsrilanka.com/inside-pages/Archive/September/16VidarSpeech.asp, date accessed 27 November2007.

62 The Island, ‘Govt. says 173 check points removed’, 11 April 2002.63 The Island, ‘More than 40 Black Tigers already in government areas?

Intelligence agencies ineffective without powers to arrest LTTE suspects’,24 March 2002.

64 N. Krishnan, Sri Lanka Strategy Market Outlook: Peace Dividends and the Roadto Riches (Hong Kong: CLSA, 2002) p. 23.

65 Interview, Norwegian Ambassador, Colombo, 22 June 2004.66 Ibid.67 Tokyo Donor Conference, ‘Tokyo declaration on reconstruction and

development of Sri Lanka’, 10 June 2003. http://www.peaceinsrilanka.com/insidepages/Internationalsuppoer/TokyoDonor/TokyoDec100603.as,date accessed 8 March 2005.

68 Ibid. At Oslo the parties had to agreed to ‘explore a solution founded onthe principle of internal self-determination in areas of historical habit-ation of the Tamil-speaking peoples, based on a federal structure within a united Sri Lanka’, Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ‘Statement of the

Notes 195

Royal Norwegian Government’ (Oslo), 5 December 2002. http://www.peace-insrilanka.com/insidepages/Pressrelease/RNG/RNG5thDec.asp, 8 March2005.

69 Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies, ‘Building a foundation for peaceand economic growth: Setting national priorities’, paper prepared for theTokyo Donor Conference (Colombo: CHA, 2003).

70 P. Saravanamuttu quoted in CPA and Berghof Foundation for ConflictStudies, ‘Peace and development: The road to Tokyo’, 26–27 April 2003,p. 2.

71 Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies, op. cit., p. 1.72 Ranil Wickremesinghe’s preface to Regaining Sri Lanka. Government of

Sri Lanka, ‘Regaining Sri Lanka: Vision and strategy for accelerated develop-ment’ (December 2002), page without number.

73 Ibid., p. 47.74 Ibid., pp. 47–53.75 Ibid., p. 52.76 Ibid., p. 53.77 Ibid.78 Ibid.79 Ibid.80 Ibid.81 Ibid., p. 52.82 Ibid., p. 52.83 Ibid., p. 53.84 L. Cabral, ‘Poverty reduction strategies and rural productive sectors: What

have we learnt, what else do we need to ask’, Natural Resources Perspectives100 (London: Overseas Development Institute, 2006) p. 1.

85 The World Bank and IMF, ‘Building poverty reduction strategies in develop-ing countries’, 22 September 1999.

86 Ibid., p. 5.87 The World Bank, ‘Country assistance strategy progress report for the demo-

cratic and socialist republic of Sri Lanka’, Report No. 34054-LK, 6 January2006, p. 2.

88 The World Bank, ‘Memorandum of the President of the InternationalDevelopment Association and the International Finance Corporation to the Executive Directors on a country assistance strategy of the WorldBank group for the democratic and socialist republic of Sri Lanka’, Report No. 25413-CE, 23 April 2003, p. i.

89 ‘Declaration in support of the peace process in Sri Lanka’, Oslo Peace SupportMeeting, 25 November 2002.

90 UNP, ‘UNP manifesto 2001’ (Colombo: UNP, 2001).91 K. de Silva, op. cit., p. 530.92 Interview, Norwegian Ambassador, op. cit.93 S. Kelegama, ‘Transforming conflict with an economic dividend the

Sri Lankan experience’, Research Paper No. 2005/48, UN-WIDER (August2005) paper originally prepared for the WIDER conference on MakingPeace Work, 4–5 June 2004. http://www.wider.unu.edu/publications/rps/rps2005/rp2005-48.pdf, date accessed 2 November 2006.

94 S. Bastian, op. cit., p. 54.

196 Notes

95 Ibid., p. 5.96 Ibid.97 Ibid., p. 6.98 Ibid., p. 6.99 J. Park and S. Deshapriya, On the Road to Peace: Reporting Conflict and Ethnic

Diversity: A Research Report on Good Journalism Practice in Sri Lanka(Brussels: International Federation of Journalists and United StatesInstitute of Peace (USIP)) p. 8.

100 Ibid.101 Ibid.102 Ibid.103 Interview, Former UNP Civil Servant/Advisor, Colombo, Interview, 3 July

2004.104 Ibid.105 The Daily Mirror commented in July 2004 ‘that the expectation of a large

peace dividend is truly high and Ranil’s inability to share this gain during histenure with the poor caused him dearly at the April 2nd election’. DailyMirror (Colombo), ‘UPFA and UNF should co-habit’, 7 July 2004. The BBCreported after the UPFA’s election win that ‘Many voters have also com-plained that, despite two years of ceasefire, they have not seen any peace dividend, with the cost of living constantly rising’. BBC News, ‘Presidentwins Sri Lanka election Sunday’, 4 April 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3596227.stm, date accessed 29 November 2007.

106 Interview, donor, Colombo, 24 July 2004.107 The World Bank, ‘Country assistance strategy progress report for the demo-

cratic and socialist republic of Sri Lanka’, Report No. 34054-LK, 6 January2006, p. 3.

108 Ibid., p. 3.109 The Independent, ‘Tamil Tigers swap guns for politics as ceasefire holds’,

9 April 2002.110 Times of India, ‘Lanka’s highway to northern peninsula opens’, 8 April 2002.111 Interview, donor, Colombo, 21 June 2005.112 Aid to Sri Lanka increased from US$344 million in 2002, to US$672 million in

2003. From ‘Aid at a glance: Sri Lanka’, OECD website, http://www1.oecd.org/scripts/cde/viewbase.asp?dbname=cde_dac, date accessed 21 September 2005.

113 ‘Summarized status report NECORD’, NECORD website, http://www.necord.org/1progress/progress.htm, date accessed 21 September 2005.

114 ‘North-east irrigated agriculture project’, World Bank website, http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P058070, date accessed 22 September 2005.

115 ‘World Bank extends support for rebuilding Sri Lanka’s conflict-affectedcommunities’, World Bank website, http://www.worldbank.lk/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/SRILANKAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20217033~menuPK:287049~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:233047,00.html, date accessed 22 September 2005.

116 Interview, Former UNP civil servant/advisor, op. cit.117 World Bank, ‘World Bank country director clarifies position on World

Bank aid to north east Sri Lanka’, 7 March 2005. http://www.worldbank.

Notes 197

lk/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/SRILANKAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20383332~menuPK:287050~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:233047,00.html, date accessed 18 January 2006.

118 Interview, Former UNP civil servant/advisor, op. cit.119 Interview PDS, Killinochchi, 29 June 2004.120 Observed by the author.121 The humanitarian arm of the LTTE.122 See for example V. Cuthbert, ‘Civil society development versus the peace

dividend: International aid in the Wanni’, Disasters, Vol. 29, No. 1 (2005)pp. 38–57.

123 The World University Service Canada (WUSC) planned to implementtraining projects in the Vanni during the ceasefire period. WUSC receivesfunding from the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA),and Canada had proscribed the LTTE, so the project could not go ahead asWUSC would be working with the LTTE.

124 Interview, NGO, Colombo, 27 June 2004.125 Observed by the author. 126 Interview, TRO, Killinochchi, 28 June 2004. Interview PDS, Killinochchi,

op. cit.127 Interview, donor, Colombo, 19 July 2004.128 Observed by the author.129 This situation was widely reported to the author by almost all the NGOs

consulted during the field study period. 130 Interview, donor, Colombo, 24 July 2004.131 Interview PDS, Killinochchi, op. cit.132 Ibid.133 Interview, donor, Colombo, 19 July 2004.134 Tokyo Donor Conference, ‘Tokyo declaration on reconstruction and develop-

ment of Sri Lanka’, 10 June 2003. http://www.peaceinsrilanka.com/inside-pages/Internationalsuppoer/TokyoDonor/TokyoDec100603.asp, date accessed8 March 2005.

135 Interview, TRO, op. cit. Interview, PDS, op. cit.136 Interview, donor, Colombo, 21 June 2004. 137 Interview, former UNP civil servant/advisor, op. cit.138 The Upper Kotmale Hydropower Project. http://www.ukhp.lk/funding.htm,

date accessed 4 October 2007.139 Interview, donor, Colombo, 21 June 2004.140 Interview, multilateral donor, Colombo, 22 June 2004.141 Interview, Colombo, 21 June 2004.142 Mr. M. S. Jayasinghe, Secretary, Triple-R Ministry, Colombo, 22 July 2004.143 ‘Figures indicate a dead and missing figure of over 38,900. The [number]

of Families [sic] affected is around 234,000 which is nearly one millionpersons. 114,000 houses and private buildings completely destroyed orpartially damaged. 176 schools fully or partially destroyed. 435km ofroads and 23 bridges damaged. 160km of railway track, 35 main and 34sub railway stations and 10 bridges destroyed. 600 km of low voltagelines, 50 km of medium voltage lines and 6,500km of power service lineswere destroyed. 222,660 households lost access to electricity.’ Task Forcefor Relief, ‘Initial post-tsunami recovery phase results and challenges’,

198 Notes

Sri Lanka Development Forum 2005, Back Ground Papers, 16–17 May2005, p. 2.

144 Ministry of Finance and Planning, ‘Donor support, pledges, commitmentsand expenditure – The process’, Back Ground Paper for the Sri LankaDevelopment Forum 2005, op. cit., p. 34.

145 Ibid., p. 36.146 P. Harrold and S. Sardesai, ‘The dynamics of conflict, development assistance

and peace-building: Sri Lanka 2000–05’, Social Development Notes, No. 23(2006), Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction Unit, World Bank, p. 3.

147 BBC News, ‘Analysis: Politics and the tsunami’, 21 December 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4548832.stm, date accessed 6 November 2005.

148 Daily News (Colombo), ‘No final decision on P-TOMS sans consulta-tions with Maha Nayakas – President’, 11 June 2005. The Sunday Leader(Colombo), ‘Monks ready to cross the line of democracy’, 12 June 2005.

149 Shortly after its’ signing, P-TOMS was suspended pending judicial review.On 15 July 2005 the Supreme Court ruled there was nothing unlawfulabout the arrangement. Daily News (Colombo), ‘No legal barrier to pactwith LTTE’, 2 August 2005. However a further application was submittedwhich was due to be heard on 22 November 2005, at this hearing the‘new government was taking steps to enforce a National DisasterManagement Council Act’, and it was ‘redundant’. Daily News (Colombo),‘P-TOMS redundant under proposed new Act – H.L.’, 22 November 2005.

150 The Sunday Leader, ‘JVP jumps ship as economy plummets’, 19 June 2005.151 Interview, Norwegian Ambassador, op. cit.152 The World Bank, Sri Lanka and the World Bank: Working for Development

Results (Colombo: World Bank, 2005).153 Consisting of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the Food and Agriculture

Organisation (FAO), the International Fund for Agriculture Development(IFAD), the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the International Mone-tary Fund (IMF), the International Organisation for Migration (IOM), theUnited Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations DevelopmentProgramme (UNDP), United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR),the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UNHABITAT), the UnitedNations Population Fund (UNFPA), the World Bank Group (WB), the WorldFood Programme (WFP), and the World Health Organisation (WHO).

154 The Multilateral Group, Preparing for Transition in Sri Lanka: A Contributionfrom the Multilateral Group, Draft, 1 June 2004, p. 5. http://www.human-itarianinfo.org/SriLanka/hosting/unsl/english/inpages/publications_resources/doc/preparing_transition_srilanka.pdf, date accessed 20 July 2006.

155 Ibid., p. i. 156 Ibid., p. 6.157 Ibid., p. 31.158 Ibid., p. 7.159 Ibid., p. 21.

Chapter 4 Peacebuilding at the Grassroots

1 Research methodology, including the justification for the choice of Mannaras the principal local level case study, is outlined in Chapter 1.

Notes 199

2 Much of the material included in this chapter is sourced from primaryresearch. This included four trips to Sri Lanka, the first in 2001 before theMoU, one in 2003, another in 2004, culminating in nine weeks of fieldresearch in the Mannar District.

3 During fieldwork for my Master Degree (2000–2001) I was not grantedaccess to the LTTE-controlled area, and permission to travel around theVavuniya District, another frontline district, was authorised based on myaffiliation with an INGO.

4 The Multilateral Group’s document Preparing for Transition in Sri Lankahighlights the problem of ‘the lack of data particularly in the conflict-affected areas’ as ‘a critical problem that needs addressing’. The Multi-lateral Group, Preparing for Transition in Sri Lanka: A Contribution from theMultilateral Group, Draft, 1 June 2004, p. 7. ihttp://www.humanitarian-info.org/SriLanka/hosting/unsl/english/inpages/publications_resources/doc/preparing_transition_srilanka.pdf, date accessed 20 July 2006.

5 Ministry of Relief Rehabilitation and Reconciliation, Rehabilitation andDevelopment Framework for the Mannar District 2004 (Triple-R Ministry:Colombo, 2004) p. v.

6 Ibid., p. xv.7 Ibid., p. 57.8 Observed by the author.9 Observed by the author.

10 Ministry of Relief Rehabilitation and Reconciliation, op. cit., p. 57. 11 Ibid., p. 5.12 Ibid., p. 12.13 Ibid.14 Ibid., p. 6.15 The Hindu, ‘Smuggling rampant on Tamil Nadu coast’, 16 April 2007.16 A method of salt production.17 This account of the war in Mannar has been formed through discussions

with local people from the Mannar area.18 See also ‘DRC Sri Lanka 2000–2003: Annex 3’, May 2000, pp. 51–52

quoted in The Global IDP Database, ‘Profile of internal displacement: Sri Lanka’ (Geneva: The Global IDP Database, 2002) p. 60.

19 Tamilnet, ‘37 killed at Madhu church’, 21 November 1999. http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=4230, date accessed 4 April 2006.

20 Global IDP Database, op. cit., p. 61.21 Ibid., p. 42.22 Ibid.23 Ibid., p. 84.24 Ibid., p. 13725 Ibid., pp. 102–107.26 Ibid., pp. 98–109.27 Ibid., pp. 92–102.28 Ibid., p. 109.29 Ibid., p. 91. 30 Ibid., p. 109.31 A traditional home that has mud walls and a roof thatched with leaves

from the cajan palm tree.

200 Notes

32 UNHCR, ‘UNHCR mid-year progress report 2001 – Sri Lanka’ (UNHCR,Geneva, 2001) p. 165.

33 Of the 18,712 IDPs who returned between January 2002 and December2005, 13,294 were ‘spontaneous’ returns, without assistance fromUNHCR. Only 30 per cent received UNHCR assistance.

UNHCR & Ministry of Nation Building and Development, ‘Statisticalsummary refugees and internally displaced repatriation and returns to andwithin Sri Lanka 31 December 2005’, http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpDocuments)/5B1691E01F49EF1D802570B70059FA8D/$file/STATS_DEC.pdf, date accessed 21 April 2005.

34 The assassination of Rajiv Gandhi has been attributed to the LTTE.35 Interview, Family 2, Pariyagaman, 18 May 2005.36 http://www.unhcr.lk/Maps%20and%20Stats/Stats%20and%20Maps/

Statistical%20Summary/Stats%20December%2005.pdf, date accessed 13 April2006.

37 There have been multiple reports of people drowning when their boatscapsized, being robbed and left on sand banks without food or water, andarrested, detained and mistreated by the Indian and Sri Lankan navy formaking the illegal crossing. TamilNet, ‘Four returning refugees drown’, 2 June 2002. TamilNet, ‘Bodies wash ashore in Mannar’, 8 May 2003.TamilNet, ‘SLN arrests returning Sri Lankan Tamil refugees’, 21 September2003. TamilNet, ‘Sri Lankan Tamil refugees rescued in Mannar Sea’, 23 June2004. TamilNet, ‘UNHCR urged to organize boat service to refugees in India’,2 August 2004. TamilNet, ‘Refugees abandoned on mid sea sandbank’, 8 August 2004. TamilNet, ‘Human skeleton washed ashore in Mannar’, 26 August 2004. TamilNet, ‘Kachchaithivu stranded refugees rescued’, 10 September 2004.

38 Interview, Family 8, Madhukari, 8 June 2005.39 This account of Madhukari was provided by staff from the ZOA Office,

Mannar and Madhukari.40 Interview, ZOA Officer, Mannar, 4 June 2005.41 Ibid.42 Ibid.43 Interview, Family 25, Chinnavalayankaddu, 16 June 2005.44 Interview, Sewa Lanka Officer, Saviriapuram, 19 June 2005.45 UNHCR and Ministry of Nation Building and Development, ‘Statistical sum-

mary as at 31 December 2005 refugees and internally displaced repatriationand returns to and within Sri Lanka’, p. 8. http://www.unhcr.lk/Maps%20and%20Stats/Stats%20and%20Maps/Statistical%20Summary/Stats%20December%2005.pdf, date accessed 13 April 2006.

46 In both IDP camps I visited in the government controlled area and theVanni, the IDPs did not own land.

47 Triple-R Ministry, op. cit., p. 51.48 Ibid.49 UNHCR, ‘Durable solutions progress report no. 8: The bulletin of the United

Nations inter-agency IDP working group 28 November 2002’ (UNHCR, 2002)p. 3. http://www.unhcr.lk/Publications/Durable%20Solutions/DS% 208.pdf,date accessed 16 April 2006.

50 Ibid.

Notes 201

51 A claim made to the author by several households during the field studyperiod.

52 NEHRP Presentation, Workshop on Housing, Colombo, 26 May 2005.53 Ibid.54 North East Provincial Council, ‘North East emergency reconstruction

programme progress as on 30th June 2005’ (NEPC, 2005). 55 This description of housing in Madhukari is based on accounts by ZOA

staff and project beneficiaries, as well as observations by the author between6 and 10 June 2005.

56 Douglas Dervanandan is the leader of the Eelam People’s DemocraticParty (EPDP), a Tamil party supportive of the government and renownedfor its paramilitary tactics. Dervanandan survived the 14th suicide attackagainst him in December 2007.

57 Families 6, 7 (both interviewed on 7 June 2005) and 14 (interviewed on9 June 2005) in Madhukari all complained about their houses.

58 This description of housing in Chinnavalayankaddu is based on accountsby MARR staff, and project beneficiaries, as well as observed by the authorbetween 14 and 17 June 2005.

59 This description of housing in Saviriapuram is based on accounts by SewaLanka staff, and beneficiaries and observed by the author between 19 and24 June 2005.

60 Interview, School Principle, Saviriapuram, 24 June 2005.61 Ibid.62 The Catholic Church was concerned that returning land to the local families

might result in them selling their property to non-Catholic Christian fam-ilies, and this would have a negative impact on the Church and Churchmembership.

63 Triple-R Ministry, op. cit., pp. 21–22.64 Ibid., p. 23.65 Ibid., p. 23.66 Interview, Zonal Director of Education, Mannar Town, 3 June 2005.67 Ibid.68 Various reasons were given: some of the children had special needs that

were not catered for; some of the children were working; others lived toofar from school; some parents did not regard school as important, whileother children were ‘difficult’. Ibid.

69 Ibid. 70 Ibid.71 Interview, ZOA Programme Manager, Mannar Town, 11 June 2005.72 Interview, School Principle, Chinnavalayankaddu, 15 June 2005.73 Interview, School Principle, Saviriapuram, 24 June 2005.74 Interview, GS Chinnavalayankaddu, AGA Office, Madhu, 15 June 2005.75 The male teachers were accommodated in one of the classrooms, and a cajan

shelter was provided for the female volunteer.76 Triple-R Ministry, op. cit., pp. 38–40.77 Ibid., p. 38.78 Ibid., p. 46.79 Ibid.80 Interview, Family 5, Madhukari, 7 June 2005.

202 Notes

81 Ibid.82 Interview, Family 1, Village close to Vankalai, 17 May 2005.83 Ibid.84 Interview, Family 7, Madhukari, 7 June 2005.85 AGA, AGA Office, Madhu, 15 June 2005.86 Ibid.87 Ibid.88 The local name for an LTTE administered and staffed medical facility.89 AGA, AGA Office, Madhu, op. cit.90 Interview, DS, DS Office, Musali, 23 June 2005.91 Triple-R Ministry, op. cit., p. 134.92 Ibid., pp. 136–140.93 Observed by the author.94 Triple-R Ministry, op. cit., p. 143.95 Ibid., p. 149.96 Ibid., p. 33.97 Ibid. 98 Interview, ZOA Programme Manager, 6 June 2005. Interview, MARR

Programme Manager, op. cit. 99 Observed by the author.

100 Interview, MARR Programme Manager, Mannar Town, op. cit.101 Ibid.102 Ibid. Interview, WRDS President, Chinnavalayankaddu, 15 June 2005.103 Observed by the author.104 Observed by the author.105 Observed by the author. 106 Interview, Beneficiary, 22 June 2005.107 Observed by the author.108 Interview, Sewa Lanka Officer, Saviriapuram, op. cit.109 Because the entire village had been displaced many people had formed

relationships with people from outside the village.110 Observed by author and verified in beneficiary interviews carried out in

Madhukari. 111 Interview, ZOA Officer, Madhukari, 10 June 2005. Interview, Grama Sevika,

Madhukari, 10 June 2005.112 Interview, GS Chinnavalayankaddu, AGA Office, Madhu, op. cit. Interview,

WRDS President, Chinnavalayankaddu, op. cit.113 Community Meeting, Saviriapuram, 23 June 2005.114 Triple-R Ministry, op. cit., p. 59.115 Ibid., p. 65.116 Ibid., p. 180.117 Ibid., p. 109.118 Ibid. 119 Ibid., pp. 108–110.120 Ibid., pp. 110–111.121 Ibid., p. 64. 122 Ibid., p. 77.123 Ibid., p. 66. 124 Ibid., pp. 76–77.

Notes 203

125 Ibid., p. 79. 126 Ibid., p. 82.127 Department of Agriculture, Mannar. Data supplied by the Mannar GA.128 Department of Animal Production and Health, Mannar and Murungan.

Data supplied by the Mannar GA. 129 Department of Agriculture, op. cit.130 Of the 11 families interviewed in Chinnavalayankaddu, nine families

relied entirely on agriculture, the remaining two, one man was a mason, and the other owned a shop. In Madhukari of the 12 families interviewedonly one family ran a shop, the rest were farming and also working as koolilabourers.

131 Interview, ZOA Programme Manager, op. cit. Confirmed by interviewees inMadhukari.

132 Interview, CARE Programme Manager, Mannar Town, 09 May 2005. Inter-view, Family 29, Chinnavalayankaddu, 17 June 2005.

133 Interview, AGA, AGA Office, Madhu, op. cit.134 Interview, Family 18, Chinnavalayankaddu, 14 June 2005.135 Observed by the author.136 Observed by the author.137 Interview, CARE Programme Manager, Mannar Town, op. cit. I interviewed

two families in the Madhu Division who had received banana trees, the firstwas in the village of Chinnavalayankaddu, another lives in Chinnapandi-violan, close to Madhu Church.

138 Interview, School Principle, Chinnavalayankaddu, op. cit. 139 Tripe-R Ministry, op. cit., p. 89.140 Ibid., p. 90.141 Ibid., p. 92.142 Department of Fisheries, Mannar. Data supplied by the Mannar GA.143 Interview, Sewa Lanka Officer, Saviriapuram, op. cit.144 Ibid. This issue was one of the main issues raised at a community meeting

attended by the author during the evening of 23 June 2005.145 Interview, Sewa Lanka Officer, Saviriapuram, op. cit. The construction of a

new fisherman’s rest house was noted at the community meeting mentionin the preceding footnote.

146 Triple-R Ministry, op. cit., pp. 122–123.147 Ibid., p. 123.148 Ibid.149 Ibid., p. 85.150 Ibid.151 Manthai Salt Ltd. Data supplied by the Mannar GA. 152 Observed by the author.153 Observed by the author.154 Betel leaf (known as paan in India) is chewed with bettle nut and lime

(alkaline) to form a paste in the mouth. It is chewed usually after meals inthe same way as tobacco products, and is harmful.

155 Interview, Family 7, Madhukari, 7 June 2005.156 Interview, Family 27, Chinnayalayankaddu, 17 June 2005.157 Observed by the author.158 Triple-R Ministry, op. cit., p. 153.

204 Notes

159 Ibid.160 Ibid.161 Interview, School Principal, Saviriapuram, op. cit.162 Observed by the author.163 Experienced by the author. 164 United Nations Economic and Social Council, ‘Report of the Special

Rapporteur, Mr. Bacre Waly Ndiaye submitted pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 1997/61 – Addendum – Visit to Sri Lanka’(United Nations Commission on Human Rights: Geneva, 1998) pp. 16–17.

165 ‘Sri Lanka has signed the International Covenant on Civil and PoliticalRights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social andCultural Rights. Sri Lanka acceded to the Convention against Torture andOther Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment in January1994. It is legally bound to implement the human rights safeguardsrequired by these treaties, including respect for the right to life (article 6of the ICCPR) and the right not to be tortured (article 7 of the ICCPR andthe Convention against Torture). Article 4 of the ICCPR clearly states thatboth rights need to be upheld at all times, even “in time of public emer-gency which threatens the life of the nation”. In addition, Sri Lanka is alsoa State party to the International Convention on the Elimination of AllForms of Racial Discrimination, the Convention on the Prevention andPunishment of the Crime of Genocide, the Convention on the Rights ofthe Child, and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Dis-crimination against Women. In October 1997, Sri Lanka became a party tothe Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and PoliticalRights. However, Sri Lanka is not a party to the Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes againstHumanity.’ Ibid., p. 14.

166 Ibid., pp. 14–15.167 UNHCRH, ‘UN Special Rapporteur Report on Torture 2002: Section on

Sri Lanka, 17 December 2002’ (Geneva: UNHCRH, 2002). http://srilanka.ahrchk.net/legal_reform/mainfile.php/0102/21/, date accessed 19 April2006.

168 Interview, Member of the Mannar Citizen’s Committee, Mannar Town, 3 June 2005.

169 TamilNet, ‘Fear rules Mannar’, 2 May 2001. http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=5979, date accessed 11 April 2006.

170 ‘The 14 different passes available to Tamils usually range from a few hoursto three months, and queuing for them can take several hours. Oftenpeople are not given passes at all, or they must wait for months, even ifthey urgently need to go south for example for medical reasons sincemost medicines are unavailable in the North. Having on one’s person apass and a national identity card is essential. Being without them can leadto inconvenience at the least and “disappearance” at the worst.’ JesuitRefugee Service (JRS), ‘Restricting freedom of movement: The “pass system”’(2000) referred to in Global IDP Database, Profile of Internal DisplacementSri Lanka (Geneva: Norwegian Refugee Council/Global IDP Project, 2002)pp. 77–78.

171 Interview, School Principal, Chinnavalayankaddu Madhu, 15 June 2005.

Notes 205

172 Interview, Priest, Madhu Church, Madhu, 15 June 2005.173 Interview, Mannar Citizen’s Committee Member, Mannar, 3 June 2005.174 SLMM, ‘Summary of recorded complaints and violations from All Districts’,

2002. www.slmm.lk, date accessed 11 April 2005. 175 Ibid. 176 Interview, Mannar, 2 June 2005.177 Interview, Former Child Soldier, Vankalai, 17 May 2005.178 Ibid.179 Interview, Save the Children Project Manager, Mannar Town, 12 May

2005.180 Ibid. 181 The interviewee explained that in the past children were sent home if

they were not strong enough for the LTTE. Ibid.182 Ibid.183 Human Rights Watch, Living in Fear: Child Soldiers and the Tamil Tigers

in Sri Lanka (Human Rights Watch, November 2004, Vol. 16, No. 13) p. 15.http://hrw.org/reports/2004/srilanka1104/, date accessed 5 May 2006.

184 Interview, Family 23, 16 June 2005.185 Anonymous.186 Observed by the author.187 The Multilateral Group, op. cit., p. i. 188 Interview, Norwegian Ambassador, Colombo, 22 June 2004.189 Ibid.190 European Union Election Observer Mission, ‘Sri Lanka Parliamentary

Elections 2 April 2004, Final Report’ (European Union, 2004) p. 2.191 Ibid., p. 3.192 Interview, Member of the Mannar Citizen’s Committee, 3 June 2005.193 Interview, GS Chinnayalayankaddu, AGA Office, Madhu, op. cit.194 This was confirmed by a number of NGO workers.195 Interview, NGO employee, Mannar, 1 May 2004.196 Observed by the author.197 ‘Women and children, account for the vast majority of those adversely

affected by armed conflict, including as refugees and internally displacedpersons, and increasingly are targeted by combatants and armed element.’UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security(S/RES/1325), 31 October 2000.

198 ‘Declaration in Support of the Peace Process in Sri Lanka’, Oslo PeaceSupport Meeting, 25 November 2002. http://www.peaceinsrilanka.com/insidepages/Internationalsuppoer/OsloMeeting/Declaration.asp, date accessed8 March 2005.

199 Tokyo Donor Conference, ‘Tokyo Declaration on Reconstruction andDevelopment of Sri Lanka’, 10 June 2003. http://www.peaceinsrilanka.com/insidepages/Internationalsuppoer/TokyoDonor/TokyoDec100603.asp,date accessed 8 March 2005.

200 Centre for Policy Alternatives, Knowledge Attitudes Practices Survey on the Sri Lankan Peace Process: Potential for Peace (Colombo: CPA, 2004) p. 6.

201 Daily News (Colombo), ‘Religious structure in Trincomalee town unauthorisedconstruction’, 1 June 2005.

206 Notes

202 TamilNet, ‘Troops fire on Valaichenai protestors, 1 killed’, 9 May 2005.203 A non-violent form of protest common in South Asia where businesses and

public services close. 204 TamilNet, ‘Northeast shuts down over checkpoint gunfire’, 10 May 2005.

TamilNet, ‘Hartal paralyzes NorthEast’, 3 June 2005.205 Observed by the author.206 TamilNet, ‘Mannar LTTE offices come under attack’, 18 June 2005. Observed

by the author.207 Observed by the author.208 Interview, Nanaddan School, Nanaddan, 10 June 2005.209 Interview, Family 25, Chinnayalayankaddu, 16 June 2005.210 Interview, School Principal, Chinnavalayankaddu, op. cit. 211 B. Walter, Committing to Peace: The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars

(New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2002).

Chapter 5 The Resurgence of War

1 The Sunday Leader (Colombo), ‘Presidential manoeuvre that back-fired andthe UNF offensive’, 24 February 2002.

2 The Sunday Leader (Colombo), ‘Consorting with Vijaya’s killers’, 28 March2004.

3 P. Saravanamuttu, ‘Sri Lanka – The intractability of ethnic conflict’, in J. Darby and R. Mac Ginty (eds) The Management of Peace Processes (London:Palgrave, 2000) p. 204.

4 Her resolve may have been hardened by the loss of an eye following asuicide attack during the 2000 presidential elections.

5 The Sunday Leader (Colombo), ‘How the UNF will pip the post’, 28 March2004.

6 European Union Election Observer Mission, ‘Sri Lanka parliamentary elec-tions 2 April 2004, final report’ (European Union, 2004) p. 58.

7 Ibid.8 Ibid.9 Lakshman Kadirgamar was killed by an LTTE sniper in August 2005.

10 The Sunday Leader (Colombo), ‘PM stakes and the war setting’, 11 April2004.

11 G. Peiris, Twilight of the Tigers: Peace Efforts and Power Struggles in Sri Lanka(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009) p. 155.

12 Ibid., p. 165.13 Human Rights Watch, ‘Sri Lanka: Killings highlight weaknesses in cease-

fire’, 11 February 2005., http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/02/11/slanka-10162.htm, date accessed 21 September 2005.

14 Human Rights Watch, ‘Complicit in crime: State collusion in abductionsand child recruitment by the Karuna Group’, Human Rights Watch Report,Vol. 19, No. 1 (2007). http://hrw.org/reports/2007/srilanka0107/srilanka-0107web. pdf, date accessed 25 October 2007.

15 The Sunday Leader (Colombo), ‘Karuna camp in govt. controlled area’,20 March 2006.

16 G. Peiris, op. cit., p. 165.

Notes 207

17 The Sunday Leader (Colombo), ‘A dead end peace process and a Presidentall at sea’, 22 January 2006. In September 2007 Karuna arrived in theUnited Kingdom on a genuine Sri Lankan diplomatic passport, he wassubsequently jailed for identity fraud. Reuters, ‘UK jails ex-S. Lanka TigerKaruna for ID fraud’, 25 January 2008. http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKL2519855520080125, date accessed 26 April 2010.

18 Reuters, ‘Push for peace in Sri Lanka ahead of crucial talks’, 15 October 2006.http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DEL154206.htm, date accessed23 April 2010. Bloomberg, ‘Sri Lanka peace talks with rebels collapse inGeneva (Update2)’, 30 October 2006. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601080&sid=aNE9WpUBGRKU&refer=asia, date accessed 23 April2010.

19 Daily News (Colombo), ‘Mahanayake Theras urge support for peace process’,5 June 2002.

20 The Island (Colombo), ‘Mahanayake urged not to meet ‘sovereignty offenders’,18 April 2002.

21 C. de Silva, ‘Response to Venerable Akuratiye Nanda’s paper “An analysisof statements Issued by the Mahanayakas on the North-East problem ofSri Lanka”’, Journal of Buddhist Ethics, Vol. 10 (2003). http://www.buddhist-ethics.org/10/silva-sri-lanka-conf.html#n3, date accessed 5 March 2010.

22 N. DeVotta and J. Stone, ‘Jathika Hela Urumaya and Ethno-religiousPolitics in Sri Lanka, Pacific Affaires, Vol. 81, No. 1 (2008), p. 39.

23 Ibid., p. 48.24 P. Premasiri, ‘A “righteous war”, in Buddhism’, in M. Deegalle (ed.) Buddhism,

Conflict and Violence in Modern Sri Lanka (Abingdon: Routledge, 2006) p. 79.25 Daily News (Colombo), ‘No final decision on P-TOMS sans consultations

with Maha Nayakas – President’, 11 June 2005. The Sunday Leader(Colombo), ‘Monks ready to cross the line of democracy’, 12th June 2005.

26 The Sunday Leader, ‘JVP jumps ship as economy plummets’, 19 June 2005.27 Meaning ‘Mahinda’s vision’. 28 M. Rajapakse, ‘Mahinda Chinthana: Towards a new Sri Lanka’, Presidential

Election 2005. http://mcg.mpi.gov.lk/info_in/mahinda_ chintana_eng.pdf,date accessed 12 September 2007.

29 Ibid.30 G. Peiris, op. cit., p. 197.31 This is understandable given the total control by the LTTE of the Vanni.32 W. Mishler, S. Finkel and P. Peiris, ‘The 2005 presidential and 2004 parlia-

mentary elections in Sri Lanka’, Electoral Studies, Vol. 26 (2007), p. 208. 33 Ibid.34 Ibid., p. 209.35 Chandra Lekha Sriram quotes from an interview with Professor Bertram

Bastiampillai (Colombo, 8 July 2005) in Peace as Governance: Power-Sharing,Armed Groups and Contemporary Peace Negotiations (Houndmills: PalgraveMacmillan, 2008) p. 83.

36 Observed by the author.37 Ibid., p. 82.38 UTHR(J), ‘Political killings and rituals of unreality: Information bulletin

no. 38’, 21 July 2005. http://www.uthr.org/bulletins/bul38.htm#_Toc-135544187, date accessed 11 March 2010.

208 Notes

39 SLMM, ‘Complaints and violations’. http://www.slmm.lk, date accessed11 April 2006.

40 The total violations includes all possible violations under the categories of ‘Non CFA’, ‘Offensive Military Operations’, ‘Freedom of Movement’,‘Separation of Forces’, ‘Measure to Restore Normalcy’, and ‘Sri LankanMonitoring Mission’.

41 Human Rights Watch, ‘Funding the “final war”: Intimidation and extortion in the Tamil Diaspora’, 14 March 2006. http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2006/03/14/funding-final-war-2, date accessed 14 March 2010.

42 Ibid., p. 9.43 Daily News (Colombo), ‘All four accused acquitted’, 28 May 2005.44 Human Rights News, ‘Sri Lanka: Failure of justice for victims of massacre’, 2

June 2005. http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/06/02/slanka11064.htm,date accessed 6 December 2006.

45 UTHR(J), ‘The curse of impunity, Part I, Bindunuwewa, the thin end of thewedge of impunity: Special report no: 19’, 12 June 2005. http://www.uthr.org/SpecialReports/spreport19.htm, date accessed 12 March 2010.

46 B. Matthews, ‘International engagement in human rights situations in Sri Lanka’, Pacific Affaires, Vol. 82, No. 4 (Winter 2009/2010) p. 581.

47 A political appointment.48 B. Matthews, op. cit., p. 589.49 Ibid., p. 593.50 Ibid.51 M. Raheem and K. Loganathan, ‘Internationalisation of the Sri Lankan Peace

process’, Background Paper for the Conference on ‘International dimensionsof the peace process in Sri Lanka’, Centre for Policy Alternations (CPA),Colombo, 8–9 July 2005, p. 7.

52 Ibid.53 The Sunday Leader (Colombo), ‘Pot boilers and peace’, 24 November 2002.54 See an article from Lakshman Kadirgamar in the Daily News (Colombo)

‘The courage for peace’ (Colombo), 29 June 2005.55 Daily News (Colombo), ‘Norway gave money to the LTTE: Karuna’,

27 November 2006.56 The Sunday Times (Colombo), ‘Norway helping LTTE, says Norwegians

against terrorism founder’, 21 April 2007. This NGO was reported to haveonly one member.

57 The Daily News (Colombo), ‘Norwegian embassy clarifies’, 7 February2008.

58 The Island (Colombo), ‘Norway, Solheim helped establish LTTE-Eritrealinks for arms deals’, 28 September 2009.

59 M. Raheem and K. Loganathan, op. cit., p. 19.60 C. Orjuela, The Identity Politics of Peacebuilding: Civil Society in War-torn

Sri Lanka (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2008) p. 235.61 C. Orjuela, ‘Dilemmas of civil society aid: Donors, NGOs and the quest

for peace in Sri Lanka’, Peace and Democracy in South Asia, Vol. 1, No. 1(2005) p. 3.

62 BBC News, ‘Alarm over S Lanka “rights abuse”, 14 March 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/world/south_asia/8566946.stm, date accessed14 March 2010.

Notes 209

63 G. Cooper, ‘Aid groups in Sri Lanka tackle “fat cat” image’, 29 May 2007.http://www.alertnet.org/db/blogs/30708/2007/04/29-115751-1.htm.

64 Terms of Reference for the Investigations of the Operations of Non-Governmental Organisations and their Impact. http://www.parliament.lk/committees/ListCommReport.do?comID=COMM1016, date accessed 18 March2010.

65 Transparency International Sri Lanka, ‘Three years after the Tsunami’, 25 December 2007. http://www.tisrilanka.org/pub/pp/pdf/pr_25_dec_07_tyat.pdf, date accessed 18 March 2010, p. 2.

66 Ibid.67 B. Fernando, ‘Sri Lanka: The interim report of the parliamentary com-

mittee on NGOs is flawed from the point of view of policy, science and law’,Asian Human Rights Commission, 12 December 2008. http://www.ahrchk.net/statements/mainfile.php/2008statements/1807/, date accessed 18 March 2010.

68 The Island (Colombo), ‘Constitutional ministry seeks federal solutions’, 26 February 2009.

69 The Sunday Leader (Colombo), ‘R2P – a bogey or real threat?’, 17 February2008.

70 Utenricksdepartment, ‘The Tokyo co-chairs appeal to Sri Lanka to pull backfrom crisis’, 30 May 2006. http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/ud/aktuelt/nyheter/2006/the-tokyo-co-chairs-appeal-to-sri-lanka-.html?id=419656,date accessed 31 August 2009.

71 The Sunday Leader (Colombo), ‘The co-chairs to pull out unless govt.deliverson Oslo deal’, 4 June 2006.

72 U.S Department of State, ‘Sri Lanka co-chairs call for immediate cessation of hostilities’, 11 August 2006. http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2006/70312.htm, date accessed 20 July 2009.

73 Norway (The Official Site), ‘Statement by the Sri Lanka co-chairs’, 13 September 2006. http://www.eu-norway.org/misc/print.aspx?article={9cc85a3d-7251-4d1f-8201-4d81a4f8de, date accessed 4 August 2009.

74 ‘Sri Lanka’s militaristic government said on Friday it had hauled in theenvoys of countries calling for UN human rights monitoring of the island’sincreasingly dirty war with Tamil separatists.’ A. Jayasinghe (Agence France-Presse), ‘Sri Lanka clashes with diplomats over rights demands’, 14 December2007. http://wwww.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/SSHN-79VD3C?Open-Document &rc=3&emid=ACOS-635PHK, date accessed 29 December 2007.See also S. Gardner (Reuters), ‘Rights abuses in focus at Sri Lanka donor Oslo meet’, 25 June 2007. And A. Perera (Inter Press Service News Agency), ‘Sri Lanka: Donor threats unlikely to stop war machine’, 2 February 2007.http://ipsnews. net/print.asp?idnews= 36418, date accessed 29 December 2007.

75 US Department of State, ‘2008 human rights report: Sri Lanka’, 25 February2009. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/sca/119140.htm, date accessed24 April 2010.

76 Lanka Business Online, ‘Diplomatic spat: Sri Lanka, U.S. in rode over humanrights report’, 14 March 2008. http://www.lankabusinessonline. com/full-story.php?newsID=1513520302&no_view=1&SEARCH_TERM=33, date accessed22 April 2010.

210 Notes

77 ‘Unmindful of India’s opposition to Sri Lanka turning to Pakistan and China formilitary hardware to bolster its offensive against the Tamil Tigers, Colombo hasrecently inked several significant defence agreements with Beijing.’ IANS, ‘Sri Lanka turns to Pakistan, China for military needs’, 2 June 2007. http://in.news. yahoo.com/070602/43/6gkgo.html, date accessed 29 December 2007.

78 Sunday Times (Colombo), ‘Development assistance pattern changing’,4 February 2007.

79 The Times (London), ‘Britain sold weapons to help Sri Lankan army defeatTamil Tigers’, 2 June 2009.

80 The Daily News (Colombo), ‘China as a global power: Lecture delivered byLakshman Kadirgamar’, 28 December 2004, 15 January 2005.

81 The Times of India, ‘India upset with China over Sri Lanka crisis’, 26 April 2008.82 ‘China continues to regard the details of its aid program as a state secret and

publishes no annual reports.’ F. Hanson, ‘Policy brief. China: Stumblingthrough the Pacific’, Lowy Institute for International Policy, July 2009, p. 3. http://www.voltairenet.org/IMG/pdf/China_stumbling_through_the_Pacific.pdf, date accessed 21 April 2010.

83 Ibid.84 The Sunday Leader (Colombo), ‘I would not have done any different’,

24 May 2009.85 World Cargo News Online, ‘Hambantota work starts’, June 2007. http://www.

worldcargonews.com/htm/n20070722.354939.htm, date accessed 22 April 2010.86 The Times (London), ‘Chinese billions in Sri Lanka fund battle against Tamil

Tigers’, 2 May 2009.87 Centre for Policy Alternatives (CPA), ‘Fact finding mission to Pesalai – 28th

June 2006’, 28 June 2006. http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/AMMF-6RDDZA?OpenDocument, date accessed 12 September 2006.

88 A fisherman’s hut.89 Centre for Policy Alternatives, ‘Fact finding mission to Pesalai’, op. cit.90 Ibid. 91 Ibid.92 The Sunday Times (Colombo), ‘Top govt. team provides immediate relief

for Mannar victims’, 25 June 2006.93 SLMM, ‘SLMM weekly monitoring report’, 27 August–2 September 2007.

http://www.slmm.lk/W_Report/SLMM%20Weekly%20Report%2027%20August%20-%2002%20September%202007.pdf, date accessed 29 December 2007.

94 Inter-Agency Standing Committee, ‘Sri Lanka: Kilinochchi, Mullaitivu, Man-nar, Vavuniya, Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Ampara situation report #105’, 20 December 2007.

95 Phone Interview, INGO, Mannar, 31 January 2010.96 SLMM, ‘SLMM weekly monitoring report’, 19–26 March 2007. http://www.

slmm.lk/W_Report/SLMM%20Weekly%20Report%2019-26% 20March.pdf,date accessed 29 December 2007.

97 Inter-Agency Standing Committee, ‘Sri Lanka: Kilinochchi, Mullaitivu,Mannar, Vavuniya, Trincomalee, Batticaloa, Ampara & Jaffna situationreport #96’, 18 October 2007.

98 ‘The worst violence was in the Mannar district just south of rebel-held territory’. Guardian Unlimited, ‘Dozens dead as Sri Lankan fighting escalates’,3 December 2007.

Notes 211

99 Centre for Policy Alternatives, ‘Mannar field mission’, November 2007, pp. 2–8.100 The Sunday Leader, ‘At least 378 killed and 1,122 injured in shelling and

bombing’, 17 May 2009.101 The Government denies this.102 Government of Sri Lanka, ‘Terrorism defeated: Writ of Parliament now

throughout Sri Lanka – President’, 19 May 2009. http://www.priu.gov.lk/news_update/Current_Affairs/ca200905/20090519terrorism_defeated.htm,date accessed 9 July 2009.

103 Mannar Citizens’ Committee, ‘Situation report’ 5 July 2007. http://www.medico-international.de/en/projects/srilanka/watch/ 20070505mannar.pdf,date accessed 29 December 2007.

104 Ibid., p. 1.105 South Asians for Human Rights, ‘Report on the Fact finding mission to

the north & east of Sri Lanka to assess the state of the displaced persons’,August 2007, p. 35.

106 TamilNet, ‘Vegetable business collapses in Mannar’, 13 June 2007. http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=22462, date accessed 29 December 2007.

107 Mannar Citizens’ Committee, op. cit.108 South Asians for Human Rights, op. cit., pp. 32–33. See also Centre for Policy

Alternatives, ‘Mannar field mission’, November 2007, p. 3 and MannarCitizens’ Committee, op. cit., p. 2.

109 UN Human Rights Council, ‘11th special session of the Human Rights Council:“The human rights situation in Sri Lanka” – Tuesday 26 and 27 May 2009,Resolution ‘S-11/1 Assistance to Sri Lanka in the promotion and protection of human rights’, 27 May 2009. http://www2.ohchr.org/ english/bodies/hr-council/specialsession/11/index.htm, date accessed 24 April 2010.

110 Those for it were: Angola, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Bur-kina Faso, Cameroon, China, Cuba, Djibouti, Egypt, Ghana, India, Indonesia,Jordan, Madagascar, Malaysia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, Qatar,Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, South Africa, Uruguay, and Zambia.

111 Those against: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Canada, Chile, France, Germany, Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland, and UnitedKingdom.

112 United Nations News & Media, ‘Human Rights Council adopts resolution onassistance to Sri Lanka in promotion and protection of human rights’, 27 May 2009. http://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B9C2E/ (httpNewsByYear_en)/CC9888146BC8CE01C12575C3005D82FF?OpenDocument, date accessed24 April 2010.

113 Forced Migration Review, ‘Sri Lanka: A question of rights’, issue 33, September2009, p. 4. http://www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR33/FMR33.pdf, date accessed23 April 2010.

114 Ibid.115 Joint Humanitarian Update, ‘North East Sri Lanka Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullai-

tivu, Mannar, Vavuniya and Trincomalee districts report #22’, March 2010.http://www.humanitarianinfo.org/srilanka_hpsl/Files/Situation %20Reports/Joint%20Humanitarian%20Update/LKRN041_100312-100326-SL-IA-Sitreps-External-Joint_Humanitarian_Update-22.pdf.

116 Human Rights Watch, ‘Legal limbo: The uncertain fate of detained LTTEsuspects in Sri Lanka’, 2 February 2010. http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2010/02/02/legal-limbo-0, date accessed 25 April 2010.

212 Notes

117 Ibid.118 UTHR(J), ‘Special report no: 34, Let them speak, part VI, protecting crime by

criminalising an entire populace, 13th December 2009. http://www.uthr.org/SpecialReports/Special%20rep34/Uthr-sp.rp34part6.htm, date accessed23 April 2010.

119 Ibid.120 Medicins Sans Frontieres, ‘Transcript, Sri Lanka: A “quite indescribable” scene

after war ends, interview with MSF Emergency Coordinator Lauren Cooney’,3 June 2009. http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/publications/article.cfm?id=3651&cat=transcript, date accessed 25 April 2009.

121 Ibid.122 There have been many reports that the SLAF have raped Tamils during this

war, see for example: Amnesty International, ‘Sri Lanka: Rape in custody’, 28 January 2002. http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/ASA37/001/2002,date accessed 25 April 2010. While the government have argued that this is propaganda the repatriation in 2007 of 105 Sri Lankan peacekeepers fromHaiti after allegations of sexual exploitation, provides outside confirmationof this. ‘The Sunday Times [Colombo] learned that the UN Security Councilis conducting an open investigation to probe alleged involvement of thepeacekeepers in the running of six brothels, trafficking of sex workers toother countries and production of child pornography’. The Sunday Times(Colombo), ‘Court martial for guilty peacekeepers’, 11 November 2007. Seealso Channel 4 News, ‘Grim scenes at Sri Lankan camps’, 5 May 2009. http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/politics/international_politics/grim+scenes+at+sri+lankan+camps+/3126257, date accessed 25 April 2010.

123 UTHR(J), op. cit., 2009.124 BBC News, ‘General Fonseka appears before Sri Lanka military court’,

16 March 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/8569405.stm,date accessed 25 April 2010.

125 Chandana Sirimalwatte, editor of the Iridia Lanka newspaper was arrestedin January 2010. Armed men surrounded the offices of Lanka E News, oneof a number of blocked websites, and their cartoonist, Prageeth Eknalogoda,‘has been missing since leaving his office two days before the election’.Ravi Abeywickrama, of ‘the state-controlled TV broadcaster Sri Lanka Rupa-vahini Corporation, was assaulted’ after signing a joint letter condemningthe states misuse of the state-media; ‘at least seven other employees whoalso signed the letter have been suspended or dismissed’. Human RightsWatch, ‘End harassment, attacks on journalists post-election crackdownfeared’, 29 January 2010. http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2010/01/29/sri-lanka-end-harassment-attacks-journalists, date accessed 25 April 2010.

126 The White House, ‘Statement by President Obama to mark World Press Free-dom Day’, 1 May 2009. http://www.america.gov/st/texttrans-english/2009/May/20090501140311eaifas0.4609273.html?CP.rss=true, date accessed 1 May2010.

127 IMF, ‘Press release: IMF announces staff-level agreement with Sri Lanka on US$2.5 billion stand-by arrangement’, No. 09/265, 20 July 2009.http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2009/pr09265.htm, date accessed26 April 2009.

128 The Times (London), ‘IMF approves controversial $2.5bn Sri Lanka loan’,25 July 2009.

Notes 213

129 Bloomberg Businessweek, ‘Fitch may lower Sri Lanka’s debt rating on wideningdeficit’, 24 March 2010. http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-03-24/fitch-may-lower-sri-lanka-s-debt-rating-on-widening-deficit.html, date accessed 28 April 2010.

130 ‘“GSP+” is common shorthand for the “special incentive arrangement forsustainable development and good governance” which is one of three non-reciprocal, preferential import regimes for developing countries under the EU’s Generalised System of Preferences (GSP).’ European CommissionDirectorate-General for Trade, ‘Press release: Generalised System of Preferences(GSP) Brussels Commission statement on Sri Lanka GSP+ report’, 20 October2009. http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/press/index. cfm?id=466, date accessed13 November 2009.

131 Ibid.132 Quoting the Sri Lankan Ambassador to EU, Aryasinha. The Daily News

(Colombo), ‘GSP+ puts Europe in quandary too’, 3 October 2009. 133 BBC News, ‘EU punishes Sri Lanka over rights’, 16 February 2010. http://

news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/world/europe/8518054.stm, date accessed16 February 2010.

134 Reuters, ‘Sri Lanka rupee falls amid IMF loan delay; shares gain’, 25 February2010. http://in.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idINSGE61O0HI20100225,date accessed 26 April 2010.

135 Colombo Page, ‘Iranian aid for rural electrification program in Sri Lanka’,24 April 2010. http://www.colombopage.com/archive_10/Apr12720912-87CH.php, date accessed 30 April 2010.

136 http://www.cpalanka.org/page.php?id=0&pubid=601&key=9bdd5f06c37bdab66735ca41a9457925, date accessed 25 April 2010.

137 The Island, ‘Editorial: Saving Dr Saravanamuttu’, 17 September 2009.138 Ibid.139 Lanka News Web, ‘State intelligence units list journalists supportive of the

opposition and NGOs Saravanamuttu and Weliamuna top in the list’,3 March 2010. http://www.lankanewsweb.com/news/EN_2010_03_02_012.html, date accessed 23 April 2010.

140 BBC News, ‘Alarm over S Lanka “rights abuse”, 14 March 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/world/south_asia/8566946.stm, date accessed14 March 2010.

141 The following account is from a phone interview with a senior NGOemployee. Phone Interview, INGO, Colombo, 31 January 2010.

142 International Organisation for Migration.143 World Food Program.144 Phone Interview, INGO, Colombo, op. cit.

Chapter 6 Building Peace or Buying Time?

1 Andrew Williams quotes from the papers of the American Governor, Lehman,who administered the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administra-tion (UNRRA) (active between 1942 and 1946). A. Williams, Liberalism andWar: The Victors and the Vanquished (London: Routledge, 2006) p. 114. Thequote is made on page 121.

214 Notes

2 M. Turner and D. Hulme, Governance, Administration & Development: Makingthe State Work (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 1997) pp. 4–6.

3 J. Owen, ‘The foreign imposition of domestic institutions’, International Organization, Vol. 56, No. 2 (2002) pp. 388–389.

4 See M. Duffield, Global Governance and the New Wars (London: Zed Books,2001) and N. Cooper, ‘Picking out the pieces of the liberal peaces: Represent-ations of conflict economies and the implications for policy’, Security Dialogue,Vol. 36, No. 4 (2005) pp. 463–478.

5 Ibid.6 Ibid., pp. 4–5.7 ‘Declaration in support of the peace process in Sri Lanka’, Oslo Peace Support

Meeting, 25 November 2002. http://www.peaceinsrilanka.com/insidepages/Internationalsuppoer/OsloMeeting/Declaration.asp, date accessed 8 March2005.

8 O. Richmond, ‘UN peace operations and the dilemmas of the peacebuildingconsensus’, International Peacekeeping, Vol. 11, No. 1 (2004) pp. 83–101.

9 O. Richmond and J. Franks, Liberal Peace Transitions: between Statebuildingand Peacebuilding (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009) p. 4.

10 European Union Election Observer Mission, ‘Sri Lanka parliamentary elections2 April 2004, final report’ (European Union, 2004) p. 2.

11 Sri Lanka has ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights(ICCPR), the Convention Against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrad-ing Treatment or Punishment (CAT), the Convention on the Rights of the Child(CRC) and the Geneva Convention relating to the Protection of Civilians inTime of War.

12 O. Hathaway, ‘The cost of commitment’, Stanford Law Review, Vol. 5, No. 5(2003) p. 1834.

13 See for example D. Large, ‘China’s Sudan engagement: Changing northernand southern political trajectories in peace and war, The China Quarterly,No. 199 (2009) pp. 610–626.

14 UN Human Rights Council, ‘11th special session of the Human Rights Council:“The human rights situation in Sri Lanka”’ – Tuesday 26 and 27 May 2009,Resolution ‘S-11/1 Assistance to Sri Lanka in the promotion and protection ofhuman rights’, 27 May 2009. http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/specialsession/11/index.htm, date accessed 24 April 2010.

15 Ibid.16 Ibid.17 United Nations, ‘Preamble’, UN Charter.18 P. Harrold and S. Sardesai, ‘The dynamics of conflict, development assistance

and peace-building: Sri Lanka 2000–05’, Social Development Notes, No. 23 (WorldBank Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction Unit, 2006) p. 2.

19 Ibid., p. 3.

Notes 215

100 Houses Housing Scheme, 150

abductionsby government forces, 142by LTTE, 126, 141, 142see also disappearances, forced

recruitment Action Contre La Faim, 144ADB Asian Development Bank, 4, 96,

97, 100, 149agriculture, 108, 120–122, 123aid,

conditionality, 92, 99–101, 149,167 see Tokyo Declaration

delivery of see P-TOMSdevelopment, 37–39disbursement, 101as leverage, 93, 99–101post-9/11, 41

An Agenda for Peace, 21, 25, 41asymmetry of conflict parties, 63, 68Azar, E., 35, 48

Balasingham, Anton, 79, 142, 145Bandaranaike Family see

Bandaranaike, Sirmavo,Bandaranaike, S. W. R. D.,Kumartunga, Chandrika

Bandaranaike-Chelvanayakam Pact(B-C Pact), 54, 61

Bandaranaike, Sirimavo, 55–56, 63–64Bandaranaike, S. W. R. D., 52, 54–55,

61, 62bhikkus, 51, 54, 55, 62, 141 see also

Bhuddist monksBuddhist clergy, 69 see SanghaBhuddist monks, 51, 101, 138, 139 see

also bhikkusBoutros-Ghali, B., 21break-up of Sri Lanka, 83, 141Bretton Woods, 30, 92 see also IMF

International Monetary Fund,World Bank

Cambodia, 43–44 capacity building, 99CAS Country Assistance Strategy, 82,

92, 96caste, 51–52Catholic Church

land tenure, 116peace arbiters, 109

Catholics, 108, 109CBO Community-Based

Organisations, 98 see also FOFarmers Organisation, WRDSRural Development Society

Ceasefire Agreements1995, 692001, unilateral, 52002, bilateral, 76, 78, 79, 137see MoU Memorandum of

UnderstandingCFA Ceasefire Agreement see also

MoU Memorandum ofUnderstanding

ceasefire violations, 126cessation of hostilities see Ceasefire

AgreementsCeylonisation, 53Chelvanayakam, S. J. V., 54, 55,

56, 58 see also Bandaranaike-

Chelvanayakam Pact,Senanayake-ChelvanayakamPact

child recruitment, 127, 143China, 149–150, 152, 164Chinnavalayankaddu, 114, 115, 117,

119, 120, 121–122, 123, 124, 127,128

civil society, 8, 88, 146, 163CNC Ceylon National Congress, 52Co-Chairs of the Tokyo Donor

Conference, 148–149, 152,163–166

COI Commission of Inquiry, 144

216

Index

Cold War, 36–39Collier, P., 9, 31Collier, Paul, 32, 35colonisation,

British, 49, 50, 52, 59Dutch, 49, 50Portuguese, 49, 50state sponsored, 49, 65

complex emergencies approach, 40conflict resolution, 33–35constitution,

1972, 571987 Amendment, 91Donoughmore, 52Sixth Amendment, 61, 68Soulbury, 52Thirteenth Amendment, 65, 66

core-issues, 81corruption

Government, 71, 74, 147local-Government, 130NGO, 130, 147–148

Coser, L., 35cost,

of riots, 61 of war, 74, 94

coup, 57Cousens, E., 28CPA Centre for Policy Alternatives,

75, 155–156 cronyism see corruptionCurle, Adam, 32CWC Ceylon Workers Congress, 57

democracy, 27–29Sri Lankan, 51–52

democratic peace thesis, 28Dervanandan, Douglas, 115devolution, 61–62, 65, 69

see also federalism, powersharingdiaspora, 49, 68, 79, 143disappearances, 125

of journalists, 154see also missing

displacement, 108, 109, 110–114donors, 5–6, 21, 42–43, 85–105,

129–130, 135, 145–150, 159–168

Dunham, D., 60

ECHO European CommunityHumanitarian Office, 23

economic development, 38–39economic growth, 29, 90, 92economic liberalisation, 44

Sri Lankan, 58, 60, 73, 163education, 50, 56, 99, 109, 116–117

quota system, 91, 116 seeStandardization in Education

Eelam, 65, 68elections

general, 712001, 79, 87, 932004, 129, 1372010, 154

presidential, 711993, 692005, 140–1412010, 154

El Salvador, 43–44entitlements approach, 58EPDP Eelam People’s Democratic

Party, 138 see also Dervanandan,Douglas

EPRLF Eelam People’s RevolutionaryFront, 64, 68

EROS Eelam RevolutionaryOrganisation of Students, 58, 68

ethnic riots1958, 551977, 49, 581983, 49, 60–61

EU European Union, 23, 149, 160European Recovery Programme see

Marshall PlanEuropean Union Election Observer

Mission, 162executive, presidential, 58, 138, 162,

166external assistance see donors

FDL Forward Defence Line, 151federalism, 54, 56, 69, 81, 140, 142,

148see also devolution, powersharing

final war, 143fishing, 108, 122–123, 128

restrictions on, 123, 152, 157FO Farmers Organisation, 119, 122

Index 217

Fonseka, General Sarath, 154forced recruitment, 128, 141FP Federal Party, 54–57fraud see corruption free movement, limits on, 7, 69, 88,

96, 121, 124, 125, 127 see alsopass system

fishing, restrictions on, 122

Galtung, J., 20Gandhi, Indira, 63–64Gandhi, Rajiv, 64–66, 111Ghandi, Mahatma, 32greed thesis, 4, 31, 35, 133, 136grievance thesis, 4, 31, 133GSP Generalised System of

Preference, 155–156Gurr, T., 29

hartal, 133health, 117–118HSZ High Security Zones, 83, 112housing, 114–115human development, 59, 72–74human rights

abduction, 126–128, 141, 142arbitrary arrest, 125, 153, 154arbitrary detention, 58, 59, 110,

143, 153violations, 124–126, 142, 148–149,

152–155hurting stalemate, 77

IDP camps, 114, 153 see also MadhuChurch, Menik Farm, WelfareCentres

IDP internally displaced persons,49–50, 85, 110–114, 152, 153

IIGEP International IndependentGroup of Eminent Persons, 144

IMF International Monetary Fund, 30,39, 92, 94, 155

India, 49, 51, 62, 63–68Indian Tamils, 49, 50–54, 80industrial processing, 123

dairy, 123fish processing, 123mills, 123salt, 108, 123

infrastructure, 73, 118–120, 129electricity, 73, 97, 116, 118–119,

133irrigation, 85, 120–121railways, 118, 119roads, 117–122, 124, 128, 129sewerage, 111tanks see irrigationwaste water treatment, 111, 119water, 73, 111, 118–121

interim administration, 79–80, 83, 87internal displacement see

displacementInternational Bank for Reconstruction

and Development see World Bankinternational donors see donorsintimidation,

by Government forces, 153by the LTTE, 138, 143of the Mannar Citizen’s

Committee, 125of the press, 154of the Tamil Diaspora, 143of voters, 71

IPKF India Peacekeeping Force, 66–68Iran, 155ISGA Interim Self-Governing

Authority proposals, 83ISPA Indo-Sri Lankan Peace

Agreement, 62, 65–68

Japan, 4, 86Jayasuriya, S. K., 60Jayawardene, J. R., 58–62, 64JHU Jathika Hela Urumaya, 101, 138,

140–141journalism see mediajournalists, 154, 172JVP Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna,

56–57, 63, 67, 82, 93, 101,137–138, 140–141

Kadirgamar, Lakshman, 138, 145, 149Kaldor, M., 30Karaithuraipatru, 151–152Karuna, Colonel, 100, 138–139, 145Keen, D., 31Kelegama, S., 94Kumar, C., 28

218 Index

Kumaratunga, Chandrika, 62, 69–70,79–80, 82–84, 95, 137–138, 166

landmines, 94, 132 see also minesland tenure, 116, 120language, 10, 12, 54–57, 75, 91, 125

legislation see Sinhala Only Law,Standardisation in LanguageMedia, Tamil Language (Special Provisions) Act

Lebanon, 43–44Lederach, J. P., 20, 32liberal economic reform see economic

liberalisationliberal peace, 1, 25, 29, 47, 76, 105,

134–135, 162–164List, F., 30loans

to LTTE, 143personal, 124revolving, 122to Sri Lanka, 101, 155World Bank/IMF, 22, 30,

38–39Loganathan, K., 59LTTE Liberation Tigers of the Tamil

Eelam, 1, 49, 58, 59, 65–68,69–70, 78–79, 109–110, 133–134,137–138, 141–143, 145–146, 151

after the war, 154expansion, 68human rights, 124–128leader see Prabhakaran,

Veluppillai and the peace talks, 79–81, 83–84,

129split see Karuna, Colonel

LTTE-controlled area, 85, 96–98 see also Vanni

Madhu Church, 110, 114, 130Madhukari, 113, 115, 117, 119, 120,

123, 124, 151Maha Sangha, 70Mahinda Chinthana, 140Mangala Moonesinghe Committee,

68–69

Mani, Rama, 148manifesto,

JHU, 140UNP, 87UPFA see Mahinda Chinthana

Mannar Citizen’s Committee, 125,130

Mannar District, 106–135, 150–152Mannar Plan, 107MARR Mannar Association for

Refugee Rehabilitation, 115Marshall Plan, 36–38, 160massacres,

see Action Contre La FaimBindunuwewa, 143

Matthews, B., 144media, 75, 95 see also press

freedomMinistry of, 82Sinhala, 75, 95state-controlled, 144Tamil, 95

mediation, 32 see peacemakingIndian, 65–66Norwegian, 4–5, 77–84

Menik Farm, 152, 153Mennonite Conciliations Service,

32MG Multilateral Group, 102–103militancy,

Sinhalese, 74 see JVPTamil, 58, 64, 68

Mill, J. S., 28mines, 120, 152 see also landmines,

UXOs unexploded ordinance minority rights, 57, 71, 76misappropriation of funds see

corruptionmissing, 153modernisation, 39MoU Memorandum of

Understanding, abrogation of, 76signing of, 5, 79

movement, restrictions on, 69, 121,122, 124, 125 see also pass system

Muslims, 49, 51, 69, 75, 80, 84, 108,109

Index 219

nation-building, 37–40NECORD North East Community

Restoration and Developmentproject, 96

Needs Assessment for the North andEast, 90, 95

NEIAP North East IrrigatedAgriculture Project, 85, 96, 121

neo-liberal reform see economicliberalisation

NEPC North-East Provincial Council,65, 97

nepotism see corruption NERF North East Reconstruction

Fund, 81, 83new wars, 30–31NGO non-governmental

organisations, 41–43, 130,146–148

NHA National Housing Authority,115

normalisation, 88, 99, 130–131Norway, 77–79, 83–88, 145–146,

163–165NPC National Peace Council, 147Nuwara Eliya, 49, 72–73

Ofstad, A., 84–87ONUSAL United Nations Observer

Mission in El Salvador, 43Oslo Peace Support Meeting, 81–83,

132

Pakistan, 149–150, 152PA People’s Alliance, 69–70paramilitaries see militancyPararajasingham, Joseph, 139Paris, R., 8, 22pass system, 88, 125, 127, 152PDS Planning and Development

Secretariat, 97–99peace, 18–19

negative, 18–19, 44, 152–157positive, 18–19victor’s, 18

peace agreement see ISPApeacebuilding,

consensus, 25, 45, 76, 162definition, 19–25

NGO, 24post-9/11, 62–63post-conflict, 21–23post-settlement, 22timing of, 25–26type-one, 46, 84–87, 128–130,

160–161type-two, 46, 80, 128, 130–131,

160–161peace dividend, 88–89, 92–99,

101–104, 128, 133, 135, 164–168

peacemaking, 20–22, 24 see peaceprocess, mediation

peace process, 2–8, 77–105, 132–133,136–158, 159–168

Peace Secretariat, 97, 129peace studies, 33–36peace talks

2003, 6, 79–84, 95–962006, 139Thimpu Talks, 62, 64–65

Pesalai see war crimesPlantations, 59Plantation Tamils, 50 see Indian

TamilsPLOTE People’s Liberation

Organisation of the Tamil Eelam,58, 64

political economy, 31poverty, 29–32, 72–74, 88–99, 166powersharing, 81 see also devolution,

federalism, NEPC, RegionalCouncils Bill

Prabhakaran, Vellupillai, 68, 79, 138,139, 142, 145, 151

Premadasa, R., 53, 67press see mediapress freedom, 154proportional representation, 58, 71,

137–138, 162protest, non-violent, 55, 62 see also

hartal, satyagrahaPRS Poverty Reduction Strategy,

92–93, 104PSC protracted social conflict, 35, 48,

54 see Azar, E.PTA Prevention of Terrorism Act, 59,

124

220 Index

P-TOMS Post-Tsunami OperationalManagement Structure, 6, 101,140–141

Pugh, M., 26, 40

Quaker Peace Movement, 32Quaker Peace Testimony, 32

Rajapakse, Basil, 151, 154Rajapakse, Chamal, 154Rajapakse, Gotabaya, 154Rajapakse, Mahinda, 1, 6, 82, 138,

140–141, 144, 154–155rape, 125

by Government forces, 60, 112,124, 150, 154

in IDP camps, 111rational choice theory, 31rational strategic calculations, 34–35reconciliation, 32–33, 91, 102,

130–133see also normalisation

refugees, 50, 81, 161Regaining Sri Lanka, 5, 90–92, 95Regional Councils Bill, 55rehabilitation, 80, 84–85, 87, 96–99,

110–128, 129–130Reilly, B., 28revival, 50

Buddhist, 50–51Hindu, 50

revolving loans see loansrice politics, 60Richmond, O., 19, 25ripe moment, 78Ropers, Norbert, 148Ryan, S., 20, 63, 68

Sangha, 51, 62–63, 66, 70, 82, 84,101, 139

Saravanamuttu, Paikiasothy, 155–156satyagraha, 54, 55Saviriapuram, 114, 115–116, 120,

123, 124, 133, 151Sen, A., 40Senanayake-Chelvanayakam Pact, 56,

62Senanayake, D. S., 52Senanayake, Dudley, 55, 62

Sewa Lanka, 116, 119shelter see housingSIHRN Subcommittee on Immediate

Human and Rehabilitation Needsin the North and East, 80, 81, 82,83, 98

Sinhala Only Law, 54–55Sixth Amendment see constitutionSLA Sri Lankan Army, 151–152 SLAF Sri Lankan Armed Forces,

109–110SLFP Sri Lankan Freedom Party,

54–56, 69, 138, 140, 166SLMC Sri Lankan Muslim Congress,

79–80, 84SLMM Sri Lankan Monitoring

Mission, 78, 125–126, 142Smith, Adam, 30Smith, D., 29Snyder, J., 28Solheim, Eric, 145Soulbury Commission, 52spoilers, 63, 84standardization in education, 56, 71standardization in language media, 57statelessness see Indian Tamilsstructural adjustment, 30, 94

Tamil Diaspora see DiasporaTa’if Agreement, 43Tamilchelvan, 79, 97Tamil Homeland see EelamTamil Language (Special Provisions)

Act, 55Tamil militancy see militancyTamil Nadu, 49, 63–66Tamils of Indian Origin see Indian

Tamilstaxation, by the LTTE, 98, 124, 125TELO Tamil Eelam Liberation

Organsiation, 58Thimpu Talks, 62, 64, 65Thirteenth Amendment see

constitutionTNA Tamil National Alliance, 93, 129,

138, 139TNT Tamil New Tigers, 58Tokyo Declaration, 90, 100–101, 164,

167

Index 221

Tokyo Donor Conference, 95torture,

of Tamils by Government forces,58, 110, 124, 125, 142, 152,154

of Tamils by the LTTE, 68, 110, 142

by US/UK, 158see also rape

transport, 124TRO Tamils Rehabilitation

Organisation, 97, 98, 99, 119, 127

Tsunami Disaster, 6, 10, 101, 140, 147

TUF Tamil United Front, 57, 58TULF Tamil United Liberation

Front, 58, 61, 64–65, 68, 138, 139

UAS Unified Assistance Scheme, 112,114, 115

UF United Front, 56UK United Kingdom, 149, 155 UN Charter, 38UN Human Rights Council

Resolution Session S-11/1, 165UN Peacebuilding Commission, 21,

26, 45UN United Nations, 4, 21–22, 25–26,

28, 38, 40–41, 43–44, 152, 160,161, 165–166

uncleared area see LTTE-ControlledArea, Vanni

UNHCHR United High Commissionfor Human Rights, 125

UNICEF United Nations Children’sFund, 127

UNP United National Party, 52–53,55–56, 60, 69, 79, 87–88, 93–94,137–138, 166

UNTAC United Nations TransitionalAuthority in Cambodia, 43

UPFA United People’s FreedomAlliance, 82, 83, 96, 137–138,140, 141, 154

manifesto see Mahina ChinthanaUS United States, 37–39, 44–45,

148–149USAID, 44UTHR University Teachers for

Human Rights, 68, 153–154UXOs unexploded ordinance, 22,

115, 161

Vaddukodai Resolution, 58Vankalai see war crimesVanni, 50, 97–99 see also LTTE-

controlled area

Walter, B., 8, 26, 46, 134war crimes,

100 Houses Housing Scheme, 150

Action Contre La Faim, 144 Bindunuwewa, 143Karaithuraipatru, 151–152Vankalai, 150Pesalai, 151

War for Peace, 69, 86–87War on Terror, 148–149, 165Welfare Centres, 50, 85, 110–114

see also IDP campswelfare state, 59–60Wickremetunga, Lasantha, 154Wickremesinghe, Ranil, 70, 79, 80,

82, 95, 137, 141, 166World Bank, 4, 22–23, 26, 30–32,

38–39, 41, 81, 82, 85, 90, 92,96–97, 100–102, 104, 114–115,119, 121, 161, 167

WRDS Rural Development Society,119

Zartman, W., 35, 68, 78ZOA Refugee Care, 115, 120, 122

222 Index