Notes Chapter 07

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apter 7 Carbohydrates

Chapter

7

Mr. Kevin A. BoudreauxAngelo State University

www.angelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea

CHEM 3331Fundamentals of Biochemistry

1

Carbohydrates

Organic and Biochemistry for Today(4th ed.)

Spencer L. Seager / Michael R. Slabaugh

Biochemistry

Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry ofbiomolecules and living organisms.

In organic chemistry, we organized our study ofcarbon-containing molecules byfunctional group(alcohol, alkene, ketone, carboxylic acid, etc.).

In the first five chapters, we will take a look atseveral groups of important biological molecules,many of which have more than one functional

group: carbohydrates (Ch. 7), lipids (Ch. 8),proteins and enzymes (Ch. 9 and 10), and nucleicacids (Ch. 11).

We will also examine the synthesis of proteins (Ch.11), nutrition (Ch. 12) and metabolism (Ch. 13, 14),and important body fluids (Ch. 15).

2


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3

Classification ofCarbohydrates

4

Carbohydrates and Biochemistry

Carbohydrates are compounds of tremendousbiological importance:

they provide energy through oxidation

they supply carbon for the synthesis of cellcomponents

they serve as a form of stored chemical energy

they form part of the structures of some cells andtissues

Carbohydrates, along with lipids, proteins, nucleicacids, and other compounds are known asbiomolecules because they are closely associatedwith living organisms.


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5

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates, or saccharides (saccharo is Greekfor sugar) are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones,

or substances that yield such compounds onhydrolysis.

C

C

O H

H OH

CHO H

C

C

OHH

CH2OH

OHH

glucose

COH H

C

C

C

OHH

CH2OH

OHH

O

CH2OH

fructose

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

-D-glucose

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates include not onlysugar, but also the starches thatwe find in foods, such as bread,pasta, and rice.

6

The term carbohydrate comesfrom the observation that when youheat sugars, you get carbon andwater (hence, hydrate ofcarbon).


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7

Classes of Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides contain a single polyhydroxyaldehyde or ketone unit (e.g., glucose, fructose).

Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharide unitslinked together by a covalent bond (e.g., sucrose).

Oligosaccharides contain from 3 to 10monosaccharide units (e.g., raffinose).

8

Classes of Carbohydrates

Polysaccharides contain very long chains ofhundreds or thousands of monosaccharide units,which may be either in straight or branched chains(e.g., cellulose, glycogen, starch).


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9

The Stereochemistryof Carbohydrates

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Two Forms of Glyceraldehyde

Glyceraldehyde, the simplest carbohydrate, exists intwo isomeric forms that are mirror images of eachother:


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Stereoisomers

These forms are stereoisomers of each other.

Glyceraldehyde is a chiral molecule it cannot besuperimposed on its mirror image. The two mirror-image forms of glyceraldehyde are enantiomers ofeach other.

11

C

CHO

CH2OH

HHO CH OH

CH2OH

CHO

L-glyceraldehyde D-glyceraldehyde

Chirality and Handedness

Chiral molecules have the same relationship to eachother that your left and right hands have whenreflected in a mirror.

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13

Chiral Carbons

Chiral objects cannot be superimposed on theirmirror imagese.g., hands, gloves, and shoes.

Achiral objects can be superimposed on the mirrorimagese.g., drinking glasses, spheres, and cubes.

Any carbon atom which is connected tofourdifferent groups will be chiral, and will have twononsuperimposable mirror images; it is a chiralcarbon or a center of chirality.

Ifany of the two groups on the carbon are thesame, the carbon atom cannot be chiral.

Many organic compounds, including carbohydrates,contain more than one chiral carbon.

14

Examples: Chiral Carbon Atoms Identify the chiral carbon atoms (if any) in each of

the following molecules:

CCH3 CH3

OH

H

CCH3 CH2CH3

OH

H

CCH3 CH2CH3

OO

HO

CCH3 CH2Cl

OH

H

HO

CH H

H

H

CH H

Cl

Cl

CH Cl

Cl

Cl

CH Cl

Br

F


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15

Examples: Chiral Carbons in Carbohydrates Identify the chiral carbons (if any) in the following

carbohydrates:

erythrose

CH

CHO

CH OH

CH2OH

OH

C

C

O H

H OH

CHO H

C

C

OHH

CH2OH

OHH

glucose

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

C

CH2OH

O

CH OH

C

CH2OH

OHH

2nRule

When a molecule has more than one chiral carbon,each carbon can possibly be arranged in either theright-hand or left-hand form, thus if there are nchiral carbons, there are 2n possible stereoisomers.

Maximum number of possible stereoisomers = 2n

CH Cl

Br

F

16

21

= 2 possible stereoisomers

CCH3 C

OH

H

CH2OH

H

OH

22 = 4 possible stereoisomers


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19

Fischer Projections

Fischer projections are a convenient way torepresent mirror images in two dimensions.

Place the carbonyl group at or near the top and thelast achiral CH2OH at the bottom.

C

CHO

CH2OH

HHO CH OH

CH2OH

CHO

CHO

CH2OH

HHO H OH

CH2OH

CHO

L-glyceraldehyde D-glyceraldehyde

L = Left R = Right

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Naming Stereoisomers

When there is more than one chiral center in acarbohydrate, look at the chiral carbon farthest fromthe carbonyl group: if the hydroxy group points toright when the carbonyl is up it is the D-isomer,and when the hydroxy group points to the left, it isthe L-isomer.

CHO

HHO H OH

CHO

CH2OH

HO H

CH2OH

OHH

D-erythroseL-erythrose


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21

Examples: Fischer Projections

Draw Fischer projectionsof D and L lactic acid:

CH

CO2H

CH3 OH

Draw Fischer projectionsof D and L alanine:

CH

NH2

CH3 CO2H

Given the structure

for D-glucose, drawthe structure of L-glucose:

CHO

OHH

HHO

OHH

CH2OH

OHH

D-glucose

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Examples: Fischer Projections Identify the following compounds as D or L

isomers, and draw their mirror images.

HO H

C

OHH

CH2OH

OHH

O

CH2OH

fructose

HO H

CH2OH

OHH

H

CHO

lyxose

HO


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23

Whats So Great About Chiral Molecules?

Molecules which are enantiomers of each other haveexactly the same physical properties (melting point,

boiling point, index of refraction, etc.) but not theirinteraction with polarized light.

Polarized light vibrates only in one plane; it resultsfrom passing light through a polarizing filter.

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Optical Activity

A levorotatory () substance rotates polarized lightto the left [e.g., l-glucose; (-)-glucose].

A dextrorotatory (+) substance rotates polarizedlight to the right [e.g., d-glucose; (+)-glucose].

Molecules which rotate the plane of polarized lightare optically active.

Many biologically important molecules are chiral

and optically active. Often, living systems containonly one of the possible stereochemical forms of acompound, or they are found in separate systems. D-lactic acid is found in living muscles; D-lactic acid is present in sour milk.

In some cases, one form of a molecule is beneficial, and the enantiomer is apoison (e.g., thalidomide).

Humans can metabolize D-monosaccharides but not L-isomers; only L-aminoacids are used in protein synthesis


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25

Monosaccharides

26

Classification of Monosaccharides

The monosaccharides are the simplest of thecarbohydrates, since they contain only onepolyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit.

Monosaccharides are classified according to thenumber of carbon atoms they contain:

The presence of an aldehyde is indicated by theprefix aldo- and a ketone by the prefix keto-.

No. of Class of carbons Monosaccharide

3 triose4 tetrose5 pentose6 hexose


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Classification of Monosaccharides

Thus, glucose is an aldohexose (aldehyde + 6 Cs)and ribulose is a ketopentose (ketone + 5 Cs)

C

C

O H

H OH

CHO H

C

C

OHH

CH2OH

OHH

glucosean aldohexose

C

CH2OH

O

CH OH

C

CH2OH

OHH

ribulosea ketopentose

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Examples: Classifying Monosaccharides Classify the following monosaccharides:

C

CH2OH

CH2OH

OHH

O

CHO

CH2OH

HHO

HHO

C

CH2OH

OHH

O

CH2OH

HHO

CHO

HHO

HHO

CH2OH

OHH


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29

The Family of D-aldoses(L-forms not shown)

H OH

CH2OH

CHO

Aldotriose

21 = 2

D-glyceraldehyde

H OH

CHO

CH2OH

OHH

HO H

CHO

CH2OH

OHH

D-threoseD-erythrose

Aldotetroses2

2= 4

CHO

H OH

H OH

CH2OH

OHH

CHO

HO H

H OH

CH2OH

OHH

CHO

H OH

HO H

CH2OH

OHH

CHO

HO H

HO H

CH2OH

OHH

D-xyloseD-arabinose D-lyxoseD-ribose

Aldopentoses

23 = 8

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The Family of D-aldoses(L-forms not shown)

CHO

H OH

HO H

OHH

CH2OH

OHH

CHO

H OH

H OH

OHH

CH2OH

OHH

CHO

HO H

H OH

OHH

CH2OH

OHH

CHO

HO H

HO H

OHH

CH2OH

OHH

CHO

H OH

H OH

HHO

CH2OH

OHH

CHO

HO H

H OH

HHO

CH2OH

OHH

CHO

H OH

HO H

HHO

CH2OH

OHH

D-glucose

CHO

HO H

HO H

HHO

CH2OH

OHH

D-talose

D-gulose

D-idose D-galactose

D-mannoseD-allose D-altrose

Aldohexoses2

4= 16


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The Family of D-ketoses(L-forms not shown)

O

CH2OH

CH2OH

Ketotriose

20

= 1

Dihydroxyacetone

O

CH2OH

CH2OH

OHH

D-erythrulose

Ketotetroses2

1= 2

CH2OH

O

H OH

CH2OH

OHH

CH2OH

O

HO H

CH2OH

OHH

D-xyluloseD-ribulose

Ketopentoses

22 = 4

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The Family of D-ketoses(L-forms not shown)

CH2OH

O

H OH

HHO

CH2OH

OHH

CH2OH

O

H OH

OHH

CH2OH

OHH

CH2OH

O

HO H

OHH

CH2OH

OHH

CH2OH

O

HO H

HHO

CH2OH

OHH

D-Sorbose D-TagatoseD-Psicose D-Fructose

Ketohexoses23 = 8


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Physical Properties of Monosaccharides

Most monosaccharides have a sweet taste (fructoseis sweetest; 73% sweeter than sucrose).

They are solids at room temperature.

They are extremely soluble in water:

Despite their high molecular weights, thepresence of large numbers of OH groups makethe monosaccharides much more water solublethan most molecules of similar MW.

Glucose can dissolve in minute amounts of waterto make a syrup (1 g / 1 ml H2O).

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SugarRelative

SweetnessType

Lactose 0.16 Disaccharide

Galactose 0.22 Monosaccharide

Maltose 0.32 Disaccharide

Xylose 0.40 Monosaccharide

Glucose 0.74 Monosaccharide

Sucrose 1.00 Disaccharide

Invert sugar 1.30 Mixture of glucose and fructose

Fructose 1.73 Monosaccharide

Table 7.2 The relative sweetness of sugars

(sucrose = 1.00)

Physical Properties of Monosaccharides


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35

Chemical Properties of Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides do notusually exist in solution in

their open-chain forms:an alcohol group can addinto the carbonyl group inthe same molecule to formapyranose ring containinga stable cyclic hemiacetalor hemiketal.

OC

C

C C

C

CH2OH

H

H

HO

H OH

O

H

H

HOH

OC

C

C C

C

CH2OH

H

H

HO

H OH

HOH

OH

H

OC

C

C C

C

CH2OH

H

H

HO

H OH

HOH

H

OH

-D-glucose -D-glucose

D-glucose

cyclichemiacetals

-up -down

O

a pyranose ring

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Glucose Anomers

In the pyranose form of glucose, carbon-1 is chiral,and thus two stereoisomers are possible: one inwhich the OH group points down ( -hydroxy group)and one in which the OH group points up ( -hydroxy group). These forms are anomers of eachother, and carbon-1 is called the anomeric carbon.

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

C

C

O H

H OH

CHO H

C

C

OHH

CH2OH

OHH

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

-D-glucose64%

-D-glucose36%

D-glucose0.02%

1

1

1

Haworthstructures


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Fructose Anomers

Fructose closes on itself to form a furanose ring:

O

a furanose ring

O

H

CH2OH

OCH2OH

OH

OH

O

CH2OH

OH

HO

CH2OH

OH

O

CH2OH

OH

HO

OH

CH2OH

D-fructose

-D-fructose-D-fructose

-hydroxy

-hydroxy

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Drawing Furanose and Pyranose Rings

Monosaccharides are often represented using theHaworth structures shown below for furanose andpyranose rings.

The remaining OH groups on the ring point up ordown depending on the identity of the sugar.

O

CH2OHO

CH2OH

Furanosering

Pyranosering

always above ringfor D-saccharides


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Examples: Anomers

Identify the structures below as being the - or -

forms, and draw the structure of their anomers:

OHCH2OH

OH OH

O

ribose

OOH

OH

OH

OH

CH2OH

galactose

With Friends Like These, Who Needs Anomers?

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Oxidation of Monosaccharides

Aldehydes and ketones that have an OH group onthe carbon next to the carbonyl group react with abasic solution of Cu2+ (Benedicts reagent) to forma red-orange precipitate of copper(I) oxide (Cu2O).

Sugars that undergo this reaction are calledreducing sugars. (All of the monosaccharides arereducing sugars.)

Reducing sugar +Cu

2+ oxidation

product+ Cu

2O

deep bluesolution

red-orangeppt

Benedicts Reagent

(blue)

Copper(I) oxide

(red-orange ppt)


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Formation of Phosphate Esters

Phosphate esters can form at the 6-carbon ofaldohexoses and aldoketoses.

Phosphate esters of monosaccharides are found inthe sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA and RNA, inATP, and as intermediates in the metabolism ofcarbohydrates in the body.

O

CH2

OH

OH

OH

OH

OP

O

O

O

glucose 6-phosphate

O

CH2

OH

HO

OH

CH2OH

OP

O

O

O

fructose 6-phosphate

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Glycoside Formation

The hemiacetal and hemiketal formsof monosaccharides can react withalcohols to form acetal and ketalstructures called glycosides. Thenew carbon-oxygen bond is calledthe glycosidic linkage.

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH

OCH3

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH

+

OCH3

methyl -D-glycopyranoside

-D-glucose

methyl -D-glycopyranoside

+CH3OH H+


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Glycoside Formation

Once the glycoside is formed, the ring can no longeropen up to the open-chain form. Glycosides,

therefore, are not reducing sugars.

Glycoside + Cu2+

NR

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Examples: Glycoside Formation Identify the glycosidic linkage in each of the

following molecules:

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OCH2CH3

OHCH2OH

OH OH

O

CH2OH

OCH3


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Important Monosaccharides

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH

-D-riboseForms the sugar backbone of

ribonucleic acid (RNA)

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

-D-deoxyribose

Forms the sugar backbone ofdeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH

-D-galactoseIncorporated with glucoseinto lactose (milk sugar)

OH

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Important Monosaccharides

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

-D-glucoseAlso known as dextrose and bloodsugar; present in honey and fruits.Glucose is metabolized in the bodyfor energy. Other sugars absorbedinto the body must be converted to

glucose by the liver.

O

CH2OH

OH

HO

OH

CH2OH

-D-fructoseAlso known as levulose andfruit

sugar. Fructose is the sweetest ofthe monosaccharides. It is presentin honey (1:1 ratio with glucose),fruits, and corn syrup. It is oftenused to sweeten foods, since lessfructose is needed to achieve the

same degree of sweetness.


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Disaccharides andOligosaccharides

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Disaccharides

Two monosaccharides can be linked togetherthrough a glycosidic linkage to form a disaccharide.

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

O

CH2OH

O

OH

OH

OH

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH

Maltose

+


+

(1 4) glycosidic linkage

cyclic hemiacetal

H2O


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Disaccharides

Disaccharides can be hydrolyzed into their mono-saccharide building blocks by boiling them with

dilute acids or reacting them with the appropriateenzymes.

Disaccharides that contain hemiacetal groups arereducing sugars.

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O

CH2OH

O

OH

OH

OH

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH

Maltose

O

CH2OH

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

CH2OH

O

OH

OH

H

reacts with Benedict's reagent

maltose + H2O D-glucose + D-glucoseH+

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Important Disaccharides

O

CH2OH

O

OH

OH

OH

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH


MaltoseAlso known as malt sugar. It is

produced in germinating grain (suchas barley) as starch is broken down

during malting, and is formedduring the hydrolysis of starch to

glucose during digestion.

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH

O

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH


-D-galactose-D-glucose

LactoseAlso known as milk sugar. Lactose

constitutes 5% of cow's milk and7% of human milk. It is digested bythe enzyme lactase. Pure lactose is

found in whey, the waterybyproduct of cheese production.


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Important Disaccharides

O

CH2OH

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OHO

CH2OH

HO

OH

-D-glucose

-D-fructose

glycosidiclinkage

HOO

HO

OH

OH

OHO

OH

O

OH

OH

SucroseAlso known as table sugar. Both anomeric

carbons of glucose and fructose are tiedtogether in the glycosidic linkage; thus

neither ring can open, and sucrose is notareducing sugar. Sucrose is found in fruits,nectar, sugar cane, and sugar beets; maplesyrup contains about 65% sucrose, with

glucose and fructose present as well.Caramel is the solid residue formed fromheating sucrose. A flavoring agent called

invert sugaris produced by the hydrolysis ofsucrose under acidic conditions, which

breaks it apart into glucose and fructose;invert sugar is sweeter than sucrose because

of the fructose. Some of the sugar found inhoney is formed in this fashion; invert sugaris also produced in jams and jellies prepared

from acid-containing fruits.

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Oligosaccharides

Oligosaccharides contain from 3 to 10monosaccharide units.

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH

O

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

-D-galactose-D-glucose

Raffinose

An oligosaccharide found in peas and beans;

largely undigested until reaching the intestinal

flora in the large intestine, releasing hydrogen,

carbon dioxide, and methane)

O

HOCH2

O

OH

HO

CH2OH

-D-fructose


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Polysaccharides

54

Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides contain hundreds or thousands ofcarbohydrate units.

Polysaccharides are notreducing sugars, since theanomeric carbons are connected through glycosidiclinkages.

We will consider three kinds of polysaccharides, allof which are polymers of glucose: starch, glycogen,and cellulose.


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Starch

Starch is a polymer consisting of D-glucose units.

Starches (and other glucose polymers) are usuallyinsoluble in water because of the high molecularweight.

Because they contain large numbers of OHgroups, some starches can form thick colloidaldispersions when heated in water (e.g., flour orstarch used as a thickening agent in gravies orsauces).

There are two forms of starch: amylose and

amylopectin.

StarchAmylose

Amylose consists of long, unbranchedchains ofglucose (from 1000 to 2000 molecules) connectedby (1 4) glycosidic linkages.

10%-20% of the starch in plants is in this form.

The amylose chain is flexible enough to allow themolecules to twist into the shape of a helix. Becauseit packs more tightly, it is slower to digest than otherstarches. 56

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OO

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

O

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

O

(1 4) glycosidic linkageAmylose


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StarchAmylose

Amylose helices can trap molecules of iodine,forming a characteristic deep blue-purple color.

(Iodine is often used as a test for the presence ofstarch.)

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58

StarchAmylopectin

Amylopectin consists of long chains ofglucose (up to 105 molecules)connected by (1 4) glycosidiclinkages, with (1 6) branches every24 to 30 glucose units along the chain.

80%-90% of the starch in plants is inthis form.

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

O

O

CH2

OH

OH

O

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

O

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

O


(1 6) branch point

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OO

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

OO

Amylopectin


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Glycogen

Glycogen, also known as animal starch, isstructurally similar to amylopectin, containing both

(1 4) glycosidic linkages and (1 6) branchpoints. Glycogen is even more highly branched,with branches occurring every 8 to 12 glucose units.

Glycogen is abundant in the liver and muscles; onhydrolysis it forms D-glucose, which maintainsnormal blood sugar level and provides energy.

Starches (plants)

Amyloseunbranched

Amylopectinbranched

Glycogen (animals)highly branched

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Cellulose

Cellulose is a polymer consisting of long,unbranchedchains of D-glucose connected by

(1 4) glycosidic linkages; it may contain from300 to 3000 glucose units in one molecule.

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

O

O

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

O

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

O


Cellulose


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61

Cellulose

Because of the -linkages, cellulose has a differentoverall shape from amylose, forming extended

straight chains which hydrogen bond to each other,resulting in a very rigid structure.

Cellulose is the most important structuralpolysaccharide, and is the single most abundantorganic compound on earth. It is the material inplant cell walls that provides strength and rigidity;wood is 50% cellulose.

Plant cell wall

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Cellulose

Most animals lack the enzymes needed to digestcellulose, but it does provide roughage (dietaryfiber) to stimulate contraction of the intestines andhelp pass food through the digestive system.

Some animals, such as cows, sheep, and horses(ruminants), can process cellulose through the use ofcolonies of bacteria in the digestive system whichare capable of breaking cellulose down to glucose;

ruminants use a series of stomachs to allow cellulosea longer time to digest. Some other animals such asrabbits reprocess digested food to allow more timefor the breakdown of cellulose to occur.

Cellulose is also important industrially, from itspresence in wood, paper, cotton, cellophane, rayon,linen, nitrocellulose (guncotton), photographic films(cellulose acetate), etc.


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Nitrocellulose, Celluloid, and Rayon Guncotton (German, schiessbaumwolle) is cotton which has been treated

with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids. It was discovered by ChristianFriedrich Schnbein in 1845, when he used his wifes cotton apron to

wipe up a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids in his kitchen, whichvanished in a flash of flame when it dried out over a fire. Schnbeinattempted to market it as a smokeless powder, but it combusted so readilyit was dangerous to handle. Eventually its use was replaced by cordite(James Dewar and Frederick Abel, 1891), a mixture of nitrocellulose,nitroglycerine, and petroleum jelly, which could be extruded into cords.

Celluloid(John Hyatt, 1869) was the first synthetic plastic, made bycombining partially nitrated cellulose with alcohol and ether and addingcamphor to make it softer and more malleable. It was used inmanufacturing synthetic billiard balls (as a replacement for ivory),photographic film, etc.; it was eventually replaced by less flammableplastics.

Rayon (Louis Marie Chardonnet, 1884) consists of partially nitrated

cellulose mixed with solvents and extruded through small holes, allowingthe solvent to evaporate; rayon was a sensation when introduced since itwas a good substitute for silk, but it was still highly flammable.

Dietary Fiber

Dietary fiber consists of complex carbohydrates,such as cellulose, and other substances that make upthe cell walls and structural parts of plants.

Good sources of dietary fiber include cereal grans,oatmeal, fresh fruits and vegetables, and grainproducts.

Soluble fiber, such as pectin, has a lower molecularweight, and is more water soluble. Soluble fiber

traps carbohydrates and slows their digestion andabsorption, thereby leveling out blood sugar levelsduring the day. Soluble fiber also helps to lowercholesterol levels by binding dietary cholesterol.

Insoluble fiber, such as cellulose, provides bulk tothe stool, which helps the body to eliminate solidwastes.

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Chitin

Chitin is a polymer of N-acetylglucosamine, anamide derivative of the amino sugarglucosamine, in

which one of the OH groups is converted to anamine (NH2) group. The polymer is extremelystrong because of the increased hydrogen bondingprovided by the amide groups.

65

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

NH2

OH

Glucosamine

O

CH2OH

OH

OH

HN

OH

N-Acetylglucosamine

CH3

O

O

CH2OH

OH

HN

O

O

O

CH2OH

OH

HN

O

O

CH2OH

OH

HN

O

ChitinCH3

O CH3

O CH3

O

Chitin

Chitin is the main component of the cell walls offungi, the exoskeletons of arthropods such ascrustaceans and insects, and the beaks ofcephalopods. The chitin is often embedded in eithera protein matrix, or in calcium carbonate crystals.Since this matrix cannot expand easily, it must beshed by molting as the animal grows.

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How Sweet It Is!Sugar Substitutes

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Saccharin

The first of the artificial sweeteners, saccharin is noncaloric and

about 500 times sweeter than sugar. It was discovered in 1879by Constantine Fahlberg, a chemistry student at Johns HopkinsUniversity working for Ira Remsen; he noticed that the bread hewas eating was unusually sweet, and went back to his lab benchand tasted all of the compounds he had been working with that

day to find the compound responsible. It was marketedcommercially as a non-nutritive sweetener very quickly,

especially for use by diabetics. It was banned in some areas forsome time because it was a suspected carcinogen.

S

NH

O

OO

Saccharin


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Aspartame (NutraSweet)

Aspartame (NutraSweet) is about 160 times sweeter than sugar; itis composed of the amino acids aspartic acid and phenylalanine,neither of which has a sweet taste. It was discovered at Searle byJames Schlatter in 1965, who was preparing intermediates for thesynthesis of a tetrapedtide for an anti-ulcer project. Schlatter had

spilled some of the dipeptide intermediate on his hands, andnoticed later that there was a strong, sweet taste; he went back tohis bench and tasted the dipeptide and found that it indeed wasextremely sweet. Aspartame is sensitive to heat, so it cannot be

used in cooked foods, and it decomposes slowly in liquids,reducing their shelf life.

OCH3O

N

O

NH2

O

OHHAspartame (NutraSweet)

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N

S

H

Cyclamate(Sodium N-cyclohexylsulfamate)Discovered by Michael Sveda in

1937, who noticed that a cigar thathe was smoking in the lab tastedespecially sweet. It is about 30-50

times sweeter than sugar, and isoften used in combination withother artificial sweeteners. It is

heat-stable. Cyclamate was bannedby the FDA in 1970, although it is

still used in other countries.

O-Na

+

O

OO

S

N

K+

O

CH3O

O

Acesulfame-K (Sunette, Sweet One)Discovered accidentally at Hoechst

AG when a chist accidentally dipped

his fingers into the chemicals that hewas working with, and later licked

his finger to pick up a piece of paper.It is 200 times sweeter than sugar,

noncaloric, and is heat-stable and canbe used during cooking. It is often

used in combination with otherartificial sweetners, so that each one

masks the others' aftertaste.


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O

CH2OH

Cl

OH

OH

"galactose"

Sucralose (Splenda)A non-caloric artificial sweetener

approved by the FDA in 1998.The glucose in sucrose is replaced

by a galactose, and three of theOH groups are replaced by Cl

atoms. It is about 600 timessweeter than sucrose, and is non-

caloric and heat-stable.

O

CH2Cl

O

OH

HO

CH2Cl

"fructose"

CH2OH

H OH

HO H

H OH

H OH

CH2OH

Sorbitol

A sugar alcohol; incompletely

absorbed during digestion, and

contribute fewer calories thancarbohydrates; found naturally in

fruits; used commercially in

sugar-free candies, cookies,

chewing gum, etc.

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Stevia

OH

O

HO Steviol

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

OH

HO

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

OH

HO

OH

Stevioside(a steviol glycoside)

Steviol (Truvia, PureVia)Stevia rebaudiana (sweetleaf) is a plant inthe sunflower family widely grown for its

sweet leaves. The leaves contain acompound called steviol, which is

attached via glycoside linkages to glucosemolecules to form stevioside (250-300

times sweeter than sugar) andrebaudioside A (aka rebiana, contains anadditional glucose group, 350-450 times

sweeter than sugar). The FDA putrebaudioside A on the GRAS list in 2009.


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The Maillard Reaction

The Maillard Reaction occurs between foodscontaining carbohydrates and proteins under heating;

it results in a complex mixture of products and thedevelopment of a brown color. It is observed in thegrilling or browning of meats, the formation of cruston baked breads, the boiling of maple syrup, thebrewing of beer, the roasting of coffee and cocoabeans, the roasting of nuts, and other sources. Inaddition to the darkened colors, many complexflavors are developed. There are hundreds ofcompounds produced during these reactions, notmany of which are well-characterized.

O

H

OFurfural

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The End

Notes Chapter 07

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