Norton UniversityAll modal verbs can express degrees of certainty, probability, or possibility. Each...

Norton University Year II / Semester II Faculty of Sciences Core English 2

Grammatical Element 1 2011-2012

Modal Verbs

1. Introduction:

The modal verbs or modal auxiliary verbs generally express a speaker’s attitude,

or mood. They express ideas such as willingness and ability, permission and

refusal, obligation and prohibition, suggestion, necessity, promise and intention.

All modal verbs can express degrees of certainty, probability, or possibility. Each

modal verb has more than one meaning or use.

The modal auxiliary verbs in English are: can, could, had better, may,might,

must, ought to, shall, should, will, would, need.(need is not a modal verb, but

used as a modal verb). Modal verbs have several characteristics in common.

There is no –s in the third person. Except “Need”

Examples: He can swim. She needs to buy some flower. She must go

There is no do/does in the question.

Examples: May I ask you a question, please? Shall we go?

There is no don’t/doesn’t in the negative.

Exampes: You shouldn’t tell lies. You won’t believe this

They are followed by an infinitive without to . The exception is ought to.

Examples: It might rain. They must do it. We ought to be on our way.

Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses.

Examples: She musted study very hard. Not Correct

He will can go with us. Not Correct

Note:We have included some expressions which are not modal verbs including have to, and have got to. These expressions are closely related to modals in meaning and are often interchanged with them. The verb used to can also be used like a modal verb.

2. Forms:

To make a positive sentence: Subject + modal verb + present verb/v1 + object.

Example: I/you/we/they/he/she/it could do it.

To make a negative sentence: Subject + modal verb + not + present verb/v1+

object.

http://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/usedtotext.htm



Example: I/you/we/they/he/she/it must not be lazy.

The exception is “ought to”, to make negative: Subject + ought not to/oughtn’t to +

present verb/v1+ object.

Example: I/you/we/they/he/she/it ought not to/oughtn’t to have driven so fast.

To make a question sentence: Modal verb + subject + present verb/v1+ object.

Example: May I/we ask you questions, please?

The exception is “ought to”, to make a question sentence: Ought + Subject + to +

present verb/v1+ object.

Example: Ought I/we to write to thank you?

Not ‘Ought to I /we write to thank you?’

3. Uses:

3.1. Can used to express ability. The past is expressed by Could

Examples: I can speak three languages.

I could swim when I was three.

Note: Be able to can be used as a modal verb.

Examples: I’ve never been able to understand her.

I love being able to drive.

You’ll be able to walk again soon.

To express a fulfilled ability on one particular occasion in the past, could is

not used. Instead, was able to or manage to.

Examples: She was able to survive by clinging onto the wrecked boat.

The prisoner managed to escape by climbing onto the roof.

Could + the perfect infinitives is used to express an unrealized past ability.

Someone was able to do something in the past, but didn’t try to.

Examples: I could have gone to university, but I didn’t want.

I could have told you that Dara wouldn’t come, He hates parties.

Could can be used to criticize people for not doing things. We feel that they

are not doing their duty.

Examples: You could tell me if you’re going to be late.



You could have done something to help me instead of sitting

here.

Could has a similar meaning to might.

Examples: You could be right. I am not sure.

The film could be worth seeing. It had a good review.

Couldn’t is not used to express a future possibility. The negative of could in

this use is might not.

Examples: You might not be right.

The film might not be any good.

Couldn’t has a similar meaning to can’t, only slightly weaker.

Example: She couldn’t have a ten-year-old daughter! She’s only 21 herself.

Can and Could are used to ask for or give permission

Examples: Can/Could I go home? I don’t feel well.

Can/Could I borrow your car tonight?

You can use a dictionary in this exam.

You can’t stay up till midnight. You’re only five.

You can’t smoke in here. It’s forbidden.

To talk about permission generally, or permission in the past, we use can,

could, or be allowed to.

Examples: Children can / are allowed to do what they want these days.

I couldn’t / wasn’t allowed to go out on my own until I was

sixteen.

3.2. May and Might

May expresses the possibility that an event will happen or is happening.

Examples: We may go to Greece this year. We haven’t decided yet.

Where’s Ann? She may be having a bath, I don’t know.

May used to ask for permission.

Examples: May I ask you a question?

May I use your phone? May I sit here?

Might is more tentative and slightly less certain than May.



Examples: It might rain. Take your umbrella.

Where’s Peter? He might be upstairs. There a light on.

Note:

May and Might do not have common negative contractions (equivalents to shan't,

won't, can't, couldn't etc.), although mightn't can occur in asking questions.

("Mightn't I come in if I took my muddy boots off?" as a reply to "Don't come in

here! You'll get the floor dirty!")

When used in the perfect aspect, "may have" is used to indicate a lack of knowledge

about events in the past, and "might have" is used for possibilities that did not occur

but could have in other circumstances.

Examples: She may have eaten cake (is used to indicate a lack of knowledge

about events in the past). She might have eaten cake if it wasn't a lie (used for

possibilities).

May is also used to express irrelevance in spite of certain or likely truth: "He may be

taller than I am, but he is certainly not stronger" may mean roughly, "While it is true

that he is taller than I am, that does not make a difference, as he is certainly not

stronger." (However, it may also mean, "I am not sure whether he is taller than I am,

but I am sure that he is not stronger.") This is the meaning in the phrase "Be that as it

may." Might can be used in this sense as well.

May or might can be used in the first person to express that future actions are being

considered. "I may/might go to the mall later" means that the speaker is thinking

about going to the mall; as such it means the same thing as maybe will.

3.3. Will and would

Will and won’t are used to predict a future action. The truth or certainty of

what is asserted in more or less taken for granted.

Examples: I’ll see you later.

His latest book will be out next month.



Will and won’t are also used to express what we believe or guess to be true

about the present. They indicate an assumption based on our knowledge of

people and thing, their routines, character, and qualities.

Examples: You’ve got a letter from Canada. It’ll be from my aunt Freda.

Leave the meat in the oven. It won’t be cooked yet.

I wonder what Sarah’s doing’ ‘well, it’s Monday morning, so I

guess that right now she’ll be taking the children to school.

Will is also used as offers and requests.

Examples: I’ll take you to the airport. (Offer)

I’ll post that letter for you. (Offer)

Will you buy me an ice cream, Mum? (Request)

Will you (please) pass the salt? (Request)

Would can be used in some forms that are viewed as more formal or polite.

For example: I would like a glass of water

Would can be used for polite request.

For examples: Would you get me a glass of water?

Would you mind waiting a moment?

Would you pass the salt please?

Would can be used as polite requests with would you mind to ask for

permission.

For examples: Would you mind if I closed the window?

Would you mind if I used the phone?

Would you mind used to ask someone to do something as a polite request.

For examples: Would you mind closing the window?

Excuse me? Would you mind repeating that?

Would you mind mailing this letter for me?

Would can be used to shift the time of perspective of a future event from the

present to the past. For examples: In 1982 I knew that in 1986 I would

graduate from college.



Note:

The meaning of the negated "would" form depends on the particular usage of

"would". In its conditional usage, the main verb is negated: "I would not go even if I

could" means "I would not-go..." = "I would refrain from going...." However, in the

future-of-the-past form, "In 1982 I knew that I would not graduate in 1986" means

"...I not-would graduate..." = "...It is not that I would graduate...." Likewise, in the

past habitual form, "Back then I would not eat early" does not mean "...I would not-

eat early" = "...I would fast early" but rather means "...I not-would eat early" = "...it is

not that I would eat early...." In the latter two examples either the modal or the entire

verb phrase is being negated.

It is also used to make past predictions or a prediction about a possible situation.

Past: Sarah worked all night. She would be tired the next day.

Possible: Shall we go to Keri Keri for Easter? That would be nice.

Would used to express a repeated action in the past.

Would can be used to express an action that was repeated regularly in the past.

When would is used to express this idea, it has the same meaning as used to

(habitual past).

For examples: when I was a child, my father would read me a story at night

before bed.

When I was a child, my father used to read me a story me a story at night

before bed.

These two examples above have the same meaning.

Note: used to used to express a situation that existed in the past, would may not

be used as an alternative. Would is used only for regularly repeated actions in the

past.



Expressing preference: Would rather

(a) I would rather go to a movie tonight than

study grammar.

(b) I’d rather study history than (study)

biology.

How much do you weigh?

(c) I’d rather not tell you.

(d) The movie was okay, but I would rather

have gone to the concert last night.

(e) I’d rather be lying on a beach in Florida

than (be) sitting in class right now.

Would rather expresses preference.

In (a): notice that the simple form of a

verb follows both would rather and

than.

In (b): if the verb is the same, it does not

have to be repeated after than.

Contraction: I would = I’d

Negative form: would rather + not

The past form: would rather have +

past participle. Usual pronunciation:

“I’d rather of”

Progressive form: would rather + be+ -

ing.

3.4. Must

Must expresses strong obligation. Other verb forms are provided by have to.

For examples: You must try harder! You mustn’t hit your baby brother.

What time do you have to start work? I had to work hard to pass my

exams. You’ll have to do this exercise again. We might have to

make some economies. I hate having to get up early.

Must expresses the opinion of the speaker.

For examples: I must get my hair cut. (I am telling myself).

You must do this again. (Teacher to student)

Must is associated with a more forma, written style.

For examples: Candidates must answer three questions. (On an exam paper)

Books must be returned by the end of the week. (Instructions in a library)



Must is also used to assert what we infer or conclude to be the most logical or

rational interpretation of a situation. We do not have all the facts, so it less

certain than will.

For examples: You say he walked across the Sahara desert! He must be mad!

You must be joking! I simply don’t believe you.

Have to expresses a general obligation based a law or rule, or based on the

authority of another person.

For examples: Children have to go to school until they’re sixteen. (It’s

the law) Mum says you have to tidy your room.

Mustn’t expresses negative obligation. Don’t have to expresses the absence

of obligation.

For example: You mustn’t steal. It’s very naughty.

You don’t have to go to England if you want to learn English.

Have got to is common in British English. It is more informal than have to.

For examples: I’ve got to go now.

Don’t have a late night. We’ve got to get up early

tomorrow.

Must, have to and have got to used to express necessity.

(a) All applicants must take an entrance

exam.

(b) All applicants have to take an

entrance exam.

Must and have to both express necessity.

In (a) and (b): it is necessary for every

applicant to take an entrance exam. There is

no other choice. The exam is required.



(c) I’m looking for Sue, I have to talk to

her about our lunch date tomorrow. I

can’t meet her for lunch because I

have to go to a business meeting at:

1:00

(d) Where’s Sue? I must talk to her right

away. I have an urgent message for

her.

In every statements of necessity, have to is

used more commonly than must. Must is

usually stronger than have to and can

indicate urgency or stress important. In( c ):

the speaking is simply saying, “I need to do

this and I need to do that .

In (d) the speaker is strongly saying this

very important.

(e) I have to (“hafta”) be home by eight.

(f) He has to (“hasa”)go to a meeting

tonight.

Note: have to is usually pronounce “hafta”

and has to usually pronounced “hasta”

(g) I have got to go now. I have a class

in ten minutes.

(h) I have to go now. I have a class in

ten minutes

Have got to also expresses the idea of

necessity: (g) and (h) have the same

meaning. Have got to is informal and is

used primarily in spoken English. Have tois

used in both formal and in formal English.

(i) I have got to go (“I’ve gotta go/I

gotta go) now.

Usual pronunciation of got to is “gotta”

Sometimes have is dropped in speech: I

gotta do it.

(j) Present or future

I have to/have got to/must study tonight.

(k) Past: I had to study last night.

The idea of past necessity is expressed by

had to. There is no other past form for

must (when it means necessity) or have got

to.



Have to and must in the negative:

Lack of necessity and prohibition

Note: lack of necessity may also be expressed by need not + the simple form of a

verb:

You needn’t shout. The use of needn’t as an auxiliary is chiefly British other than

when it is used in certain common expression such as “you needn’t worry.”

3.5. Shall and Should

Shall used with I and we for talking about or predicting the future.

For examples: This time next week I shall be in Scotland.

I shall arrive at nine.

The negative of shall is shall not or shan’t.

For example: I shan’t be late.

Shall used in questions with I and we for making offers or suggestions or

asking advice:

For examples: Shall I send you the book?

Shall I open the window?

Lack of necessity

(a) Tomorrow is a holiday. We don’t

have to go to class.

(b) I can hear you. You don’t have to

shout.

When used in negative, must and have to

have different meanings.

Do not have to =lack of necessity.

In (a): it is not necessary for us to go to

class tomorrow because there is a holiday.

Prohibition

(c) You must not look in the closet.

Your birthday present is hidden there.

(d) You must not tell anyone my secret.

Do you promise?

Must not=prohibition (do not do this!). In

(c): do not look in the closet. I forbid it.

Looking in the closet is prohibited.

Negative contraction: mustn’t. (the first “t”

is not pronounced: “muss-∂nt.”)



What shall we do this weekend?

Shall used to show that you are determined, or to give an order or instruction.

He is determined that you shall succeed.

Candidates shall remain in their seats until all the papers have

been collected.

Shall is used in many of the same senses as will, though not all dialects use

shall. In prescriptive English usage, shall in the first person, singular or

plural, indicates mere futurity, but in other persons shows an order, command

or prophecy:

"Cinderella, you shall go to the ball!" Likewise, will generally indicates

futurity in the second and third persons but willingness/determination

in the first person.

Shall is also used in legal and engineering language to write firm laws and

specifications as in these examples:

Those convicted of violating this law shall be imprisoned for a term of

not less than three years nor more than seven years.

The electronics assembly shall be able to operate within its

specifications over a temperature range of 0 degrees Celsius to 70

degrees Celsius.

In both cases, in accordance with prescriptive usage, shall is used in

the third person to express determination on the part of the speaker.

Shall in the second and third persons

Shall can express (A) the subject’s intention to perform a certain action or to

cause it to be performed, and (B) a command. Both these uses are old-

fashioned and normal and normally avoided in modern spoken English.

(A) Examples of shall used to express the speaker’s intention:

For examples: You shall have a sweet =I’ll give you a sweet or I’ll see

that you get a sweet.

He shan’t come here =I won’t let him come here.

They shall not pass = we won’t let him pass.



(B) Examples of shall used to express a command:

For examples: Yachts shall go round the course, passing the

marks in the correct order. (Yachts racing-rules)

Member shall enter the names of their guests in the book provided.

(Club rules)

This construction is chiefly used in regulations or legal documents. In

less formal English must and are to would be used instead of shall.

The use of must:

It is possible to use you will for spoken commands:

Ex. You will not mention this meeting to anyone.

But it is more usual and more polite to use must:

Ex. You must not mention this meeting to anyone.

The use of are to:

Examples. You are to report for duty immediately.

The switchboard is to be managed at all times.

Should expresses what may reasonable be expected to happen.

Expectation means believing that things are or will be as we want them to be.

This use of should has the idea of if everything has gone according to plan.

For examples: Our guests should be here soon. (If they haven’t got lost).

This homework shouldn't take you too long. (If you’ve understood what you

have to do.)

Should in this use has the idea that we want the action to happen. It is not

used to express negative or unpleasant ideas.

Examples: You should pass the exam. You’ve worked hard.

You should fail the exam. You haven’t done any work at all.

3.6. Ought to

Ought to can be used for present and future and for the past when preceded by

a verb in the past tense or followed by a perfect infinitive:

Exs: I ought to write to him today/tomorrow.

I knew I ought to write to him.



She said I ought to write.

I know/knew that I ought to have written.

In conversation should/ought to can often be used alone, the infinitive being

understood but not mentioned:

Ex: You should paint/ought to paint your door. Yes, I know I should/I

know i ought to.

Should and ought to can express advice:

Ex: You should/ought to read this. It’s very good.

Should/ought to with the continuous infinitive

Should/ought to with the continuous infinitive expresses the idea that the

subject is not fulfilling his obligations or that he is acting foolishly, rashly etc.

or not acting sensibly, prudently etc:

Exs: He ought to be studying for his exam.

He shouldn’t be spending all his time on the beach.

We should be wearing seat belts. (But we are not wearing them.)

I shouldn’t be telling you this. It’s supposed to be a secret.

That….should after certain verbs

Certain verbs can be followed by that +subject + should as an alternative to a

gerund or infinitive construction.

That….should is particularly useful in the passive and sometimes is the only

possible passive form.

That….should is more formal than a gerund or infinitive construction and

usually implies less direct contact between the advisers /organizers etc. and

the people who are to carry out the action.

Verbs which can be used with that….should include the following:

Advise, agree, arrange, ask, beg, command, decide, demand, determine, insist,

order, propose, recommend, request, stipulate, suggest, urge.

Note also: be anxious, be determine.

Examples: She advised that we should keep the gate locked.

She advised that the gate should be kept locked.



She advised keeping the gate locked/advised us to keep it

locked.

Recommend could be used above instead of advise and would sound more

formal.

They agreed/decided that the roof should be repaired.

They agreed/decided to repair the roof.

He arranged that I should go abroad.

He arranged for me to go abroad.

They arranged that the minister should be met at the airport.

They arranged for the minister to be met at the airport.

Be anxious takes the same construction as arrange:

He is anxious that classes should start/should be started at once.

He is anxious for classes to stat/to be started at once.

They asked/begged/urged that relief work should be given priority.

They asked/begged/urged the authorities to give relief work priority.

He commanded that the army should advance. (He was not necessarily

with the army.)

He commanded the army to advance. (He probably was with the army.)

She determined/was determined that he should study music.

She determined/was determined to let him/make him study music.

She insisted that he should study music/insisted on his studying music.

He ordered that Ann should go. (He probably told someone else to tell

her.)

He ordered Ann to go. (He probably told her himself.)

He ordered that the goods should be sent by air.

He ordered the goods to be sent by air.

He proposed/suggested that we should try homeopathic remedies.

He proposed/suggested that homeopathic remedies should be tried.

He proposed/suggested (our) trying homeopathic remedies.



They stipulated that the best materials should be used.

They stipulated for the best materials to be used.

It is/was + adjective + that….should

A. That…should can be used after it is/was advisable, better, desirable,

essential, imperative, important, natural, necessary, after fair (=just), just,

right, (these are often preceded by only) and after reasonable, as an

alternative to a for + infinitive construction:

Examples: It is advisable that everyone should have a map.

It is better for him to hear it from you.

It is better that he should hear it from you.

It is essential for him to be prepared for this.

It is essential that he should be prepared for this.

It is only right that she should have a share.

Should is sometimes omitted before be:

Ex: It is essential that he be prepared.

B. That….should can be used after it is/was absurd, amazing, ludicrous, odd,

ridiculous, strange, surprising, and similar adjectives as an alternative to

that + present/past tense:

Ex: It is ridiculous that we should be (=that we are) short of water in a

country where it is always raining.

The perfect infinitive is sometimes used when referring to past tense:

Ex: It is amazing that she should have said (=that she said) nothing about

the murder.

Other uses of should:

A. After can’t think why/don’t know why/see no reason why etc. when the

speaker queries the reasonableness or justice of an assumption:

Examples: I don’t know why you should think that I did it.

I see no reason why you should interfere in their quarrel.

The perfect infinitive is usual when the assumption was in the past:

Ex: I can’t think why he should have said it was my fault.



B. Idiomatically with what, where, who, in dramatic expressions of surprise:

Ex: What should I find but an enormous spider!

Quite often the surprise is embarrassing:

Ex: Who should come in but his first wife!

C. After lest and sometimes after in case:

1. In literary English lest….should is sometimes placed after expressions of

fear or anxiety:

Ex: He was terrified lest he should slip on the icy rocks.

Should + perfect infinitive is used when the anxiety concerns a previous

action:

Ex: She began to be worried lest he should have met with some accident.

2. Lest can also be used in purpose clauses to mean ‘for fear that’:

Ex: He dared not spend the money lest someone should ask where he had

got it.

In case, which is more usual than lest here, can be followed by should or by

an ordinary present or past tense:

In case someone should ask/someone asked

D. Should is sometimes used in purpose clauses as an alternative to would /

could:

Ex: He wore a mask so that no one should recognize him.

E. In conditional sentences instead of the present tense:

Ex: If the pain should return take another of these pills.

F. In indirect, rather formal, commands when the recipient of the command is

not necessarily addressed directly:

Ex: He ordered that Tom should leave the house.

3.7. Had better

Had better used to give advice, to say what is the best thing to do:

Ex: There’ll be a lot of traffic tomorrow. We had (or We’d) better leave

early. I had (or I’d) better ask the doctor about the pain in my stomach.



Note that had is a past form, but it does not refer to past time here, we use it to

talk about present or future time.

We only use had better to give advice about a particular thing, when we give

general advice, we use should or ought to:

Ex: When people are in trouble, they should go to the police.

(Not…….they had better go to the police.)

The negative of had better is had better not

Ex: They had better not be late.

Should, Ought to, and Had better with the perfect infinitive.

This construction is used to express an unfulfilled obligation or a sensible

action that was neglected. In the negative it expresses a wrong or foolish

action in the past.

Examples: You ought to have told him that the paint on that seat was wet.

(You did not tell him, he sat on it).

They ought to have stopped at the traffic lights. (They didn’t stop)

The emergency exit doors shouldn’t have been blocked. (It’s blocked)

I should have studied last night. (I had a test this morning; I didn’t do

well on the test because I didn’t study for it last night. ‘I should have

studied’ means that studying was a good idea, but I didn’t do it. I made

a mistake.)

We had better not have gone to the movie. (We went to the movie, but

it was a bad movie. We wasted our time and money.)

I should not/ought not to/had better not have carried that heavy box up

two flights of stairs. (I hurt my back. I carried the box and now I am

sorry.)

Note: Usual pronunciation of should have: “should-of” or “shoulda.” And usual

pronunciation of should not have: “shouldn’t-of” or “shouldn’t’a.”

The past form of ought to is ought to have + past participle. (I ought to have

studied.) It has the same meaning as the past form of should. In the past,

should is used more commonly than ought to. Had better is only rarely used in



a past form or with the perfect infinitive (Ex: He had better have taken care

of it) and usually only in speaking, not writing.

3.8. Need, needn’t, needn’t have

Need used to express necessity and needn’t, needn’t have express no

necessity:

We use the verb need to talk about things that we must do. We use to +

infinitive (e.g. to do, to go) after need:

Ex: I need to go to the dentist’s.

After he/she/it we use needs:

Ex: Mary/she needs to buy some white paint.

We make negatives, questions, and short answers with a form of do:

Examples: You don’t need to go to the doctor’s.

Mary doesn’t need to buy any green paint.

Do you need to go to the dentist’s?

Yes, I do/ No, I don’t.

Does Mary need to buy any brushes?

Yes, she does/No, she doesn’t.

We can also use need to talk about things that we must get. Here we use an

object after need:

Examples: Mary needs some white paint.

I don’t need a new car.

Does Peter need any help?

To talk about what we do not need to do, we can use needn’t. We use an

infinitive (e.g. go, buy) after needn’t. Needn’t has the same meaning as

don’t/doesn’t need to:

Examples: You needn’t go to the shops. We have enough food. (Or you

don’t need to go to the shops.)

Mary needn’t buy any paint. (Or Mary doesn’t need to buy any

paint.)



We cannot use needn’t before an object (e.g. your coat), we must use don’t

need:

Ex: You don’t need your coat. It is cold outside. (Not You needn’t your

coat.)

We can use needed to for past time:

Examples: They needed to clean everything before they started to paint.

Notice the meaning of needn’t have done:

We needn’t have lit the fire, because it was a warm evening. (=we lit the fire,

but it was not necessary to light it.)

You needn’t have bought any bread, Jim. There is plenty in the cupboard. (=

You bought some bread, but it was not necessary.)



4. Exercises

Using the verb in parentheses, fill in the blank either with if I + the past tense or with

the –ing form of the verb. In some of the sentences, either response is possible but

the meaning is different.

1. I’m getting tired. I’d like to go home and go to bed. Would you mind (leave) if

I left early?

2. I’m sorry. I don’t understand what you said. Would you mind (repeat)

repeating that?

3. A: Are you going to the post office?

B: Yes.

A: Would you mind (mail) …………this letter for me?

B: Not at all.

4. A: Are you coming with us?

B: I know I promised to go with you, but I’m not feeling very good.

Would you mind (stay) ………… home?

A: Of course not.

5. A: I still don’t understand how to work this algebra problem. Would you mind

(explain) ………. It again?

B: Not at all. I’d be happy to.

6. A: It’s getting hot in here; would you mind (open) ………..the window?

B: No

7. A: This is probably none of my business; but would you mind (ask)

…………..you a personal question?

B: It depends.

8. A: Would you mind (smoke) ……….. ?

B: I’d really rather you didn’t.

Use must not or do not have to in the following.



1. I’ve already finished all my work, so I don’t have to study tonight. I think I’ll

read for a while.

2. I must not forget to take my key with me.

3. You………...introduce me to Dr. Gray. We’ve already met.

4. A person………become rich and famous in order to live a successful life.

5. In order to be a good salesclerk, you………..be rude to a customer.

6. I……. go to the doctor. I’m feeling much better.

7. A person…………..get married in order to lead a happy and fulfilling life.

8. Johnny! You………..play with sharp knives.

9. We ………..go to the concert if you don’t want to, but it might be good.

10. An entering freshman ………………declare a major immediately. The

student may wait a few semesters before deciding upon a major.

Use either should or must/have to in the following. In some sentences either is

possible, but the meaning is different.

1. A person………….eat in order to live.

2. A person…………eat a balanced diet.

3. If you want to become a doctor, you……….go to medical school for many

years.

4. We………..go to Colorado for our vacation.

5. According to my academic advisor, I ………….take another English course.

6. I………..write to my folks tonight, but I think I’ll wait and do it tomorrow.

7. You ………… have a passport if you want to travel abroad.

8. Everyone …………… have certain goals in life.

9. Rice ………….have water in order to grow.

10. I ……………..go to class, but I don’t feel good. I think I’d better stay home.

Use will, should/ought to, or must in the following. In some, more than one of the

modals is possible. Discuss the meanings that the modals convey.

1. Look at all the people standing in line to get into that movie. It must be a good

movie.



2. Let’s go to the lecture tonight. It should/ought to OR will be interesting.

3. Look. Jack’s car is in front of his house. He ………..be at home. Let’s stop and

visit him.

4. A: Hello. May I speak to Jack?

B: He isn’t here right now.

A: What time do you expect him?

B: He………..be home around nine or so.

5. A: Who do you think is going to win the game tomorrow?

B: Well, our team has better players, so we………..win, but you never know.

Anything can happen in sports.

6. A: It’s very important for you to be there on time.

B: I ……………be there on seven o’clock. I promise!

7. A: What time are you going to arrive?

B: Well, the trip takes about four hours. I think I’ll leave sometime around

noon, so I …………get there around four.

8. A: Here are your tickets, Mr. Anton. Your flight ……………depart from Gate

15 on the Blue Concourse at 6:27.

B: Thank you. Could you tell me where the Blue Concourse is?

9. A: Susie is yawning are rubbing her eyes.

B: She………….be sleepy. Let’s put her to bed early tonight.

10. A: Martha has been working hard all day. She left for work before dawn this

morning.

B: She………….be really tired when she gets home this evening.

Complete the sentences with the verbs in parentheses. Use must, should, or

may/might/could. Use the appropriate progressing forms.

1. Look. Those who are coming in the door are carrying the wet umbrellas. It (rain)

must be raining.

2. A: Why is Margaret in her room?

B: I don’t know. She (do) may be doing her homework.

3. A: Do you smell smoke?



B: I sure do. Something (burn)……………..

4. A: The line’s been busy for over an hour. Who do you suppose Frank is talking

to?

B: I don’t know. He (talk) …………….to his parents.Or he (talk)…………to his

sister in Chicago.

5. A: What’s all that noise upstairs? It sounds like a herd of elephants.

B: The children(play)…………some kind of game.

A: That’s what it sounds like to me, too. I’ll go see.

6. A: I need to call Howard. Do you know which hotel he is staying at in Boston?

B: Well, he (stay) …………at the Hilton, but I’m not sure. He

(stay)…………….at the holiday Inn.

7. A: What are you doing?

B: I’m writing a letter to a friend, but I (study)…………… I have a test

tomorrow.

8. A: Did you know that Andy just quit school and stated to hitchhike to Alaska?

B: What? You (Kid)…………………...

9. A: Did Ed mean what she said about Andy yesterday?

B: I don’t know. He (kid)…………….when he said that, but who knows?

10. A: Did Ed really mean what he said yesterday?

B: No, I don’t think so. I think he (kid)………………….

Use would whenever possible in the following sentence. Otherwise, use used to.

1. I (be) used to be very shy. Whenever a stranger came to our house, I (hide)

would hide in a closet.

2. I remember my aunt Susan very well. Every time she came to our house, she

(give)…………me a big kiss and pinch my cheek.

3. Illiteracy is still a problem in my country, but it (be)……………much worse.

4. I (be)…………………afraid of flying. My heart (start)…………….. pounding

every time I stepped on a plane.

5. I (be)……………..an anthropology major. Once I was a member of an

archaeological expedition. Every morning, we (get)……………………up



before dawn. After breakfast, we (spend)………………our entire day in the

field. Sometimes one of us (find)………..a particularly interesting item, perhaps

an arrowhead or a piece of pottery. When that happened, other members of the

group (gather)…………….around to see what had been unearthed.

6. I got a new bicycle when I was ten. My friends (ask)……………….to ride it,

but for years I (let, never)…………………….anyone else use it.

7. When my grandfather was a boy and had a cold, his mother

(make)……………….him go to bed. Than she (put)……………………goose

fat on his chest.

8. When I was a child, I (take)……………………..a flashlight to bed with me so

that I could read comic books without my parents’ knowing about it.

9. Last summer, my sister and I took a camping trip in the Rocky Mountains. It

was a wonderful experience. Every morning, we (wake)………………………

up to the sound of singing birds. During the day, we

(hike)………………………. through woods and along mountain streams. Often

we (see)…………………. deer. On one occasion we saw a bear and quickly ran

in the opposite direction.

10. I can remember Mrs. Sawyer’s fifth grate class well. When we arrive each

morning, she (sit) ……………………. at her desk. She (smile,

always)…………………and (say)………………hello to each student as he or

she entered. When the bell rang, she (stand)………………up and (clear)

……………………..her throat. That was our signal to be quiet. Class was about

to begin.

Use a modal or similar expression with each verb in parentheses. More than one

auxiliary may be possible. Use the one that seems most appropriate to you.

1. It looks like rain. We (shut)………………the window.

2. Ann, (hand, you) …………….me that dish? Thanks.

3. I returned a book to the library yesterday. It was two weeks overdue, so I

(pay)………….a fine of $ 1.40. I (return)……………..the book when I was

due.



4. Spring break starts on the thirteenth. We (go, not)………………to classes

again until the twenty-second.

5. (Make, I)…………….an appointment to see Dean Witherspoon?

6. Neither of us knows the way to their house. We (take)……………a map with

us or we’ll probably get lost.

7. You (tell, not)……………..Jack about the party. It’s a surprise birthday party

for him.

8. The baby is only a year old, but she (say, already)……………a few words.

9. Excuse me. I didn’t understand. (repeat, you)……………….what you said?

10. In the United States, elementary education is compulsory. All children (attend)

………………..six years of elementary school.

11. When I was a younger, I (run) ………………ten miles without stopping. But

now I (run, not)………………..more than a mile or two.

12. There was a long line in front of the theater. We ( wait) ……………..almost an

hour to buy our tickets.

13. A: I’d like to go to a warm, sunny place next winter. Anny suggestions?

B: You( go)…………….to Hawaii or Mexico. Or how about Spain?

14. I don’t feel like going to the library study this afternoon. I (go)…………..to the

shopping mail then to the library.

15. A: Mrs. Wilson got a traffic ticket. She didn’t stop at a stop sign.

B: That surprising. Usually she’s a very cautious driver and obeys all the traffic

law. She (see, not)……………..the sign.

16. Microwave ovens make cooking fast and easy. If you have a microwave,

you(cook)…………….this frozen dinner in five minutes.

17. Annie, you (clean)………………..this mess before Dad gets home. He’ll be

mad if he sees all this stuff all over the living room floor.

18. A: This is Steve’s tape recorder, isn’t it?

B: It (be, not) ………………his. He doesn’t have a tape recorder, at least not

that I know-of. It (belong)…………….to Lucy or to Linda. They sometimes

bring that tape recorders to class.



19. I had a good time when I was a teenager. When my friends and I got together,

we(do)…………… anything and everything that sounded like fun.

20. A: You’re always too tense. It’s not good for you. You (learn)…………… to

relax.

B: How?

A: Pay attention to your muscles. When there are tight, take a few long, deep

breaths. Deep breaths (be)……………..very relaxing.

21. Don is putting on a title weight around his middle. He (get)……………..more

exercise.

22. I’m sleepy. I (keep, not)………………my eyes open. I (go)……………..to

bed before I fall asleep right here.

23. In my country, a girl and boy (go, not) ………………..out on a date unless

they are accompanied by a chaperone.

24. Jimmy was serious when he said he wanted to be a cowboy when he grew up.

We (laugh, not) ………………….at him. We hurt his feelings.

25. (Cash, you)………………..this check for me?

26. This is none of his business. He ( stick, not)………………his nose into other

people’s business.

27. My wife and ten children are coming to join me here. They (live,

not)………………..in my dormitory room. I (find)……………….an

apartment.

28. A: (speak, I)…………….to Peggy?

B: She (come, not)……………to the phone right now. (Take,

I)………………….message?

29. A: Where are you going?

B: I (go)………………..to the library. I have to do some research for my term

paper.

30. A: How are you planning to get to the airport?

B: By taxi.



A: You (take)………………a shuttle bus instead. It’s cheaper than a taxi. You

(get)…………………..one in front of the hotel. It picks up passengers there on

a regular schedule.

31. A: Why don’t you come to the party last night?

B: I (study)…………………………

A: You (come) ……………………. We had a long time.

32. A: Should I go to the University of Iowa or Iowa state University?

B: This is over for a few days. You ( make, not)…………………….up your

mind right now. There’s no hurry.

33. A: The phone’s ringing again. Let’s not answer it. Just let it ring.

B: No, we (answer)……………….it. It (be)……………important.

34. Jane’s looking at the test paper the teacher just returned. She’s smiling. She

(pass)……………the test.

35. It’s not like Tony to be late. He (be)…………….here an hour ago. I hope

nothing bad happened.

36. A: This is a great open air market. Look at all this wonderful fresh fish. What

kind of fish is this?

B: I’m not sure. It (be)………………..ocean perch. Let’s ask.

37. The teacher called on Sam in class yesterday, but he kept looking out the

window and didn’t respond. He (daydream)…………………..

38. When I arrived home last night, I discovered that I had forgotten my key. My

roommate was asleep, but I (wake)………………him by knocking loudly on

the door.

39. A: Did you enjoy the movie last night?

B: it was okay, but I (stay)……………………home and (watch)

……………………TV.



Great Pyramid of Giza

The Great Pyramids of Egypt are still remaining as one of the mysterious things of the

world. They are lying approximately at the centre of total land mass of the world. Each side

of the pyramids covers 25 % of the land mass of the world. They were built as tombs for the

died kings and queens and in that age it was the exclusive privilege to have pyramid tomb. It

is really amazing that how they would have been built with zero mathematical errors as the

pyramids are such things which need a correct ratio of height and side to get all equal sides.

They have been built by the huge lime stones each weighing 4 to 10 tones. About thousands

of hard working people would have been required to set, lift and transport those huge stones.

A view of the pyramids at Giza from the

plateau to the south of the complex. From

right to left are the Great Pyramid of Khufu,

the Pyramid of Khafre and the Pyramid of

Menkaure. The three smaller pyramids in

the foreground are subsidiary structures

associated with Menkaure's pyramid.

The earliest known Egyptian pyramids are found at Saqqara, northwest of Memphis. The

earliest among these is the Pyramid of Djoser (constructed 2630 BCE–2611 BCE) which

was built during the third dynasty. This pyramid and its surrounding complex were designed

by the architect Imhotep, and are generally considered to be the world's oldest monumental

structures constructed of dressed masonry.

The estimate of the number of workers it took to build the pyramids have a wide range from

a few thousand, twenty thousand, and up to 100,000.

The most famous Egyptian pyramids are those found at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo.

Several of the Giza pyramids are counted among the largest structures ever built. The

Pyramid of Khufu at Giza is the largest Egyptian pyramid. It is the only one of the Seven

Wonders of the Ancient World still in existence.

The Great Pyramid of Giza (called the Pyramid of Khufu and the Pyramid of Cheops) is

the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza Necropolis bordering what is now El

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Khufu

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Khafre

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Menkaure



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saqqara

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Djoser

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_dynasty_of_Egypt

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imhotep

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashlar

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo,_Egypt

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Khufu

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giza_Necropolis



Giza, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to

remain largely intact. Egyptologists believe that the pyramid was built as a tomb for fourth

dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu over an approximately 20 year period concluding around

2560 BC. Initially at 146.5 meters the Great Pyramid was the tallest man-made structure in

the world for over 3,800 years. Originally, the Great Pyramid was covered by casing stones

that formed a smooth outer surface; what is seen today is the underlying core structure.

Some of the casing stones that once covered

the structure can still be seen around the

base. There have been varying scientific

and alternative theories about the Great

Pyramid's construction techniques. Most

accepted construction hypotheses are based

on the idea that it was built by moving huge

stones from a quarry and dragging and

lifting them into place.

There are three known chambers inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into

the bedrock upon which the pyramid was built and was unfinished. The so-called Queen's

Chamber and King's Chamber are higher up within the pyramid structure. The Great

Pyramid of Giza is the only pyramid in Egypt known to contain both ascending and

descending passages. The main part of the Giza complex is a setting of buildings that

included two mortuary temples in honor of Khufu (one close to the pyramid and one near

the Nile), three smaller pyramids for Khufu's wives, an even smaller "satellite" pyramid, a

raised causeway connecting the two temples, and small mastaba tombs surrounding the

pyramid for nobles.

It is believed the pyramid was built as a tomb for fourth dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu

and was constructed over a 20 year period. Khufu's vizier, Hemon, or Hemiunu, is believed

by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid. It is thought that, at construction, the

Great Pyramid was originally 280 Egyptian cubits tall, 146.5 metres (480.6 ft) but with

erosion and absence of its pyramidion, its present height is 138.8 metres (455.4 ft). Each

base side was 440 cubits, 230.4 metres (755.9 ft) long. A royal cubit measures 0.524 metres.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Giza-pyramids.JPG

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptologists

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_dynasty_of_Egypt



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khufu

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_and_structures_in_the_world#History

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortuary_temples

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastaba


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khufu

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vizier_(Ancient_Egypt)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemiunu

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubits

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramidion




The mass of the pyramid is estimated at 5.9 million tones. The volume, including an internal

hillock, is roughly 2,500,000 cubic metres. Based on these estimates, building this in 20

years would involve installing approximately 800 tones of stone every day. Similarly, since

it consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks, completing the building in 20 years would

involve moving an average of more than 12 of the blocks into place each hour, day and

night. The first precision measurements of the pyramid were made by Egyptologist Sir

Flinders Petrie in 1880–82 and published as The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh.[ Almost

all reports are based on his measurements. Many of the casing stones and inner chamber

blocks of the Great Pyramid were fit together with extremely high precision. Based on

measurements taken on the north eastern casing stones, the mean opening of the joints is

only 0.5 millimetres wide (1/50th of an inch).

The pyramid remained the tallest

man-made structure in the world for

over 3,800 years, unsurpassed until

the 160-metre-tall spire of Lincoln

Cathedral was completed c. 1300.

The accuracy of the pyramid's

workmanship is such that the four

sides of the base have an average

error of only 58 millimetres in

length. The base is horizontal and

flat to within ±15 mm.

The sides of the square base are closely aligned to the four cardinal compass points (within

4 minutes of arc) based on true north, not magnetic north, and the finished base was squared

to a mean corner error of only 12 seconds of arc. The completed design dimensions, as

suggested by Petrie's survey and subsequent studies, are estimated to have originally been

280 cubits high by 440 cubits long at each of the four sides of its base. The ratio of the

perimeter to height of 1760/280 cubits equates to 2π to an accuracy of better than 0.05%

(corresponding to the well-known approximation of π as 22/7). Some Egyptologists

consider this to have been the result of deliberate design proportion. Verner wrote, "We can

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonne

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flinders_Petrie



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza#cite_note-4




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln_Cathedral



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minute_of_arc

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_north

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_north

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_of_arc


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi



conclude that although the ancient Egyptians could not precisely define the value of π, in

practice they used it". Petrie, author of Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh concluded: "but

these relations of areas and of circular ratio are so systematic that we should grant that they

were in the builder's design". Others have argued that the Ancient Egyptians had no concept

of pi and would not have thought to encode it in their monuments. They believe that the

observed pyramid slope may be based on a simple seked slope choice alone, with no regard

to the overall size and proportions of the finished building.

The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated

2.3 million limestone blocks with most

believed to have been transported from

nearby quarries. The Tura limestone used

for the casing was quarried across the river.

The largest granite stones in the pyramid,

found in the "King's" chamber, weigh 25 to

80 tones and were transported from Aswan,

more than 500 miles away.

Traditionally, ancient Egyptians cut stone blocks by hammering wooden wedges into the

stone which were then soaked with water. As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded,

causing the rock to crack. Once they were cut, they were carried by boat either up or down

the Nile River to the pyramid. It is estimated that 5.5 million tons of limestone, 8,000 tons

of granite (imported from Aswan), and 500,000 tons of mortar were used in the construction

of the Great Pyramid.

Today there are more than 93 pyramids in Egypt. Of them three are big in size and were

built in the period of cica 4650 B.C. Khufu's pyramid is the biggest and was built by 13

million number of lime stones each weighing about 5 tones. It was built on a square base

with sides measuring 230 metre covering 13 acres. Its four sides face four cardinal points

precisely and it has an angle of 52 degrees. The original height of pyramid was 146.5 metre

and today it's only 137 metre and the 9 metre, that is missing due to the theft of fine quality

lime stones by Ottoman Turks in the 15th century to build house and Mosques.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seked

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonne

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