Not Wards of the Nation

Not Wavds of the Nation:

The Stvugqle fov Women's Suflvage

W e have seen how progressivism won over both Republicans and Democrats, enlistitlg'the likes of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson in the cause of reform. In this selec-

tion, we turn to another side of progressivism - the long and arduous struggle for womentspolitical rights. Actually, asfeminist scholar William H. Chafe makes clear, the

movement for women's sufiage began back in theJacksonian period, when American

wornemfirst organized to break the shackles ofstrict domesticity and to expand their rights

and opportunities. Led by eloquent and irrepressible Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the early

feminists rejected the notion offemale inferiority and advocated full sexual equality with men. They demanded equal access to education, the trades, and theprofessions and an end

to the sexual double standard. They wanted the right to vote, too, not as an end in itself ,,

but as a means of achiebin; their broader aim - to make women self-suflcient, equal

partners with men in all areas of human enterprise.

A j e r the Civil War, American feminists organized the Equal Rights Association, but the movement soon split over the timing ofwomen's sufiage demands. The debate focused

on the proposed Fijeenth Amendment, discussed in an earlier selection, which sought to protect theformer slaves by enfranchising Afican American men. The amendment did not

include women, black or white. One women's rights group, led by Julia Ward Howe,

author of "The Battle Hymm ofthe Republic, " endorsed the amendment, agreeing with its Republican framers that Afican American s u f i g e was already controversial enough

and would go down to defeat ifwomen's sufiage were linked to it. Better, they believed,

to get African American men enfranchisedfirst Anotherfeminisi group, led by Stanton

and by Susan B. Anthony, opposed the amendment as "an open, deliberate insult to

American womanhood. " Anthony and Stanton considered it extremely unfair that uned-

ucated African American men should gain the elective franchise while educated white

women were denied it. The struggle between the two women's groups reached a turning

point at the 1869 convention ofthe Equal Rights Association, where Anthony and Stan-

ton tried but failed to unite the delegates behind a projected Sixteenth Amendment that

would enjanchise women. Shortly after that, the Anthony-stanton faction formed the

National Woman's Suffrage Association, the leaders and members ofwhich were mostly

women and thegoal ofwhich was to rally national support for a women's suffrage amend-

ment. The rivalgroup, with the endorsement of such well-known Republicans and refoom-

ers as the African American leader Frederick Douglass, then founded the American

Woman's Suf ige Association, which made a point ofseeking men's support. Thegroup

pledged itselfmainly to women's suffrage and "to a genteel and philanthropic concern for

women's rights, " as histon'an Linda Evans put it.

The Anthony-Stantongroup, on the other hand, embarked (in Evans's words) "on a

wide-ranging exploration of women's condition." In 1872, the National Woman's Suf-

frage Association endorsed Victoria ~ o o d h ; l l forpresident ofthe United States. A radical

feminist who championedjiee love and licensed prostitution, Woodhull enraged the ene-

mies of the movement, who charged thatfeminists were members of the lunatic fringe, out

to destroy the nuclearfamily and the moralfiber ofAmerica. As the nineteenth century

drew to a close, most feminists rejected radical ideas such as Woodhull's and became con-

spicuously conservative, placing renewed emphasis on feminine virtue, motherhood, and

community service.

By 1900, as Chafe points out, a new generation of feminists had narrowed the vision

of their pre-Civil War predecessors to one goal: the winning ofthe electivefranchise. In

that year, the rival women's suffrage groups set aside their dgerences and formed a joint

organization called the National American Woman's SuJrage Association. Chafegoes on

to recount the struggles of the indefatigable sufiagists, who identified their movement with

progressivism and won Woodrow Wilson and the entlre nation to their cause.

GLOSSARY

ADDAMS, JANE Second-generation feminist who contended that a woman's principal duty was "to preserve the health of her children and the cleanliness of her home" but that she needed the vote and political involvement to do so; this argument broadened the appeal of women's suffrage.

BULL MOOSE PARTY In the election of 1912, Theodore Roosevelt and a group of Progressive Republicans broke away from the regular Republicans and formed this independent reform party, which ran T R for president; T R and Republican nominee William Howard Taft both lost to Wilson.

CATT, CARRLE CHAPMAN Second-generation feminist leader who sought to minimize controversy; in 1915, she assumed overall charge of the suffrage campaign and devised the winning plan that won federal and state political leaders and Wilson himself to the suffrage cause.

GENERAL FEDERATION O F WOMEN'S CLUBS (GFWC) Begun as a means of fostering women's intellectual development, the clubs "caught the contagious spirit of reform" and in 1914 endorsed the women's suffrage campaign.

NATIONAL AMERICAN WOMAN'S SUFFRAGE ASSOCIATION (NAWSA) Formed by the merger of the "liberal" National Woman's Suffrage Association and the "conservative" American Woman's Suffrage Association in 1890, NAWSA focused primarily on winning women's suffrage.

NINETEENTH AMENDMENT Ratified in 1920, it stated that "the right of citizens of the United States to vote s h d not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex."

WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE U N I O N Organized in 1874, the W C T U sought to close down the saloons and expand women's political participation; men were excluded from membership.

I N THE FALL O F 1918 Woodrow Wilson journeyed to Capitol Hill to address the Senate of the United States. The nation was engaged in

a crusade "to make the world safe for democracy," and he had come to seek help. "The executive tasks of this war rest upon me," he told the lawmaken. "I ask that you lighten them and place in my hands in- struments . . . which I do not now have, which I sorely need, and which 1 have daily to apologize for not being able to employ." The subject of Wilson's appeal was not guns or airplanes but woman suffrage. Its enactment, the Commander in Chief declared, "was vital to the winning of the war" and essential to implementing democracy. The President's plea added one more voice to the rising chorus of support for the suffrage, and within a year, Congress voted over- whelmingly to send the Nineteenth Amendment to the states for ratification.

The woman's movement had not always enjoyed such legitimacy or support. The feminists who gath- ered at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848 were far removed from the mainstream of American life. Many had participated in the abolitionist struggle, demon- strating by their actions there the extent to which they deviated from prevailing norms of female behavl ior. When women abolitionists sought to speak in public or circulate petitions, they were castigated for departing from their proper place. Even male abolitionists were critical of their activities, and in 1840 women were excluded from a world anti-slavery conference in London. In response to such treatment, many of the women determined to seek freedom for themselves as well as for the slave. Bridling at the tradition that men and women should occupy totally separate spheres of activity, they demanded a drastic revision ofthe values and laws governing relationships

From The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, and Po- litical Roles, 1920-1970 by William Henry Chafe. Copyright O 1972 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Reprinted by permission. Footnotes omitted.

1 2 N O T W A R D S O F THE NATIC

between the sexes, and forthrightly attacked all forms of discrimination. Their efforts were greeted with de- rision and contempt. The Worcester Telegram de- nounced the Seneca Falls convention as an attempt at 6,. insurrection," and a Buffalo paper referred to it as "revolutionary." Women's rights advocates were generally dismissed as a "class of wild enthusiasts and visionaries" and received little popular backing.

The contrast between 1848 and 1918 dramatized, albeit in exaggerated form, the changes which had oc- curred within feminism during the intervening years. In effect, the woman's movement developed from an isolated Ginge group into a moderate refonn coalition. Although the change could be traced in part to external forces, it also reflected shifts within the movement itself. The early feminists took an uncom- promising stand on almost all issues and set out to eliminate the rigid division of labor between men and women. Suffrage constituted only one of a long series of demands. By the first decade of the twentieth century, on the other hand, the franchise had been ele- vated to a position of primary importance, and other more far-reaching ideas were de-emphasized. Unfor- tunately, most historians have defined the feminist struggle primarily as a quest for the vote and, with the Nineteenth Amendment as a refercnce point, have concentrated on those events and personalities most directly associated with the suffrage. But if we are to understand the suflkagists themselves and the fate of the woman's movement, it is imperative that we start with the broad vision of equality which inspired the founders of feminism in the nineteenth century.

The radical nature of the early feminist movement was revealed in the Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions passed by the women at Seneca Falls. In the nineteenth century, females were not allowed to testify in court, hold title to property, establish busi- nesses, or sign papers as witnesses. The feminists ad- dressed themselves both to the specifics of such discrimination and. the assumptions underlying it. Beginning with the assertion that "all men and women are created equal," the Declaration proceeded

I N : T H E STRUGGLE F O R W O M E N ' S SUFFRAGE

to indict mankind for its "history of repeated injuries and usurpations" toward women. The delegates '

charged that men had'denied them political represen- tation, made them "civilly dead," refused them the right to own their own property, and "oppressed

them on all sides." In marriage, a wife was compelled to pledge obedience and to give her husband "power to deprive her of her liberty." In business, man "mo- nopolized nearly all the profitable employments." And in morals, woman suffered from an iniquitous double standard dictated by men who claimed it as their right to "assign for her a sphere of action, when that belongs to her conscience and to her God." Hardly an area existed, the feminists concluded, where man had not consciously endeavored to "destroy woman's confidence in her own powers, to lessen her self-respect, and to make her willing to lead a dependent and abject life."

T o counter the oppression which they perceived, women's rights leaders proposed the elimination of all barriers separating the activities of the two sexes. Henceforth, they declared, any law which restricted woman's freedom or placed her in a position inferior to men had "no force or authority." Proclaiming the "identity of the race in capabilities and responsibilities," they demanded the "overthrow of the monop- oly of the pulpit," equal access to education, the trades, and professions, an end to the double standard, and the right to move in "the enlarged sphere" which their Creator had assigned them. God had made men and women equal, the feminists asserted, and the treatment of one sex as different from and less equal than the other ran "contrary to the great precept of nature."

The Declaration boldly challenged every social convention concerning woman's proper "place." Al- though the feminists sought redress of a whole series of specific grievances, the most impressive part of their document was its assault on the framework of assumptions responsible for woman's position. Im- plicit throughout the Declaration was the view that, as long as society prescribed separate areas of respon-

C U R R E N T S O F S T R U G G L E

sibility for each sex, women could never be free. By insisting that men and women were identical in "ca- pacities and responsibilities," the feminists attacked the fundamental premise underlying relations between the sexes - the notion of distinct male and female spheres. Once it was established that the two sexes were alike in the eyes of God, there was no longer any basis for treating women as separate and inferior and the demands for equality in the church, state, and family logically followed. Instead of con- centrating just on the suffrage, then, the early feminists advocated a complete transformation in society's thinking about women.

For much of the remainder of the nineteenth century, women's rights leaders continued to press for sweeping social change. The suffrage became a more prominent issue after Congress failed to recognize women's right to vote in the Fourteenth and Fif- teenth amendments, but many feminists persisted in tracing female inequality to the sexual division of labor in society and warned against thinking of the franchise as a panacea. Speaking through a journal en- titled The Revolution, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, a founder of the women's rights movement, dismissed the suffrage as a "superficial and fragmentary" question. "The ballot touches only those interests, either of men or women, which take their roots in political questions," Stanton and her followers declared in 1869. "But woman's chief discontent is not with her political, but with her social, and particularly her mar- ital bondage." Stanton and her allies attacked economic discrimination, urged reform of the divorce laws, and in the 1890's organized a monumental effort to write a Woman's Bible to counteract the widespread theologcal assumption that females were the weak and inferior sex. Perhaps the most signficant figure in the woman's movement during the nineteenth century, Stanton supported acquisition of the vote as a partial step toward achieving freedom, but her broader aim remained "to make woman a self-sup- porting equal partner with man in the state, the church and the home." . . .

The depth of antagonism which, the feminists pro- voked was disclosed in an 1866 Congressional debate on extending the franchise to the women of Wash- ington, D.C. Women's rights advocates demanded the vote on the basis that women were individuals who had the same inalienable right as male human beings to determine their own destinies. As the histo- rian Aileen Kraditor has pointed out, however, most Americans believed that the family, not the individ-

ual, constituted the basic unit of society. Each home existed as a "state in miniature." It had only one head - the husband - and he alone represented it in the world outside. Anyone who challenged that structure could logically be charged with attempting to subvert the family and destroy the state. "When God married

our first parents in the garden," one senator declared, "they were made 'bone of one bone and flesh of one flesh'; and the whole theory of government and society proceeds upon the assumption that their interests are one . . . that whatever is for the benefit of one is for the benefit of the other." Those who urged freedom for women, he asserted, would "put her . . . in an adversary position to man and convert all the now harmonious elements of society into a state of war, and make every home a hell on earth." Pursuing the same line of argument, Senator Peter Frelinghuysen of New Jersey insisted that women had a "higher and holier" function than to engage in the turmoil of public life. "Their mission is at home," he said, "by their blandishments and their love to assuage the passions of men."

The feminists did not help their cause when they allowed themselves to be identified with proposals to liberalize sexual morality. In the 1870's Victoria Woodhull, a friend of Susan B. Anthony and Eliza- beth Cady Stanton, endorsed free love and licensed prostitution in her weekly newspaper. Advocacy of sexual freedom was bad enough, but Woodhull then went on to create a public furor by charging that the respectable reformer Henry Ward Beecher was hav- ing a love affair with Elizabeth Tilton. Beecher insti- tuted a libel suit, prolonging the public uproar, and

1 2 N O T WARDS OF THE NATION: T H E S T R U G G L E F O R WOMEN'S SUFFRAGE

prominent feminists rushed to Woodhull's defense. ment, and later women's rights advocates never aban- [Editor and political leader] Horace Greeley, among doned the argument from justice. But by the turn of others, had previously stated that he could not support the century there was a shift in the balance between the feminists because they were too closely tied to the the two positions. Instead of emphasizing the inalien- cause of fiee love. Now, Woodhull's pronounce- able rights of females as individuals, the feminists ments, and her widely publicized association with tended to emphasize the utility of the ballot as an feminists, appeared to confirm Greeley's allegations, agent for reforming society. And rather than base and added one more weapon to the anti-feminist ar- their appeal on the similarity of men and women as send. human beings, they underlined the immutable differ-

Such episodes inevitably took their toll. As the cen- ences which distinguished the sexes and gave to each tury wore on, it became increasingly obvious that if a unique role to play in politics. the woman's movement continued to advocate seri- In large part, the shift developed as a natural re- ous change in marriage and the family, it would be sponse to a hostile political climate. As long as femi- dismissed as a radical fringe and charged with trying to nists focused on women's right to be free of social destroy the moral fiber of the nation. Every social constraints, they invited association of their own movement contains some people who insist on the movement with such issues as divorce and free love. need for total change and others who are willing to In an age scarred by fear of anarchism and social compromise in order to achieve tangible gains. Ordi- disorder, it made sense for women leaders to de- narily, the two exist side by side - often in the same person - but usually one or the other approach is dominant. In the woman's movement, the forces of compromise gradually gained increased strength. In the years after the Civil War, feminism divided into. different camps - the "conservative" American Woman's Suffrage Association, which was concerned almost exclusively with winning the ballot, and the "liberal" National Woman's Suffrage Association, which was committed to more far-reaching institu- tional change. By the end of the century, the degree

emphasize those positions which were most likely to incur public disapproval. At the same time a different generation of leaders took over direction of the woman's movement. By the turn of the century, most of the early feminists had either died or retired from active participation in the movement. Their places were taken by people like Carrie Chapman Catt and Jane Addams - women who shared many of the same ideals as the first generation but who inevitably operated within a different frame of reference. The new leaders evolved a set of tactics designed to mini-

of opposition to more radical feminist demands had mize controversy, and in the tradition of the Ameri- made the liberal position untenable, and in 1890 the can Suffrage Association they maintained a low level two wings of the movement reunited as the National of rhetoric. As a result, the woman's movement more American Woman's Suffrage Association (NAWSA) and more frequently accepted the opposition's prem- concerned primarily with the goal of winning the suf- ise on the sanctity of the home and pursued the fight &age - the most respectable and limited feminist for the vote within the context of conventional ideas demand. on woman's place. The new direction of the move-

At the same time, women's rights leaders shifted ment emerged gradually. It was not marked by any from what Aileen Kraditor has called an "argument special event, nor did it reflect a Machiavellian plot by from justice" to an "argument from expediency." any faction or group of leaders. But with the pas- Again, there was no clear-cut gap between those es- sage of time, the feminist appeal clearly took on a dif- pousing the different strategies. At various times, Eliz- ferent tone. abeth Cady Stanton had used the expediency argu- The suffragsts' acceptance of female distinctiveness

CURRENTS O F STRUGGLE

represented the departure point for the new strategy. In the past feminist leaders had championed the prin- ciple that the two sexes had exactly identical rights to engage in worldly activity. Now, they frequently argued that women deserved the vote precisely because they were different. The suffragists brilliantly ex- ploited traditional assumptions about woman's unique place. Females were primarily spiritual creatures, they claimed. Hence their participation in politics would elevate the moral level of government. Men possessed special talents to cope with material problems based on their experience in the business world. But women had special abilities to cope with human problems based on their experience in the home. Each sex occupied its own particular sphere, but the two were complementary rather than incompatible. Just as the creation of a good family required the con- tribution of both husband and wife, so the establish- ment of effective government depended upon the equal participation of male and female citizens. Poli- tics dominated by men alone constituted a half-fin- ished social instrument. Involvement by women was essential to complete it.

The new line of argument was epitomized by the suffragists' claim that the nation was simply a macro- cosm of the home. Frances Willard of the Women's Christian Temperance Union had first described politics as "enlarged housekeeping," and suffragsts like Jane Addams adopted the phrase to package their appeal to the public. Woman's primary duty, Addams argued in a widely circulated magazine article, was to preserve the health of her children and the cleanliness of her home. In an urban, industrial environment, the fulfillment of her responsibilities depended on the sanitation policies, fire regulations, and housing stan- dards of municipal government. If dirt were to be controlled, garbage collection had to be prompt. If the meat a mother bought for her family was to be free of germs, stringent government inspection was required. And if the clothes her children wore were not to be carriers of disease, government regulation of sweatshops was essential. In short, Addams declared,

HUGGING A

I S S U E D BY T H E NEW YORK S T A T E A S S O C I A T I O N OPPOSED T O WOMAN JUFFRAGE

Even as late as 191 7 antisufragists, many of them women, actively

opposed votes for women. This cartoon comesfrom an antisufiage

pamphlet issued by the New York State Association Opposed to Women's Suffrage. B y this time, however, women's sufiage had become allied with progressivism and had received the support of a

number ofprominent male leaders, including Theodore Roosevelt. Within three years, the "delusion" ofvotes for women would become a reality. (Courtesy of the League of Women Voters of the United

States)

"if woman would keep on with her old business of caring for her house and rearing her children, she will have to have some conscience in regard to public af- fairs lying outside her immediate household." Women could preserve the home and remain good mothers only if they acquired the vote and through political involvement protected the family.

By such reasoning the woman's movement broadened its appeal and neutralized the opposition's charge that it sought to destroy the home. The allega-

1 2 N O T W A R D S O F T H E N A T l O N : T H E S T R U G G L E F O R W O M E N ' S SUFFRAGE

tion was still made. In the 1917 suffrage debate a Southern congressman declared that giving the vote to women would "disrupt the family, which is the unit of society; and when you disrupt the family, you destroy the home, which is the foundation stone of the Republic." But such arguments no longer con- tained the power they once had. By avoiding issues which might alienate potential supporters while emphasizing traditional conceptions of women's proper role, the sufiagists acquired growing respectability. More and more, they occupied the ,moderate center of the political spectrum and mirrored the views of the society around them.

The positions the suffragists took on such issues as immigration, race, and religion reflected the extent to which they shared prevailing public opinion. In 1894 Carrie Chapman Catt joined those protesting the in- flux of foreigners and warned against the effort of un- desirables to despoil the nation's wealth. "There is but one way to avert the danger," Mrs. Catt declared: "Cut off the vote of the slums and give it to women.

1

. . . " A year earlier the suffrage convention had bla- tantly appealed to nativist fears by calling attention to the fact that "there are more white women who can read and write than all negro voters; more American women who can read and write than all foreign voters." Woman suffrage, the conventjon suggested, "would settle the vexed question of rule by illiteracy"

and ensure the perpetuation of the American way of life. Even former leaders could not escape the movement's quest for respectability. In 1895 Eliza- beth Cady Stanton published the first volume of the Woman's Bible, an attack on established religion's re- sponsibility for woman's subject status. The suffrage convention explicitly disassociated itself from the publication, and, in effect, disavowed Stanton's leadership.

With the advent of Progressivism, the strategy of consensus bore fruit. The suffragists had already defined the vote for women as a means of humanizing government, and in a period of generalized cornmit- ment to "reform," they were able to identify their

own cause with'-the larger effort to extend democracy and eliminate social injustice. Progressivism meant a great many things to different people, but in large part it represented an effort to clean up the most obvious causes of corruption, disease, and poverty. Within such a context, the suffragists argued convincingly that extension of the franchise to females would help in the task of improving society. Both the rhetoric and substance of the suffrage program meshed with the ethos of reform. Women, one suffragist declared, were engaged in "a fight of the home against the sa- loon; . . . a struggle of justice with greed and preju- dice; . . . a long strong battle between the selfish citizens and the patriotic ones." T o a remarkable extent, the society at large defined the goals of Progressivism in the same way, and as a result, the suffragists succeeded in making the vote for women a prominent item on the agenda of reform.

Female reformers, of course, played a decisive part in shaping Progressivism through their involvement in the social welfare movement. Women like Jane Addams, Lillian Wald, and Florence Kelley started the settlement houses which sprouted up in urban Amer- ica during the 1890's, and then carried their ideas and experience into national organizations dedicated to securing legislative change. For such women, suffrage and the cause of social welfare were inextricably tied together. Committed to building better neighbor- hoods and improving the conditions of workers in sweatshops and factories, they realized that they could accomplish little without political power. The con- struction of new parks and sewers required the ap- proval of city officials, and wages and hours could not be regulated without state legislation. Woman suffrage thus became a natural concern of reformers who hoped to mobilize an independent political 'constitu- ency which would force party bosses into action. The vote for females, the reformers believed, would add a sympathetic bloc to the electorate and provide the le- verage necessary to secure social-welfare legslation. The men and women who founded Hull House and the National Consumers League were powerful fig-

C U R R E N T S OF S T R U G G L E

ures, and their support substantially strengthened the "reform" appeal of the woman's movement.

Progressivism also provided a vehicle by which mihons of hitherto uninvolved middle-class women became politicized. . . . Founded in 1890 with some 500,000 members, the General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC) grew to over 2 million members twenty years later. In the tradition of earlier reading and literary societies, the GFWC's original purpose was to encourage women's intellectual development and provide an opportunity for recreation. By the turn of the century, however, the club movement had caught the contagious spirit of reform. . . . In 1914 the GFWC formally endorsed the suffrage campaign, and for the first time in its history, the woman's movement had a strong base of support among women themselves.

The close ties between suffragists and reformers became increasingly obvious as the Progressive period moved on. At an early stage, the women's rights movement joined in the cry for social welfare im- provements. The number of articles in the Woman's

journal advocating reform legislation doubled between 1895 and 1915. More important, an interlock- ing directorate linked the woman's movement to other groups in the Progressive coalition. . . .

The common denominator which united most of these groups was the belief that the vote for women represented an essential step toward a better society. In the tradition of Progressivism, each interpreted the value of the suffrage differently. Civic reformers believed that female voters would help oust corrupt political bosses. Devotees of democratization viewed woman suffrage as a logical extension of the initiative, referendum, and recall. And social-welfare organizations considered it a powerful new weapon in the fight for minimum-wage and child-labor legislation. All agreed, however, that, whatever one's particular definition of "reform," extending the franchise to women would enhance the possibility of achieving it.

By the second decade of the twentieth century, the su&age movement had succeeded in establishing itself as an important part of the Progressive coalition.

Significantly, nine of the eleven states which enacted woman suffrage by 1914 also had adopted the initiative and referendum. Suffrage supporters actively supported most pieces of reform legislation, and reformers reciprocated by pressuring political leaders to join the struggle for the franchise. Both major parties re-

sponded by moving closer to endorsement of the suffrage, and when the insurgent "Bull Moose" party headed by Theodore Roosevelt met in convention in 1912, it issued an unequivocal call for a constitutional amendment granting women the right to vote. In the past, the woman's movement had suffered from a lack of allies and a dearth of popular support. Now, after repeated rebuffs, it had achieved legitimacy as an en- trenched part of a broad-based reform movement. No longer a deviant fringe, it had become, in the words of the Woman's journal, "bourgeois," "middle class," and "middle-of-the-road."

With the support of leading reformers as an impe- tus, women activists revived flagging suffrage cam- paigns in states across the country. In 1910, the state of Washington broke a fourteen-year streak of defeats when its voters approved a suffrage amendment in a popular referendum. Victories followed in Illinois and California, proving for the first time that the vote for women had appeal in areas with large industrial and urban concentrations. In the nation's capital, mean- while, the militant Congressional Union injected new life into the struggle for a federal amendment. Headed by Alice Paul, a Quaker and veteran of the English suffrage campaign, the Union was formed in 1913 as the Congressional Committee of NAWSA and within two months organized a tumultuous parade of 5,000 women to mark the arrival of Woodrow Wil- son for the presidential inauguration ceremonies. The Congressional Union insisted that the party in power be made to answer for the failure to approve the suffrage amendment and in 1914 and 1916 mounted a

. ~ . . . ". .- ~.

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i; 12 N O T W A R D S O F T H E N A T I O N : T H E S T R U G G L E FOR W O M E N ' S S U F F R A G E i

I!

Ajter 1915, the National American Womank SufFnge Association,

under the leadership of Carrie Chapmafl Catt, concenlratfd on

inf2uencing local and state elections, lobbying Congress, and convert-

ing Resident Wilson. This banner-carrying woman waz photo-

graphed at the xates of the White House in 191 7. Later that year

forty-one u~omenfromJi~eerz states were arrested outside the I h i t e

House for sufiagisl demonstrations. In 1919, after u~omen had

rallied to the support ofhis warpolicies, Wilton himself took up their

cause. (UPIIBettman Newsphotos)

national campaign to defeat Democratic candidates. Both in spirit and tactics, Alice Paul's organization of- fended the Inore conservative bent of NAWSA, and in 1915 the two groups split, but the energy, excite- ment, and publicity which the Congressional Union generated played a key role in focusing renewed suffragist attention on the necessity for a national constitutional amendment.

Responding to the challenge posed by the Con- gressional Union, NAWSA reorganized its national office in 1915 and placed Carrie Chapman Catt in

charge of the over-all suffrage campaign. Catt imme- I diately formulated a "Winning Plan" based on the concept that state and federal efforts should reinforce each other. For every victory won on a local level, she reasoned, additional congressmen and senators could be persuaded to vote for a suffrage amendment. It was especially important, she felt, for suffrage forces to break thc solid front of opposition In the Northeast

I

1 and South. "If New York wins in 1917," she declared, "the backbone of the opposition will be largely bent if not broken." Catt viewed herself as a field commander and brought to the suffrage movement an unprecedented amount of discipline and effi- ciency. While crucial local affiliates mobilized their energies to achieve state victories, a carefully selected

staff of lobbyists cultivated support on Capitol Hill. Catt herself concentrated on Prcsident Wilson. In-

I stead of denouncing him as the Congressional Union had done, she solicited his advice, invited him to address suffrage conventions, and in every way possible associated him with the suffrage cause.

Piece by piece the elements of Catt's "Winning Plan" fcll into place. In 1917 the voters of New York passed a suffrage referendum, reversing their decision of two years earlier. A year later Michigan, South Da- kota, and Oklahoma joined the suffrage ranks. Four- teen state legislatures in 1917 and twenty-six in 1919 petitioned Congress to enact a federal amendment. The President himself entered the fray after women had rallied to the support of his war policies. "The services of women during the supreme crisis have been of the most signal usefulness and distinction," he wrote Mrs. Catt. "It is high time that part of our debt should be acknowledged and paid." When a new Congress convened in 1919, it was as if no controversy had ever existed. The suffrage amendment passed the House by a vote of 304 to 90, the Senate by a vote of 56 to 25. Fourteen months later, Tennes- see became the thirty-sixth state to ratify [and so to make it law]. Nearly three quarters of a century after Seneca Falls, the women's rights movement had

C U R R E N T S O F STRUGGLE

reached a benchmark. "How much time and patience . . . how much hope, how much despair went into

the battle," Carrie Chapman Catt reflected. "It leaves

its mark on one, such a struggle. It fills the days and it rides the nights." And now the fight was over.

Women had won the vote. T o a large extent, the suffrage victory represented a

triumph for the strategy of compromise. By temper- ing those ideas most likely to offend public sensibili-

ties and playing up the social utility of the ballot, lead-

ers like Came Chapman Catt made substantial inroads into the opposition's strength and succeeded

in building a political consensus on behalf of the Nineteenth Amendment. The suffragists themselves,

on the other hand, were not necessarily aware of the

changes which had taken place. When the Nine-

teenth Amendment was enacted, female leaders be-

lieved that they had camed out the mission begun at Seneca Falls and did not perceive the extent to which

the vision of the earlier feminists had been narrowed. The woman's movement, Came Chapman Catt

wrote in 1917, was engaged in a "world-wide revolt

against all artificial barriers which laws and customs

interpose between women and human freedom." The same purpose had inspired the founders of the

women's rights movement. Thus if the nature of fem-

inism had altered, the suffragists did not consciously recognize or acknowledge the change.

At least in part, the contradiction reflected the per-

spective from which the suffragists viewed the past. "The participants in a historical situation," David Potter has observed, "tend to see the alternatives in

that situation as less clear cut, less sharply focused" than historians do. Potter's comments were made in a

different context, but they speak directly to the

suffragists' perception of their own accomplishments. Although a change in style and tone had certainly

taken place within the woman's movement, it oc- curred over such a long period of time that it was not immediately visible to contemporary observers. There were "conservatives" in the movement in 1848

and "radicals" in 1918, and while the balance be-

tween the different points of view altered, there was

no overt reversal of direction. The vote had always

constituted an important plank in the feminist plat-

form, and simply grew in prominence with the pas- sage of time. Even the "argument from expediency"

evolved gradually, never totally dominating the "ar-

gument from justice." Since the woman's movement

did not split over either issue, there was no reason for

suffrage leaders to perceive a discontinuity between

the past and present. Indeed, if they had envisioned

their goal as anything less than that of the early

feminists, they would have found it difficult to justifj

the dedication and energy they expended in the

struggle. At the same time, the value ascribed to the vote by

contemporaries reinforced women's rights leaders in

their belief that they were involved in a battle of rev-

olutionary significance. In the Progressive era, it was not unusual for different groups to define refonn

measures as panaceas. Prohibitionists asserted that the

Eighteenth Amendment would purifj the nation's morals. Trustbusters pledged that dismantling large

corporations would guarantee economic freedom. And social welfare reformers contended that woman

suffige would usher in a new age of protection for workers and customers, while putting an end

to graft and indifference in government. The fact

that financiers, railroads, and liquor interests went to

such great lengths to bankroll the fight against the

Nineteenth Amendment encouraged women leaders in their belief that the suffrage would transform

society.

Finally, the progress which had taken place from 1848 to 1920 provided some justification for the con-

viction that extending the franchise would demolish

one of the last barriers to equality. Common law re-

strictions had largely been removed. Educational opportunity was available in a variety of private colleges

and public universities. And during World War I, thousands of women had moved into jobs formerly held by men, causing many observers to assert that a

revolution in the economic role of women had oc-

1 2 N O T W A R D S O F T H E N A T I O N : T H E S T R U G G L E F O R W O M E N ' S SUFFRAGE

curred. If not all the demands of 1848 had been met, QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER enough had received some attention to create a basis

in reality for the suffragists' hope that acquisition of

the vote would place women on a par with men in society.

Thus when the last state ratified the Nineteenth

Amendment, the suffragists had good reason to be-

lieve that"they had scored a decisive victory in the battle for women's rights. In effect, the ballot had

come to symbolize the entire struggle for equality and

to embody all the demands of the woman's movement. The question was whether the suffrage could

carry the heavy burden assigned to it, whether the

right to vote also meant progress toward eliminating the deeper causes of inequality which had concerned

the feminists at Seneca Falls. Carrie Chapman Catt told a victory celebration in New York in 1920 that

she had lived to realize the greatest dream of her life.

"We are no longer petitioners," she said, "we are not wards of the nation, but free and equal citizens." Only

1. How did the women's rights movement, the early leaders of which had pressed for sweepin2 social, economic, and political changes in women's status, come

to focus its energies on a single issue: the right to vote?

2. Hindsight shows that the winning of the elective franchise by women brought no revolutionary changes to American society. Explain then why the

demand for women's suffrage raised such vehement

opposition.

3. Why did feminists at the turn of the century shift

their strategy for winning the vote from what histo-

rian Aileen Kraditor calls an "argument from justice"

to an "argument from expediency"?

4. How was the second generation of feminists able

to use conventional ideas about women's place to

gain widespread support for women's suffrage? What price did they pay for such "respectability"?

5. How were twentieth-century feminists able to

the experience of the next generation could prove link their demand for women's suffrage with the Pro-

whether such optimism represented wishful thinking gressive movement? What role did women play in

or hard reality. shaping progressivism, and how did the Progressive

movement win new allies for women's rights?

Not Wards of the Nation

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