Nord and Peter 1980

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1/13

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merican Marketing ssociation

A Behavior Modification Perspective on MarketingAuthor(s): Walter R. Nord and J. Paul PeterSource: Journal of Marketing, Vol. 44, No. 2 (Spring, 1980), pp. 36-47Published by: American Marketing AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1249975

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2/13

WALTER.NORDJ.PAUL

ETER

This article

presents

an overview of behavior modification

and

investigates

its

applicability

to

marketing.

It

is

suggested

that this

perspective

provides

a

useful

complement

to

the

more

cognitively-oriented

approaches

which

currently

dom-

inate the marketing literature. Some of the approach's

potential

contributions

and unresolved issues are also dis-

cussed.

B E H V IO R

MODIFIC

PERSPECTIVE

M RKETI

STUDENTS

of

marketing

ave borrowed

reely

from

many

areas

of

psychology.

For

example,

cognitive

psychology,

need satisfaction

models,

field

theory,

psychoanalytic

theory,

and

stimulus-

response

theory

have all

provided

useful

insights

for

understanding

and

predicting

consumer behav-

ior. However, marketingscholars have given little

consideration

to one of the

most influential

perspec-

tives

developed

in

psychology

in

the last

40

years-

the behavior

modification

approach

stimulated

by

the

work of

B.

F. Skinner'

(e.g.,

1953,

1969).

The

purpose

of this

paper

is to

provide

an overview

of

the Behavior

Modification

Perspective (BMP)

which has

evolved

from

the work of

Skinner

and

others

and

investigate

its

applicability

to

marketing.

Fundamental

Elements of

Behavior

Modification

There is an

important

basic difference between the

BMP

and

the

psychological perspectives

which

currently

dominate

the

marketing

literature:

the

BMP

focuses

on

environmental

actors

which

in-

fluence

behavior.

It takes

the

prediction

and control

of

behavior

as

problematic

and

deliberately

shuns

speculation

about

processes

which

are assumed to

occur within

the individual

such

as

needs, motives,

attitudes,

information

processing,

etc.

In

fact,

the

so-called

radical behaviorists

reject

the value of

considering these internal processes at all. Our

approach

is far less

radical

and more consistent

with

the social

learning

theories of Bandura

(1978)

and Staats

(1975).

We believe that it is useful

and

desirable

to theorize about and

investigate

internal,

psychological

processes

which affect

behavior.

However,

we maintain that

many marketing

objec-

tives can be

(and

in fact have

been)

accomplished

without

such

theories

by simply

studying

environ-

mental conditions

and

manipulating

them to

in-

fluence consumer behavior. The

BMP

provides

the

stimulus

and

technology

for

systematizing

this ex-

ternal focus.

Frequently,

treatmentsof behavior modification

are limited to two

types

of

environmental

manipula-

tions-those which result in

respondent

(classical)

conditioning

and those which

produce

operant

(in-

Walter

R.

Nord

is

Professor

of

Organizational

Psychology

and J. Paul Peter

is

Associate

Professor of

Marketing

at

Washington

University,

St.

Louis,

MO.

The

authors

would

like

o

thank C.

William

Emory

and two

anonymous

reviewers

for

their

helpful

comments.

'Some

psychologists

consider

Skinner and

his

followers to be

S-R theorists.

While there are

important

similarities,

the

differences

are

significant

enough

that

leading

psychologists

consider

Skinner's

work

separately

from their

treatment

of S-R

theory

(see

Hall and

Lindzey 1970).

36

/

Journal of

Marketing, Spring

1980

Journal

of

Marketing

Vol. 44

(Spring 1980),

36-47.

http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp


3/13

strumental)

conditioning.2

This

treatment

of

behav-

ior

modification

will

include these

manipulations

as

well

as those which alter

behavior

through

vicarious

learning

and

ecological

design.

A

review of the

literature

revealed that

these

four

ways

of

modifying

behavior

have been

given

little

systematic

attention in

marketing.

While

re-

spondent

conditioning

has been

discussed at

length

in the marketingliteraturein an attempt to explain

behavior,

it

has not

been discussed as a

method

of

modifying

or

controlling

behavior.

Operant

conditioning

has been

discussed

(e.g.,

Carey

et

al.

1976;

Engel,

Kollat,

and

Blackwell

1973;

Kas-

sarjian

1978;

Ray

1973)

but has

not been

integrated

into the

mainstream of

marketing thinking.

Treat-

ment of

vicarious

learning

and

ecological design

is almost

totally

absent.3

As

a result

many

students

of

marketing

are

apt

to be

unfamiliar

with

these

processes.

Therefore,

all four

will

be

described in

some

detail.

Respondent

Conditioning

Respondents

are a

class of

behaviors

which are

under

the

control of stimuli

which

precede

them.

Generally,

these

behaviors

are

assumed

to be

gov-

erned

by

the

autonomic

nervous

system

and,

there-

fore,

are not

susceptible

to

conscious

control

by

the

individual.

Pavlov's

classical

conditioning

experiments

provide

the

basic

paradigm

for this

approach.

In

general,

respondent

conditioning

can

be de-

fined as

a

process

through

which a

previously

neutral

stimulus, by being paired with an unconditioned

stimulus,

comes to

elicit

a

response

very

similar

to

the

response

originally

elicited

by

the

uncondi-

tioned

stimulus.

It is

well

established

that a

variety

of

human

behaviors

including

reflexes,

glandular

responses,

and

what

are

often

called

emotions

can be

modified

through

the

process

of

respondent

conditioning.4

For

example,

when

a new

product

for which

people

have

neutral

feelings

is

repeatedly

advertised

during

exciting sports

events,

it is

possi-

ble

for

the

product

to

eventually generate

excitement

on its

own

solely

through

the

repeated

pairing

with

the

exciting

events.

Similarly,

an

unknown

political

candidate

may

come

to

elicit

patriotic

feelings

in

voters

simply

by having patriotic

music

constantly

played

in the

background

of

his/her

political

com-

mercials.

Since

it is

a

process

which

can account

for

many

of the

responses

which environmental

stimuli

elicit

from

individuals,

respondent

conditioning

has

a

number

of

important implications

for

marketing.

Through

t,

a

particular

stimulus

can come

to

evoke

positive, negative, or neutralfeelings. Consequent-

ly,

respondent

conditioning

influences

whether

a

wide

variety

of

objects

or

events

are those

which

an individual

will

work

to

obtain,

to

avoid,

or

be

indifferent to.

At this

point,

it should

be clear that

what

the

BMP views

as

respondent

conditioning

can

account

for

many

of the reactions

to stimuli

which

have

also been accounted

for

by

cognitive

or

affective

models.

We are not

saying

that

the BMP view

is

incompatible

with these traditional

concerns

or

that

it is

a

perfect

substitute

for

such models.

However,

these traditionalconcerns have led marketingschol-

ars

to

accept

models

and

to

design

research

in

which

internal

psychological

processes

are

focal and

as-

sumed

to be causal.

As

a

result,

the role

of

external

events

has received insufficient

attention.

Respondent

conditioning

and

other elements

of

the

BMP

focus on

the

manipulation

of

external

factors

and it

is clear that consumer

behavior

can

be

influenced

through

this external

emphasis

without

a

complete

psychology of

internal

processes.'

Consider

a

product

or

a

product-related

timulus.

External stimuli

which

elicit

positive

emotions

can

be paired with the product in ways which result

in the

product

itself

eliciting positive

effect.

Conse-

quently,

behavior

may

be

triggered

which

brings

the

potential

consumer

into closer contact

with

the

product.6

Similarly,

stimuli

may

be

presented

2It

has

been

argued

that

respondent

and

operant

conditioning

may

not be

as

separable

processes

as

previously

thought.

For a

discussion

of

this

point,

see

Miller

(1969).

However,

for

present

purposes

they

will be

treated

as

conceptually

distinct.

3However,

Kotler's

(1976,

p. 324)

notion of

atmospherics

as well

as

several of

Belk's

(1974,

1975)

situational

influences,

e.g., physical

and

social

surroundings,

are

fully

consistent with

the

principles

of

ecological

design (and

respondent

conditioning).

4Miller

(1969)

has

demonstrated

that

these

behaviors

can

also

be

conditioned

by

stimuli

which

occur

after

them.

There

are three basic

ways

by

which researchers

attempt

to

determine

what

properties

certain stimuli

have for

people.

One

way

is

through

verbal

reports.

A

second

method

may

be

termed

projection whereby

the

investigator

infers

the

properties

from

his/her

observations

of another

person's

behavior.

A third

means

can be termed

empirical.

This involves

presentation

of a

stimulus

and

description

of its

consequences.

Of

course,

these three

are

often used in combination. The BMP encourages marketers not

to discount

the

advantages

of

the

empirical approach.

6 Closer

contact

refers

to

a

general

relationship

between

a

person's

behavior

and

a

given

stimulus

(e.g.,

a

product).

For

example,

if

a

product

elicits

positive

effect,

an individual

exposed

to the

product

is more

apt

to move

towards

it than if

negative

emotions

are elicited.

Attending

behavior

is also

apt

to be a

function

of

respondently

conditioned

effect.

Stimuli

which

elicit

stronger

emotional

responses (either

positive

or

negative)

are,

at

least

over

a considerable

range,

apt

to

receive

more

attention

from

an

individual

than are stimuli

which

are

affectively

neutral.

To

the

degree

that

attending

behavior is

necessary

for

product

purchase

or

other

product-related

behavior,

respondent

conditioning

influences

prod-

uct

contact.

A

Behavior

Modification

Perspective on Marketing / 37



4/13

which

produce

certain

general

emotional

responses

such

as

relaxation,

excitement,

nostalgia,

or

some

other emotion

which is

likely

to increase

the

proba-

bility

of some desired

response

such as

product

purchase.

Note,

while it

may

be useful

to obtain

verbal

reports

or

physiological

measures

in

deciding

what

stimuli

to

employ

to elicit

such

emotions,

the

BMP

bypasses

these

procedures

and

focuses

direct-

ly on ways to modify behavior. While a number

of

psychological

theories

could be

used to account

for

these

processes,

behavior can

be

modified

without such

theories.

In

fact,

it seems

clear

that

the actions of

practitioners

often

follow this atheo-

retical

approach.

Consider the

following

examples.

Radio

and

television advertisements

often

use famous

sports-

casters

whose

voices have

been

paired

for

years

with

exciting sports

events.

These voices

elicit

excitement

as

a result

of this

frequent

pairing.

Repeated

pairings

of the

voices

with the advertised

product can result, via higher-order respondent

conditioning,

in

feelings

of

excitement

associated

with the

product.

Music,

sexy

voices

and

bodies,

and

other stimuli

are

used in

similar

ways.

Often

these

stimuli

may

influence

behavior

without

this

higher

order

conditioning simply

by

drawing

attention

to the ad.

Of

course,

the attention

generat-

ing

properties

of the

stimulus

itself

are

apt

to have

developed through

previous

conditioning

which

occurs

naturally

n

society.

The

use of

telephones

ringing

or sirens

in the

background

of radio

and

television

ads,

some

legal

version of the

phrase

news bulletin, and the presence of famous ce-

lebrities,

are common

examples

of how

stimuli,

which

are

irrelevant to the content

of an ad

or

the

function of the

product,

are used

to

increase

attention

to the ad itself.

In

this

sense,

one

of the

major

resources that

organizations

use to

market

their

products

is made

available

through previous

respondent

conditioning

of

members of

society.

Stimuli at or near the

point

of

purchase

also

serve

the

goals

of

marketers

through

their

ability

to

elicit

respondent

behaviors.

Christmas

music

in

a

toy department

is a

good example.

Although

no

data

are

available to

support

the

point,

we

suspect

that Christmas carols are useful in

eliciting

the

emotions

labeled as the Christmas

spirit.

Once

these

feelings

have been

elicited,

we

suspect

(and

retailers seem to share

our

expectations)

that

people

are more

apt

to

purchase

a

potential gift

for

a

loved

one.

In

other

words,

Christmas carols are

useful

in

generating

emotions which are

incompatible

with

sales resistance.

These

examples

can serve as a basis

for

several

generalizations

about the role of

respondent

condi-

tioning

as a

marketing

tool.

First,

the

concept

of

respondent

conditioning

directs

attention to

the

presentation

of stimuli

which,

due to

previous

condi-

tioning,

elicit certain

feelings

in the

potential

con-

sumer.

Sometimes

(as

with Christmas

music)

these

stimuli

trigger

certain emotions

which are

apt

to

increase

the

probability

of certain desired behaviors

or reduce

the

probability

of

undesired

responses.

Second, in many cases the marketermay find it

useful to

actually

condition

responses

to stimuli.

For

example,

as with

the voices

of famous

sports-

casters,

it

may

be desirable

to

pair

the stimuli

with

the

product

repeatedly

in order to

condition

the

feelings

elicited

by

a

particular

stimulus

to the

product.

Then,

the

product

itself

may

stimulate

similar reactions.

Finally,

some of the benefits

which can

be

gained

from

employing

the

principles

of

respondent

conditioning

have

already

been

used

by

marketing

practitioners

in an

(apparently)

ad hoc

manner.

While the

systematic application

of the

respondent paradigm is unlikely to result in any

new

principles,

by

calling

attention

to the actual

control

process being employed,

it is

apt

to

yield

a number of

practical

benefits

both to

advertising

and to

point

of

purchase

promotion.

In

particular,

stimuli are

apt

to

be

arranged

in

ways

which are

more effective

in

eliciting

desired emotional

re-

sponses.

Thus,

the

primary

benefit

of

respondent

conditioning,

as

with other elements

of the

BMP,

is that it

encourages

the

systematic

analysis

of

purchase

and

purchase-related

behaviors

and

indi-

cates

specific techniques

for

modifying

and

con-

trollingthese behaviors.

Operant

Conditioning

Operant

conditioning

differs

from

respondent

conditioning

in at least

two

important

ways.

First,

whereas

respondent

conditioning

is

concerned

with

involuntary

responses,

operant

conditioning

deals

with

behaviors

which are

usually

assumed

to be

under the

conscious control

of the

individual.

Sec-

ond,

respondent

behaviors

are

elicited

by

stimuli

which occur

prior

to the

response;

operants

are

conditioned

by

consequences

which occur

after

the

behavior.

In

any

given

situation,

at

any

given

time, there

is a certain

probability

that an

individual

will emit

a

particular

behavior.

If all of the

possible

behaviors

are

arranged

in

descending

order of

probability

of

occurrence,

the result is a

response

hierarchy.

Operant

conditioning

has occurred

when the

proba-

bility

that an individual

will emit one

or more

behaviors

is altered

by changing

the

events or

consequences

which follow the

particular

behavior.

Some events

or

consequences

increase

the fre-

38

/

Journal

of

Marketing, Spring

1980



5/13

quency

that a

given

behavior is

likely

to be

repeated.

For

example,

a cash

rebate

given

at the

time

of

purchase

increases the

probability

that a

shopper

will

purchase

in the

same

store in

the

future,

other

things being equal.

In this

case,since

the cash

rebate

has

the effect of

increasing

the

probability

of

the

preceding

behavior,

it is

referred to as a

positive

reinforcer.

In

other

cases,

the

frequency

of a

given

behavior can be increased by removing an aversive

stimulus. This is called

negative

reinforcement.

Although

there

are few

examples

of

negative

rein-

forcement in

marketing,

one illustration

is the

situa-

tion

where a consumer

purchases

a

product primari-

ly

to

avoid

the

high pressure

tactics of

an

overzeal-

ous

salesperson.

Sometimes

operant techniques

are

used

to

de-

crease the

probability

of a

response.

If

the

environ-

ment is

arranged

so

that the

particular

response

results in

neutral

consequences,

over a

period

of

time that

response

will

diminish in

frequency.

This

process is referred to as extinction. If the response

is followed

by

a noxious

or

undesired

result,

the

frequency

of the

response

is

likely

to

decrease.

The

term

punishment

is

usually

used to

describe

this

process.7

In

addition to these

general

procedures,

there

are

a number of

other

principles

of

operant

condi-

tioning.

(For

a rather

complete

description

of

these

possibilities, Honig

1966 and

Staats 1975

are

recom-

mended.)

However,

there

are three

concepts

which

deserve

specific

mention:

reinforcement

schedules,

shaping,

and

discriminative stimuli.

ReinforcementSchedules. A number of different

schedules of

reinforcement

can

be

employed.

For

example,

it is

possible

to

arrange

conditions

where

a

positive

reinforcer is

administered

after:

(1)

every

desired

behavior,

(2) every

second

desired

behavior,

etc.

When

every

occurrence of

the

behavior is

reinforced,

a

continuous

schedule of

reinforcement

is

being

employed.

When

every

second,

third,

tenth,

etc.

response

is

reinforced,

a

fixed

ratio

schedule

is

being

used.

Similarly,

it is

possible

to

have

a

reinforcer

follow

a desired

consequence

on

average

one-half,

one-third,

one-fourth,

etc.

of the

time,

but

not

every

second

time or

third

time,

etc.

Such

a schedule is called a variable ratio schedule.

The

ratio

schedules are

of

particular

interest

because

they produce

high

rates

of

behavior

which

are

reasonably

resistant

to extinction.

Gambling

devices

are

good

examples.

Slot machines

are

very

effective

in

producing high

rates

of

response,

even

under

conditions which often

result in

substantial

financial

losses.

This

property

of the ratio

schedule

is

particularly

important

for marketers

because

it

suggests

how

a

great

deal of desired behavior

can

be

developed

and maintained

for

relatively

small,

infrequent rewards. For example, Deslauriers and

Eberett

(1977)

found

that

by

giving

small

rewards

for

riding

a bus on

a

variable

ratio

schedule,

the

same amount

of bus

riding

could be obtained

as

when rewards

were

given

on a

continuous

schedule.

Thus,

for

approximately

one-third

the cost

of

the

continuous

schedule,

the same amounts

of

behavior

were

sustained.8

Numerous

other

examples

of the use

of

the

variable

ratio schedule

can be found

in

marketing

practice.

Lotteries,

door

prizes,

and other

tactics

whereby

individuals

are asked to

respond

in a

certain

way to be eligible for a prize are common examples

(when

the

prize

is

assigned by

chance).

Shaping.

Another

concept

from

the

operant

tradition which

has

important

mplications

for

mar-

keting

is

shaping.

Shaping

is

important

because

given

an individual's

existing

response

hierarchy,

the

probability

that

he/she

will make

a

particular

desired

response

may

be

very

small.

In

general,

shaping

involves

a

process

of

arranging

conditions

which

change

the

probabilities

of

certain

behaviors

not as ends

in

themselves,

but

to increase

the

probabilities

of other behaviors.

Usually,

shaping

involves the positive reinforcement of successive

approximations

of

the desired behavior

or of

behav-

iors which

must

be

performed

before

the

desired

response

can be

emitted.

Many

firms

already

employ

marketing

activities

which

are

roughly

analogous

to

shaping.

For

exam-

ple,

loss leaders

and

other

special

deals

are used

as rewards for individuals

coming

to a

store.

Once

customers

are in

the

store,

the

probability

that

they

will

make some other

response

such

as

purchasing

other

full-priced

items

is much

greater

than when

they

are not in

the

store.

Also,

shopping

centers

or auto

dealers

who

put

carnivals

in their

parking

lots

may

be

viewed

as

attempting

to

shape

behavior.

Similarly,

free trial

periods

may

be

employed

to

make

it

more

likely

that

the user will

have

contact

7In

this

paper,

we

will

focus

primarily

on

the

use of

positive

reinforcement.

We are

making

this

choice

for

two

reasons.

First,

we

personally

do

not

believe

that

aversive

consequences

should

be

used to

sell

products.

Second,

it is

unlikely

that

the

use

of

aversive

consequences

to

sell

products

is

generally

practical

in

the

current

socioeconomic

system

even if

organizations

were

predisposed

to use

them.

8There

are a

number of

other

possible

reinforcement

schedules.

However,

we will

limit our

attention to

continuous

and

ratio

schedules.

Also we will

not

deal with

the

consequences

that

the

different

schedules have on

the

pattern,

rate,

and

maintenance

of behavior.

For a

detailed

treatment of

these

effects,

Honig (1966)

is

recommended.

A

Behavior

Modification

Perspective

on

Marketing /

39



6/13

with the

product

so that

he/she

can

experience

the

product's

reinforcing

properties.

Discriminative

Stimuli.

It is

important

to distin-

guish

between

the reinforcement

and

discriminative

functions

played

by

stimuli in

the

operant

model.

In our treatment

of

respondent

conditioning,

we

noted

that

a stimulus

can act as a reinforcer

or

can

function to

trigger

certain

emotions

or other

behaviors. So far in this section, the focus has been

on the

reinforcing

function.

However,

the

mere

presence

or absence

of a stimulus

can serve

to

change

the

probabilities

of

behavior;

such

stimuli

are

called

discriminative

stimuli.

Many

marketing

stimuli

are

of a discriminative

nature. Store

signs

(e.g.,

50% off

sale )

and

store

logos

(e.g.,

K-Mart's

big

red

K )

or distinctive

brandmarks

e.g.,

the Levi

tag)

are

good examples.

Previous

experiences

have

perhaps

taught

the

cus-

tomer that

purchase

behavior

will

be rewarded

when

the

distinctive

symbol

is

present

and not

rewarded

when the symbol is absent. Here then is yet another

parallel

between

the

principles

of

behavior

modi-

fication and common

marketing practice.

Vicarious

Learning

Vicarious

learning

(or

modeling)

refers to a

process

which

attempts

to

change

behavior

by

having

an

individual

observe

the actions of others

(i.e.,

models)

and

the

consequences

of those

behaviors.

According

to

Bandura

(1969)

there are three

major

types

of

vicarious

learning

or

modeling

in-

fluences.

First,

there are observational

learning

or

modeling

effects

whereby

an

observer

acquires

one

or

more

new

response patterns

that did not

pre-

viously

exist

in

his/her

behavioral

repertoire.

Sec-

ond,

there

are

inhibitory

and

disinhibitory

effects

whereby

an observer's

inhibitory responses

are

either

strengthened

or weakened

by

observation

of

a

model's

behavior

and

its

consequences.

Third,

there

is

response

facilitation

whereby

the

behavior

of others

.

. . serves

merely

as discriminative

stimuli

for the observer

in

facilitating

the

occurrence

of

previously

learned

responses

..

.

(Bandura

1969,

p. 120).

Developing

New

Responses.

There are at least

three types of new behaviors that marketers often

wish to induce

in consumers or

potential

consumers.

First,

it is often

desirable to educate consumers

in

product

usage.

Second,

it

may

be

helpful

to induce

consumers

to

shop

in certain

ways. Finally, by

developing

certain

types

of

attending

behavior,

the

sensitivity

of a

potential

customer to

advertising

information can be increased.

Vicarious

learning

can

be

very

useful in

achieving

these three

goals.

First,

modeling

can

be used to

develop

behaviors

which enable

potential

consumers

to

utilize

particu-

lar

products

appropriately.

The demonstration

of

ways

of

using

a

product

may

make

purchase

more

probable,

particularly

if

the

model(s) appear

to be

experiencing

positive

consequences

from

using

the

product.

Moreover,

repurchase

or

purchase

by

one's

friends

may

become

more

probable

f

the

consumer

has

learned,

by

watching

someone

else,

to use the

product appropriately. This use of modeling is

common to

both industrial

and consumer

products

salespeople

who are

attempting

to sell

technically

complex

products.

Also,

many

self-service retail

stores

now use video cassette machines

with

taped

demonstrations of

proper product usage.

Second,

models

may

be

very helpful

in

develop-

ing

the desired

purchasing

behaviors. For

example,

suppose

a

firm

has a

product

which is

currently

technically superior

to

its

competitors.

It

may

be

important

to teach

the

potential

consumer to ask

questions

about

such

technical

advantages

at the

point of purchase. Advertisementsshowing individ-

uals

doing

just

this or

behaving

in

other

ways

which

appear

to

give

a

particular

product

a differential

advantage

may

be

useful.

Third,

particularly

at

early

stages

in

the

purchase

process,

it

is

often

necessary

to

find

ways

to

increase

the

degree

to which

potential

customers

attend to

information

in

advertisements and

other

messages

about a

product.

Attaining

this

objective

can be

facilitated

through

the

application

of

findings

from

recent research

on factors which

influence the

attention

observers

pay

to

models. For

example,

attending

behavior is influenced

by

such

factors

as:

incentive

conditions,

the

characteristics of the

observers,

the

characteristics

of

the

model,

and the

characteristics of the

modeling

cues themselves.

Advertising

practitioners

seem to

be

very

sensi-

tive

to

these factors.

Many

ads reflect their

creators'

acute awareness

of

salient characteristics of the

target

audience,

the

characteristics

of the users of

the

product

in the

ad,

and the

behaviors

exhibited

by

the model.

Moreover,

many

ads show

the

models

receiving positive

social or

other

reinforcement

from

the

purchase

or

use of the

product.

Inhibiting

Undesired

Behaviors. Because of the

obvious ethical and practical problemsinvolved in

attempting

to use

punishment

n

marketing,

we have

given

little attention to

ways

of

reducing

the fre-

quency

of undesired

responses.

However,

while

these

problems

exist in the

direct use of

punishment,

they

are far less

prevalent

when

aversive conse-

quences

are administeredto models.

Thus,

vicarious

learning may

be one of

the few

approaches

which

can be used

in

marketing

to reduce the

frequency

of unwanted elements in

the behavioral

repertoire

40

/

Journal of

Marketing,

Spring

1980



7/13

of

a

potential

or

present

consumer.

It is

well

known from the

modeling

literature

that,

under

appropriate

conditions,

observers

who

see a model

experience

aversive outcomes

following

a

particular

act,

will reduce their

tendency

to

exhibit

that behavior.

Similarly,

vicarious

learning

can

employ

an

extinction situation to

reduce the

fre-

quency

of

behavior.,

While most marketing efforts are directed at

increasing

rather than

decreasing

behaviors,

some

ads

are

directed at

reducing

such

behaviors

as

smoking, drinking, overeating, wasting

energy, pol-

luting

and

littering,

as well

as

purchasing

or

using

a

competitor's product.

The effectiveness of

mes-

sages

to achieve

these

goals may

benefit

from

the

use of vicarious

negative conditioning.

Response

Facilitation.

In

addition to its role in

developing

new behaviors and

inhibiting

unde-

sired

behaviors,

modeling

can

be

used to

facilitate

the occurrence of desired behaviors which

are

currently n theindividual'srepertoire.Forexample,

modeling

has been used

extensively

in

advertising

not

only

to

illustrate the uses of

a

product

but to

show what

types

of

people

use it

and in

what

settings.

Since

many

of these

uses involve behaviors

already

in

the

observer's

response

hierarchy,

the

function

of

the model

is

merely

to

facilitate

these

responses by

depicting

positive consequences

for

use

of the

product

n

a

particularway.

This

technique

appears frequently

in

advertising

for

high

status

products.

Such

ads

do not

demonstrate

any

new

behaviors,

but show the

positive

consequences

of

using a particular product. The recent series of

Lowenbrau ads

stressing

the

use of

this beer

for

very

special

occasions is

a clear

example

of

this.

It

is also

possible

to

influence

emotional

behavior

through

a

vicarious

learning

paradigm.

Bandura

(1969)

noted

that

many

emotional

behaviors

can

be

acquired through

observations

of

others,

as well

as

through

direct

respondent

conditioning:

.. .

vicarious

emotional

conditioning

results

from

observing

others

experience

positive

or

negative

emotional

effects

in

conjunction

with

particular

stimulus

events. Both

direct and

vicarious

condi-

tioning processes

are

governed by

the

same basic

principles of associative learning, but they differin the force of the

emotional

arousal. In

the direct

prototype,

the

learner himself

is the

recipient

of

pain-

or

pleasure-producing

stimulation,

whereas

in

vicarious forms

somebody

else

experiences

the

reinforcing

stimulation

and his

affective

expres-

sions,

in

turn, serve

as

the arousal

stimuli for the

observer (p. 167).

To

the

degree

that

positive

emotions

toward a

product

are

desired,

vicarious

emotional

condition-

ing

may

be a

useful

concept

for

the

design

of

effective

advertisements.

In

sum,

vicarious

learning

or

modeling

has

a

number

of current and

potential

uses in

marketing.

If

a

potential

consumer

has observed

appropriate

models,

then

he/she

is more

likely

to know

the

appropriate

behaviors;

if the

model has

been

rewarded

appropriately,

he

potential

consumer

may

be more

likely

to

engage

in these behaviors.

Like-

wise,

if the

potential

consumer

has observed

in-

appropriate models receiving aversive conse-

quences,

he/she

may

be less

likely

to emit

them.

Models

may

be used

to

develop,

inhibit,

or

facilitate

behavior.

In

short,

as with the other

components

of the

BMP,

it is

clear that this

technique

for

modifying

behavior is

commonly employed

in

cur-

rent television

and other

advertising

messages.

In

fact,

Markin and

Narayana

(1976, p. 225) suggest

that

many

of

today's

most successful

products

are

promoted

and

advertised

on

the basis of

modeling

approaches

which show the model

receiving positive

functional or social

benefits from the

use of the

product. Products they suggest have used this ap-

proach

include

Coca-Cola,

Pepsi

Cola,

Mc-

Donald's,

Kentucky

Fried

Chicken,

Nyquil,

Absorbine

Jr.,

Alka

Seltzer,

Philip's

Milk

of

Magnesia,

Pepto

Bismol,

Folgers,

Crest,

and Head

and

Shoulders.

However,

since

the link of

current

marketing practice

to

the

BMP

has not been

explicit,

research

exploring

the

application

of the

principles

of vicarious

learning

to

marketing

settings

is

lacking.

Such research

is

apt

to have

both

practical mportance

for

marketing

and theoretical

implications

for students

of

modeling

as previous findings are tested in more general,

less

artificial

settings.

Ecological

Design

Although

knowledge

about

the role

of

physical space

and other

aspects

of

environmental

design

is

meager,

there is

considerable evidence

that the

design

of

physical

situations and the

presence

or

absence of

various stimuli

have

powerful

effects on

behavior

(Barker

1968;

Hall

1959,

1966;

Sommers

1969).

We

will

use

the term

ecological design

to

refer

to

the

deliberate

design

of

environments to

modify

human

behavior.

Ecological

design

is

widely

used in

marketing.

For

example,

department

stores

place

displays

in

high

traffic

areas

(e.g.,

at the end

of an

escalator)

to

increase the

likelihood

that

consumers will

ob-

serve the

product

on

display.

Similarly,

end

aisle

displays

in

supermarkets

and the

internal

arrange-

ments of

stores

involve

efforts

to

place

stimuli in

positions

which

increase the

likelihood of

consumers

making

one or

more

desired

responses.

Direct

mail

is also

a

means of

placing

stimuli

in the

potential

A

Behavior

Modification

Perspective

on

Marketing /

41



8/13

consumer's

environment to

increase the

likelihood

that the

individual will

at least be aware of the

particular

product.

Other

techniques

include

the

use

of

sound,

odors,

lights,

and other

stimuli to

increase

attentive

behaviors.

In

fact,

store

location

and

external

arrangements

(e.g., design

of

malls,

ar-

rangement

of

parking space)

are

all efforts to

alter

behavior

through

environmental

design.

In

a be-

havioral

sense,

these

are all

ways

to

increase

the

probability

that the individual

will make

certain

responses

which increase

the likelihood

that

pur-

chase

or some other desired

response

will

follow.

Like

shaping, ecological

manipulations

are

fre-

quently employed

to

modify

behavior

early

in

the

purchase

process.

Thus,

their

major

impact

is

through

their

role in

inducing

the

potential

consumer

TABLE 1

Illustrative

Applications

of

the BMP

in

Marketing

I.

Some

Applications

of

Respondent

Conditioning Principles

A.

Conditioning

responses

to new

stimuli

Unconditioned or

Previously

Conditioned

Stimulus

Conditioned

Stimulus

Examples

Exciting

event

A

product

or theme

song

Gillette

theme

song

followed

by

sports

event

Patriotic

events or

music A

product

or

person

Patriotic

music as

background

in

political

commercial

B.

Use of

familiar stimuli to

elicit

responses

Conditioned

Stimulus

Conditioned

Response(s)

Examples

Familiar

music

Relaxation,

excitement,

good

Christmas

music

in

retail

store

will

Familiar

voices

Excitement,

attention

Famous

sportscaster

narrating

a

commercial

Sexy

voices,

bodies

Excitement,

attention,

relaxation

Noxema

television ads and

many

others

Familiar

social

cues

Excitement,

attention,

anxiety

Sirens

sounding

or

telephones

ringing

in

commercials

II.

Some

Applications

of

Operant

Conditioning

Principles

A.

Rewards for

desired

behavior

(continuous

schedules)

Desired Behavior Reward Given Following Behavior

Product

purchase

Trading

stamps,

cash bonus or

rebate,

prizes,

coupons

B.

Rewards

for

desired

behavior

(partial schedules)

Desired

Behavior

Reward Given

(sometimes)

Product

purchase

Prize for

every

second,

or

third,

etc.

purchase

Prize to

some fraction of

people

who

purchase

C.

Shaping

Approximation

of

Desired

Consequence

Following

Response

Approximation

Final

Response

Desired

Opening

a

charge

account

Prizes,

etc.,

for

opening

account

Expenditure

of

funds

Trip

to

point-of-purchase

Loss

leaders,

entertainment,

or

Purchase of

products

location event at the shopping center

Entry

nto

store Door

prize

Purchase of

products

Product trial

Free

product

and/or

some

Purchase

of

product

bonus for

using

D.

Discriminative Stimuli

Desired

Behavior

Reward

Signal

Examples

Entry

nto

store

Store

signs

50% off

sale

Store

logos

K-Mart's

big

red

K

Brand

purchase

Distinctive

brandmarks

Levi

tag

42

/

Journal of

Marketing,

Spring

1980



9/13

to come into

contact

with the

product

and/or

perform product-related

behavior. As

such,

eco-

logical design

is best

viewed as

one

part

of a

comprehensive marketing approach;

ecological

modifications

can be

conveniently sequenced

with

other

techniques (e.g. modeling, respondent

condi-

tioning, operant

conditioning).

As with other

elements subsumed

under the

BMP, ecological designs to modify behavior have

received far less attention in the academic

literature

than

they

deserve

in view of how

frequently they

are used

by marketing

practitioners.

A

major

ad-

vantage

of the

BMP

is that it

encourages

the

integration

of

these

various

techniques

to

lead

to

a

coherent

approach

for

modifying

the entire se-

quence

of

behaviors desired of

consumers

and

potential

consumers.

Summary

of Some

Applications

of the

BMP

in

Marketing

Table

1

provides

a

framework for

considering

some

applications

of the

BMP to

marketing.

Each

of

the

four

sections

of

the table

outlines

the

general

procedures

which

would

be

followed

in

applying

one of the four basic elements of the BMP. The

table

lists a number of the

specific

behaviors

which

marketers

may

wish

to

develop

and

organizes

the

examples presented

in the

previous

sections of

the

paper.

In

reviewing

this

table,

two

qualifications

should

be

kept

in mind.

First,

there are

many

tactics

for

modifying

behavior

which are combinations

of

a number of techniques which do not fit neatly

into

the

simple

categories presented

in

the

table.

For

example,

Anheuser-Busch

has a series of

com-

mercials which

begin

with

a

sports

trivia

question

and then

give

the listener time to think

while

the virtues

of a

particular

brand of beer

are

dis-

cussed.

Then,

the answer

to

the

question

is

given.

Determination of

exactly

which

principles

this

ap-

proach

uses

and whether or not the

approach

can

be reduced to

principles

of behavior

modification

at all

requires

a

complex analysis

of the

acquisition

and use of

language.

However,

the

approach

is

clearly one of picking a desired behavior (i.e.,

listening

to the

commercial)

and

organizing

stimuli

to increase the

probability

of this

behavior.

Second, most,

if

not

all

of

these

tactics

have

TABLE

1

(Continued)

Ill.

Some

Applications

of

Modeling

Principles

Modeling

Employed

Desired

Response

Instructor,

expert, salesperson

using

product

Use of

product

in

technically

competent

way

(in

ads or at

point-of-purchase)

Models in ads asking questions at point-of- Ask questions at point-of-purchasewhich highlight

purchase

product

advantages

Models

in

ads

receiving

positive

reinforcement

Increase

product purchase

and

use

for

product

purchase

or use

Models

in

ads

receiving

no

reinforcement

or Extinction or

decrease

undesired

behaviors

receiving

punishment

for

performing

undesired

behaviors

Individual

or

group (similar

to

target)

using

Use of

product

in

new

ways

product

in

novel,

enjoyable

way

IV.

Some

Applications

of

Ecological

Modification

Principles

Environmental

Design

Specific Example

Intermediate

Behavior

Final

Desired

Behavior

Store

layout

End

of

escalator,

Bring

customer into

Product

purchase

end-aisle,

other

displays

visual

contact

with

product

Purchase

locations

Purchase

possible

from

Product or

store contact

Product

purchase

home,

store

location

In-store

mobility

In-store

product

Bring

consumer into

Product

purchase

directories,

information

visual

contact with

booths

product

Noises, odors,

lights

Flashing lights

in

store

Bring

consumer into

Product

purchase

window

visual or

other

sensory

contact with

store

or

product

A

Behavior

Modification

Perspective

on

Marketing

/

43



10/13

already

been

used

by practitioners.

While

the BMP

may

lead

to

some

new

tactics,

its

most

important

value

to

practitioners

will

be in

systematizing

and

integratingmarketing

efforts

by

focusing

attention

on the

sequence of

specific

behaviors

which

can

be modified to

change

the

probability

of

product

purchase

or of

some

other

desired

behavior.

PotentialContributionsof the BMP to

Marketing

As the

examples

in the

previous

section

illustrate,

a

number of

tactics which

are

frequently

used

by

marketing practitioners

can

be derived from

the

BMP. Of

course,

the fact

that

they

can be

derived

does

not

mean

that

they

were so

derived or

that

they

could not

have been

derived from

other

models.

Nevertheless,

the fact

that such

a

varied

array

of

tactics can be subsumed

under a

relatively

simple

model

suggests

that the

perspective

can be a

valuable

addition to the academic marketing literature. It

is in this

spirit

that we

speculate

about

the

potential

contributions

of

the

BMP

to

marketingpractice

and

to the

study

of consumer

behavior.

Marketing

Practice

The

BMP

can make at least two

major

contributions

to

marketing practice.

First,

it

can

facilitate

the

development

of

a

comprehensive

set

of

strategies

and tactics which

encompass

those

environmental

and situational factors which

directly

influence

behavior.

If

the

behaviors desired from

the

potential

buyer

are

specified,

it

will

often be

possible

to

be

explicit

about a set

of

actions which

should occur

in

any given

situation to move

the

potential

buyer

to behave in

ways

which

are

more

likely

to

lead

to

purchase

behavior.

Marketing

tactics

developed

with this

degree

of

specificity

force

more

careful

planning

and

analysis

of

exactly

what

outcomes

are

sought

and are

more

easily

evaluated

and re-

fined. It

should be

noted here

that in

other

systems

where behavior

modification

has been

introduced,

it has

often

been found

that there

was

considerable

ambiguity

about

exactly

what results

previous

methods of

organization

were

really

attempting

to

achieve (Nord 1969; Schneier 1974). We suspect

that other

than

purchase

behavior,

many

students

of

marketing

have

never

delineated the

basic

se-

quence

of

behaviors that

consumers

must

perform

in

order to

purchase

a

product.

Second,

the BMP

can

stimulate a

closer

inter-

change

between

academics and

practitioners.

In

this

connection it

is

important

to

emphasize

that while

marketing

managers

are

rewarded for

developing

tactics which

generate

sales

and

profits,

academics

are more

apt

to be rewarded for

attempting

to

provide

theoretical

explanations

of

consumer

be-

havior.

The BMP

focuses

academics

on

the

inves-

tigation

of behaviors and

techniques

which

produce

sales

and

profits.

Moreover,

its

simplicity

and

pragmatic

emphasis

should

help

academics

in

their

efforts to

communicate with

practitioners.

Study of ConsumerBehavior

There are also two

major

contributions

to the

study

of consumer

behavior.

First,

the BMP forces

explicit

recognition

that,

to the

degree

that

marketing

efforts

seek to increase

sales,

marketing

is

directly

con-

cerned with the

influence,

modification,

and

control

of consumer behavior. Such

recognition

can

have

profound

effects

on consumer

behavior

research.

While research on attitudes

and decision

processes

will not be

precluded,

valuable

empirical

research

may

be conducted without

attaching great

signifi-

cance

to internal

psychological processes.

Instead,

attention is apt to center on the manipulation of

external

factors

which affect behavior in

desired

ways.

Even in cases where

internal

psychological

processes

are the focus

of

research,

the BMP

forces

explicit

recognition

that there are a

variety

of

external influences which need to be

accounted for

in

research

designs.

Several of Belk's

(1974,

1975)

situational

influences as well

as a

variety

of

the

stimuli discussed in this article could

well be affect-

ing

both

the internal

validity

(i.e.,

interpretability)

and

external

validity

(i.e.,

generalizability)

of

cur-

rent consumer behavior research

findings.

The dis-

cussions

by

Snow

(1974)

and Petrinovich

(1979)

should be

useful for

developing

research

methods

to

incorporate

these external

influences.

Second,

there

is considerable

evidence that the

behavior of

consumers is far more

consistent

with

the

principles

of the BMP

than with

traditional

explanations.

For

example

Markin

(1974)

and

Mar-

kin

and

Narayana

(1976)

note

that

empirical

research

on consumer

decision

processes

documents that

consumers:

(1)

do

not

seek

extensive

amounts of

information n

relation to

purchase

and

consumption

problems;

(2)

do not

process

large

amounts of

information n

relation to

purchase

and

consumption

problems; and (3) do not appear to

engage

in

extensive

problem

solving

behavior

even in

relation

to

big

ticket or

capital

intensive items

such as

automobiles,

houses,

and

major

appliances.

Not

only

does

the BMP

account for

the

empirical

data

better than

many

other

approaches,

but it does

so

with

fewer

variables. In a

word,

it is more

parsi-

monious.

Further,

it

has

long

been

recognized

that

purchase

behavior often

precedes

attitudes

about

the

product

or brand

purchased.

Thus,

the BMP

44

/

Journal of

Marketing,

Spring

1980



11/13

may

well

provide insights

into

predicting

and

con-

trolling

the

purchase-consumption

process.

It

is

important

to

emphasize

here that

the BMP

does

not nor is

it

intended

to

provide

theoretical

explana-

tions of behavior.

However,

it is clear

that

any

scientific

explanation

of

the causes of

consumer

behavior will have to

include not

only

internal

psychological processes,

but

also the external

in-

fluences embodied in the BMP.

Some

Unresolved

Issues

Based

on

our

argument,

we

believe

it

is reasonable

to

conclude

that a

good

deal of

marketing,

at

least

at the

tactical or

operational

level,

is as

closely

aligned

with

techniques

of

behavior

modification

as with

those

suggested

by

more

complex,

internal-

ly-oriented

psychological

models.

To

the

degree

this

conclusion is

valid,

it

raises

a number

of

issues

about

the

value of the BMP

for

marketing.

First, to what extent is the BMP a suitable

replacement

for

more

traditional

approaches?

We

believe that it

is

a

useful

complement,

not

a

replace-

ment. The BMP

focuses on

external

factors;

it

stops

short of

providing adequate

explanation

of

internal

processes.

Although

Skinner

(1969)

has

argued per-

suasively

that

the

skin

is an

arbitrary

barrier,

we

do

not find

the

attempts

of

many

radical

behaviorists

to

ignore

the

internal

correlates

of

external stimuli

intellectually

satisfying.

At

the same

time,

we

agree

with Bindra

(1959)

that

the efforts of

motivational

and

cognitive

psychologists

to

deal

with

these inter-

nal correlates often are merely classifications of

acts,

rather

than

adequate

accounts for

causes

of

behavior.

Thus,

we

are

driven to

a

psychological

eclecticism

which,

unlike

the

current

psychological

eclecticism

in

marketing,

incorporates

an

external

perspective.

Second,

there is

the

issue of

the

efficacy

of

behavior

modification

techniques.

While

existing

research

indicates

that the

technology

exists

to

modify

behavior

very

effectively,

this

technology

can be

used

more

effectively

in

controlled

environ-

ments. While

retail

stores

and

shopping

malls

pro-

vide

relatively

closed

environments,

they

do

not

permit the type of control which

experimenters

in

hospitals, schools,

prisons,

and

even

work

organ-

izations

may

have.

Moreover,

the

degree

of

control

which is

possible

will

vary

at

different

stages

in

the

purchasing process.

Empirical

research

involv-

ing

applications

of

behavior

modification

principles

at

different

stages

of the

purchasing

process

would

clearly

be

useful for

investigating

this

issue. It is

only

at the

latter

stages

that

substantial control

seems

possible.

Third,

there

are

major

ethical/moral

issues

in-

volved

in the

use of the BMP

in

marketing.

In

many

areas,

the

ethical/moral challenges

to

the

application

of behavior

modification

are,

at

least

in

the minds

of most behavior

modifiers,

relatively

easy

to

refute.

In most

areas where

behavior

modi-

fication

has

been

applied (e.g.,

psychotherapy,

education, self-improvement),

it

is

usually possible

(althoughthe possibility is often not translatedinto

practice)

for

subjects

of behavior

modification

to

participate

in

defining

the

ends and

also to

what

degree

they

will

determine

in the means.

Thus

human

freedom

and

dignity

are,

to some

degree,

protected;

in such

situations,

the

BMP

provides

a

useful

technology

for

helping

human

beings

achieve

the ends

they

are

seeking.

However,

even

in these

cases,

behavior modification

has

been

challenged

on ethical

grounds.

We

maintain

that behavior modification

is

not,

in

itself,

immoral

or

unethical,

but that valid

ethi-

cal/moral concerns stem from (1) the ends to which

the

technology

is used and

(2)

the

process

by

which

these ends

are determined

(see

Nord

1976).

The

application

of these

techniques

in

marketing

seems

ethically

vulnerable

on both

these counts.

Efforts

to

market

products

rarely

nclude

the

subject

whose

behavior

is modified

as

a full

participant

in

deter-

mining

either

the use of the

technology

or

the

ends

to which

it is

put.

There

are,

of

course,

examples

of

the use of behavior

modification

techniques

in

marketing

to achieve

purposes

which

many

people

believe

are

socially

desirable.

For

example,

certain

outcomes such as reduction in littering, reduction

in

pollution,

smoking,

and other behaviors

can

be

and are marketed

through

such

techniques.

Moreover,

much

of

consumer

education

involves

modifying

the

purchasing

behavior

of the

uneducat-

ed

poor

to

get

better

economic

value

for

dollars

spent.

However,

there

appear

to

be

many

other

applications

which

have few

redeeming

social

bene-

fits.

The BMP reveals

that

these

concerns

are

rele-

vant to the

present-not

just

the

future. It

is

clear

that

behavior modification

techniques,

even

though

they

may

be called

something

else,

are

being

cur-

rently

employed

in

marketing. Moreover,

since it

is clear

that the

type

of

emotions often

labeled

needs

or

motives

can be

developed

through

conditioning

and

modeling

processes,

the

defense

that

marketing

satisfies

needs is

not

fully

adequate.

Thus,

while

explicit

application

of

the

BMP in

marketing

is

apt

to

trigger

ethical

concerns,

the

BMP

may

be

quite

useful for

viewing

ethical

prob-

lems

involved in

current

marketing

practice.

Fourth,

there are a

number of

practical

issues.

A Behavior

Modification

Perspective

on

Marketing / 45



12/13

In

addition to the

problem

of

developing sufficiently

controlled

environments,

there are

problems

of

selecting

reinforcers,

of

designing

and

implementing

effective

schedules,

and of

designing

effective eco-

logical

structures. Solutions to these

problems

can

benefit from an

eclectic

research

approach.

The

trial and error

approach

of the

radical behaviorists

derived

from

their

research with

animals

can be

useful,

but is

only

one

approach.

In

addition,

analysis

of

historical data

on

the

effectiveness of

various

marketing

tactics

in

generating

desired be-

haviors and

laboratory

or

field

experiments

using

different

types

of

reinforcers

is

needed.

Moreover,

cognitively-oriented

approaches

which

rely

on ver-

bal

reports

may

offer

insights

into

these

questions.

Of

course,

the

most

important practical

issue re-

quires

cost-benefit

analysis.

While the bottom

line

will be

the

ultimate

test,

the

BMP

does lead to

the

analysis

of

the

sequence

of

behaviors

which

is

expected

to

lead to

purchase

or to

other

desired

behavior. These outcomes can be defined and mea-

sured more

precisely

with

current

technology

than

can

attitudes,

needs,

etc. Thus it

is

likely

that

research to test the BMP will

have a clear action

orientation

as well

as

permit

measurement of suc-

cess at a

number

of

intermediate

steps.

Conclusions

This

paper

has

attempted

to

provide

an

overview

of behavior modification

and

investigate

its

appli-

cability

to

marketing.

While

it

appears

that

many

marketing

tactics

currently employed

are

quite

con-

sistent with the

BMP,

these tactics

appear

to

have

been derived

in

an ad hoc manner.

A more

systema-

tic application of the BMP to marketing may well

provide

insights

for

the

development

of

improved

tactics

and overall

strategies

and for

describing

how

the

purchase-consumptionprocess

works.

Although

marketing

academics

and

practitioners may

be

re-

luctant

to view

marketing

as a

technology

for

modifying

and

controlling

consumer

behavior,

it

is

clear

that

marketing

tactics which

are

fully

consis-

tent with

this

perspective

will continue

to be

imple-

mented. In terms

of consumer behavior

research,

it will

undoubtedly

be some time before

researchers

actively catalog

and

sample

elements of

the

external

environment

given the predilectiontowardthe study

of internal

processes.

In

any

case,

the BMP

may

provide

a clear

understanding

hat one

of the

major

de facto functions

of

marketing

in our

society

is

the modification of behavior.

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Principles

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Nord and Peter 1980

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Transcript of Nord and Peter 1980