NIGERIA

The Federal Republic of Nigeria

The Nigerian States

Nigeria at a glance…

Geographic Influences

Northwest – dominated by two groups that combined as the: Hausa-Fulani people, area is predominantly Muslim. Est. the Sokoto Caliphate state

Northeast – area is home to many smaller groups, such as the Kunari, predominantly Muslim.

Middle Belt – many smaller ethnic groups Mix of Muslims and Christians.

Southwest – Yoruba dominate the area. 40% Muslim 40% Christian 20% native religions.

Southeast – area dominated by the Igbo, Predominantly Roman Catholic Some Protestant Christians as well

Southern Zone – area along Niger River Delta, people are from various smallminority groups.

Societal Characteristics & Concerns

Poverty – 60% of all Nigerians live below poverty line, with many living in absolute poverty.

Gap between Rich & Poor – similar to Mexico, however in Nigeria now growth is being made to alleviate this gap.

Health Issues – high rates of HIV/AIDS, one in every eleven HIV/AIDS sufferers live in Nigeria.

Literacy – for males is 75.7% and for females 60.6% (World averages are 83% men, 71% for women)

Ethnicity – Nigeria has between 250-400 ehnic groups, Huasa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba dominant. Groups have very little in common and speak

different languages

Religion – Islam, Christianity, and native religions.

Region – follow along ethnic and religious lines

Urban vs. Rural Differences – most political organizing, interest groups, and political protest takes place in cities

Social Class – deep divisions among social classes. Wealth of elites stems from access to

Nigeria’s resources. Wealthy elite find it difficult to give up wealth

associated with access to state treasury and appeal to religious and ethnic identities.

Educated elite would like to see adoption of democratic principles.

Political Cleavages

TRADITIONSPOLITICAL AUTHORITYFEDERALISM

Legacy of Nigeria’s History

“Political Traditions”

Trade Connections – Sahara Desert “Golden Trade of the Moors”; Niger River & Atlantic Ocean Access

Influence of Islam – Trade with North Africa put Hausa & other groups in contact with Arab education and Islam, sharia emerges as dominant political principle

Kinship-based Politics – village key political entity

Complex Political Identities – contrast between centralized state and local governance. (Oyo & Ife centralized states in south vs. small trading-states in north)

Democratic Impulses – accountability, representative government, and democracy practiced by many villages, including Yoruba and Igbo.

“Political Traditions” (Continued)

Authoritarian Rule – British strengthened the authority of traditional chiefs, making them accountable only to British. British dominated economically. Local rulers less responsibility to the people.

Interventionist State – colonialists trained chiefs to operate government. Indirect imperialism. Checks on authority that existed in Britain did not have roots in Nigeria. Expectations that citizens should passively accept actions of rulers.

Individualism – led to a tendency of chiefs to think about personal benefits of governance, rather than collective good

Impact of Colonial Era

Christianity – British introduction of Christianity created a split between Christian and Muslim dominated areas. Islam dominant in the north Christianity in the south.

Intensification of Ethnic Politics – emergence of three dominant groups: Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba.

British pitted groups against each other by promising rewards to some groups but not others.

Anti-colonialism movement emerged during 20th century appealed to ethnic identities to gain followers and supporters of decolonization

Legacy ofIndependence Era (1960-

Present) Parliamentary vs. Presidential System –

Nigeria operated under parliamentary system from 1960-1979. Ethnic divisions made parliamentary system difficult Switched to presidential system with separate legislature and

independent judiciary neither has been able to check power of the president

Intensification of Ethnic Conflict – After independence Hausa-Fulani dominated parliament because of

large population. They formed a coalition with Igbo of the southeast to ensure their

dominance this created added tension and conflict with Yoruba of the west. In

1966, a group of Igbo military officers seized power.

Public Authority & Political Power

“National Question”:differing opinions about how political power should be distributed and how the government should be constructed.

Questions asked:1) How is the country to be governed given its diversity?2) What should be the institutional form of government?

In Nigeria differences are more distinct and run deeper than other countries

Since independence in 1960, neither leaders nor citizens agree about who should rule and howQuestions about whether Nigeria should remain one nation

Regional disagreements & hostilities Problems traditionally solved by military force and

authoritarianism

Federalism In Nigeria

Nigeria is a federal political system (in theory)

Currently neither federalism or checks & balances operate, and state & local governments are completely dependent on the central government

Usually Federalism seen as positive:1) Federalism promises power-sharing

2) Allows citizens more contact points with government

Federalism In Nigeria

Unlike most federal systems however, Nigeria’s authority is top-down Federalism in Nigeria’s Republics:

1st: Decentralized 2nd, 3rd, 4th : continue with U.S. Style President

Strong Executive System of Checks and balances Bicameral Legislature Independent Judiciary

Nigeria’s Structure (at a glance): 36 States, 774 local governments

Each state and local governments have three branches of Federal government (Legislative, Executive, Judicial)

Executive has been most dominant traditionally

Federal Character “Federal Character”

Elicits the unevenness and inequality Ensure recognition of all ethnic, religious, & regional groups Seeks to ensure ethnic balance Nigerian Constitutional Provisions

Senators represent diverse states Representatives elected from diverse districts President must receive 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the

districts

Negatives of Federalism1) Federalism bloats bureaucracy2) Created benefit seeking & autonomy seeking groups

a) Promotes corruption within bureaucracyb) Jobs created to satisfy demands of various ethnic groups

3) Legislative branch suffers from gridlocka) Competition over government resources

Federalism In Nigeria (Continued)

Southerners argue that federalism will only exist when central government devolves some authority to the state & local governments

Nigerians of the Niger Delta believe they should control their own resources

Redistribution of the region’s oil wealth should be prohibited Southerners suggest that police duties should also be the

responsibility of local and state governments

This “True Federalism Movement” not supported by Northerners North has few resources and very little revenue to share Northerners benefit more from redistribution of wealth

programs

Constitutionalism

First constitution written in 1914 Nine constitutions between 1914 and 1995

During colonial rule: 1922, 1946, 1951, 1954, 1960 After colonial rule: 1963, 1979, 1989, 1999

Current constitution written in 1999 – Amended the 1979 version has been heavily amended

Acceptance of “constitutionalism” as a guiding set of principles has eluded Nigeria

Military and civilian leaders have felt free to disobey and suspend constitutional principles or change constitutions not to their liking

The Executive Branch

Modern Leaders of Nigeria

1960-66 Tafawa Balew Prime Minister Northern People's Congress

1966 J.T.U. Aguiyi Ironsi Military Ruler Military

1966-75 Yakubu Gowon Military Ruler Military

1976-79 Olusegun Obasanjo Military Ruler/ President Military

1979-83 Shehu Shagari President National Party of Nigeria

1984-85 Muhamaddu Buhari President Military

1985-93 Ibahim Babangida President Military

1993 Ernest Shonekan President Military

1993-98 Sani Abacha President Military

1998-99 Abdulsalami Abubakar President Military

1999-2007 Olusegun Obasanjo President People's Democratic Party

2007-2009 Umaru Yar'Adua President People's Democratic Party

20102011

Goodluck Jonathan Acting PresidentPresident

People's Democratic Party

History of the Executive Branch

1979, 2nd Republic, presidential system replaced parliamentary system based on British model

Multiple ethnic groups fragmented the multi-party system and the legislature and prevented a prime minister from gaining the necessary authority to rule

Belief was that a president could symbolize national unity and rise above weak party system

U.S. presidential model with two-term limits

1983, Major-General Muhammadu Buhari initiated palace coup, set precedent for military coups and military rule

Civilian rule returned in 1999, President Obasanjo

History of the The Executive Branch

Military Rule 7 military rulers have all ruled

differently

All promised transition to democracy Only Obasanjo in 1979 and

General Abubakar in 1999 delivered democratic transition

Generals Buhari (1983-85), Babangida (1985-93), and Abacha (1993-98) used repression and violence

All military & civilian regimes concentrated power in hands of the executive

Patrimonialism Generals/Presidents head of patron-

client system

Dispense government jobs and resources as rewards to political supporters

Cabinet positions & bureaucratic chiefs part of president’s patronage system

Patrimonialism in Nigeria is unstable which has led to recurring coups

History of the Executive BranchObasanjo Administration

Reformed armed services Revitalized economy Addressed public welfare Improved standards of governance Root our misconduct and inefficiency Managed oil industry~ ~ ~ Clientelism, Kickbacks, and Delays in

anti-corruption commissions ensued

History of the Executive BranchObasanjo Administration

Est. the Peace and Reconciliation Commission in 1999 In response to Civil Society Groups Refused to make his findings against

former military leaders public Leaked regardless

Succumbed to Patronage in exchange for his election Helped again in 2003 Led to impeachment trial

Functions of the President of Nigeria Chosen directly by the electorate He is both the chief of state and head of government

and heads the Federal Executive Council, or cabinet.

The President is responsible for: assenting to and signing Bills referring a Bill back to the National Assembly for reconsideration of the Bill's

constitutionality referring a Bill to the Constitutional Court for a decision on the Bill's

constitutionality summoning the National Assembly, or Parliament to an extraordinary sitting to

conduct special business making any appointments that the Constitution or legislation requires the

President to make, other than as head of the national executive appointing commissions of inquiry calling a national referendum in terms of an Act of Parliament receiving and recognizing foreign diplomatic and consular representatives appointing ambassadors, plenipotentiaries, and diplomatic and consular

representatives pardoning or reprieving offenders and remitting any fines, penalties or forfeitures conferring honors

Nigeria’s Bureaucracy and the Executive Branch

Bureaucracy

British installed elaborate civil service system during colonial period

Nigerians were allowed to fill lower-level jobs within bureaucracy

Civil service sector continued to grow after independence

Current bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt, and inefficient. Bribery is common.

Jobs in civil service are often awarded through the patron-client system, Prebendalism. Nigerian form of corruption

Corruption and informal influence rampant

Extreme form of Clientelism

The Para-Statal SectorExecutive Branch’s Federal

Ministries The executive branch is divided into Federal

Ministries headed by a minister appointed by the President

In some cases a Federal minister is responsible for more than one ministry (e.g. Environment and Housing may be combined), and a minister may be assisted by one or more ministers of State.

Each ministry also has a Permanent Secretary, who is a senior civil servant.

must include at least one member of each of the 36 states in his cabinet.

The President's appointments are confirmed by the Senate of Nigeria.

The Para-Statal Sector

How Para-statals are run: The ministries are responsible for various Parastatals

Corporate enterprises, owned by state Hybrid agencies (somewhat traditional and also private)

Board members are appointed by government ministers, and corporate executives are part of the president’s patronage system

State ultimately controls these business interactions (Corrupt & inept)

Purpose of Para-Statals: Parastatals insure that the state controls private interest

as well as fulfills social & economic functions Parastatals serve as contact point

The Para-Statal SectorExecutive Branch’s Federal

Ministries Functions:

1) Furnish Public facilities Water, power, communications, transportation

2) Accelerate economic development by controlling the commanding heights of the economy

Steel, petroleum, gas, refining, fertilizer, agriculture

3) Intended to provide basic utilities and services At a low cost (cheaper than private firms could)

4) Nationalistic dimension that relates to issues of sovereignty over sectors perceived sensitive for national security

Relationship Between The Para-Statal Sector and Corpratism

State Corporatism Corporatism – authoritarian political system that allows for

political input from selected interest groups outside the government structure In Nigeria, this input is provided by para-statals, because they

are controlled by the government

Autonomous of Government (in theory) such as universities (Education) National Broadcasting Commission (Information) Nigerian National Petroleum Corp (Petroleum).

Other para-statals are the responsibility of the Office of the Presidency, Independent National Electoral Commission The Economic and Financial Crimes Commission The Federal Civil Service Commission

Misc. State Institutions

Judiciary

Early years of after independence judiciary had great deal of autonomy…began to change however ‘93 worst year for corruption- known as “Judicial Terrorism”

Judicial review was suspended Military acts above judicial review Presidential cronies appointed as justices

Autonomy stripped by military decrees that nullified court decisions and setup quasi-judicial tribunals outside regular system

Today judiciary is responsible for interpreting laws in accordance with the Constitution, so judicial review exist in theory

Major Cases: In 1993, Mshood Abiolao, winner of annulled 1993 election was detained

and died in custody. Presiding judges changed often and critics attacked the military cronyism of the judicial system

In 1995, activist Ken Saro-Wiwa, and 8 other activists were detained and executed under court orders arranged by the military and presided over by military officers

Eventual return of civilian rule led courts to revived independence and credibility

Court structure at state & federal level, highest court is the Supreme Court

Shari’a Courts (based on Islamic religious law) exist in parallel existence with courts developed on British model… Gaining more power… Authority has branched into criminal realm

Judiciary

State Governments

Generally weak and dependent 90% of state incomes derive from Federal

government Only two states could survive without federal

subsidies To proliferate states- developed six

zones Political appointments based upon the

six zones and rotate over time Gubernatorial reform source of conflict

Policy Making Process and Participation

XXI. Public Policy

Top-down, self-interested rule established by British during

colonial era State control of resources means that those in the pyramid get the

spoils, they alone have access to wealth and influence. Loyal clients of patronage structured pyramids includes: “Kaduna Mafia”, “Babangida’s Boys”, and “Abacha’s Boys”

Power concentrated in hands of the president & cabinet ministers through channels established by patron clientelism

Loyalty Pyramid – senior officials supported by broader base of loyal junior officials

Military controls pyramids, pyramids supported by “guns” (Force); therefore, protesting system can be dangerous

Evolution of Legislature

Until first coup in 1966, Westminster model… Military council ruled from 1966-1979

Nigerian legislature under military governments: have had no power

Replaced by a bicameral legislature 1979-1983

The National Assembly of the Federal Republic of Nigeria is a bicameral legislature It consists of a Senate and a 360-member House

of Representatives.

Leadership

The Senate is chaired by the President of the Nigerian Senate Chief function is to guide and regulate the

proceedings in the Senate The House is chaired by the Speaker of

the House of Representatives. At any joint session of the Assembly, the

President of the Senate presides and in his absence the Speaker of the House presides.

The Senate

Is the upper house of the National Assembly It consists of 109 senators

Directly elected by popular vote The 36 states are divided in 3 senatorial districts each

electing one senator the Federal Capital Territory elects only one senator.

Senators are ethnically and religiously diverse

Only 4 of 109 Senators were women as of 2003 elections

The House of Representatives

lower house of the National Assembly. The current House of Representatives, formed

following elections held in April 2007 has a total of 360 members who are elected in single-

member constituencies using the simple majority system.

Members serve four-year terms.

Only 23 of the 360 representatives are women

Parties House of Representatives Senate

% Seats % SeatsPeople's Democratic Party

54.5 223 53.7 76

All Nigeria Peoples Party

27.4 96 27.9 27

Alliance for Democracy

8.8 34 9.7 6

United Nigeria People's Party

2.8 2 2.7 -

National Democratic Party

1.9 1 1.6 -

All Progressives Grand Alliance

1.6 2 1.5 -

People's Redemption Party

0.8 1 0.7 -

vacant 1

Total (turnout 50.0/49.2 %)

  360   109

Summary of the April 2007 Nigerian National Assembly Election Results

Legislature and Executive

Under civilian government Legislature has been unable to check power of the president

Subjected to great pressure by the executive Never assumed full constitutional role Legislative dependence on the executive for

allowances and resources to please constituents In Nigeria, President controls and disburses

public revenues Assembly can only influence it by right to pass

budget

Legislative Changes

Corruption scandals – In 1999 president of the Senate and speaker of the lower house

were removed for perjury and forgery. In 2000 the Senate president was removed for accepting

kickbacks for a government contract 2001 budget negotiations became deadlocked…2002, same

Obasanyo impounded funds Impeachment precedings started- Aug 02 Pres apologized and compromised

2003- Pres removed 80% of incumbents from primaries PDP had courts reverse election results

How A Nigerian Bill Becomes Law

1) The power of the National Assembly to make laws shall be exercised by bills passed by both the Senate and the House of Representatives and, assented to by the President.

2) A bill may originate in either the Senate or the House of Representatives and shall not become law unless it has been passed and, assented to in accordance with the provisions of this section.

3) Where a bill has been passed by the House in which it originated, it shall be sent to the other House, and it shall be presented to the President for assent when it has been passed by that other House and agreement has been reached between the two Houses on any amendment made on it.

4) Where a bill is presented to the President for assent, he shall within thirty days thereof signify that he assents or that he withholds assent.

5) Where the President withholds his assent and the bill is again passed by each House by two-thirds majority, the bill shall become law and the assent of the President shall not be required.

Where the President, withholds assent, then the bill shall again be presented to the National Assembly sitting at a joint meeting

If passed by two-thirds majority of members of both houses at such joint meeting, the bill shall become law and the assent of the President shall not be required.

How A Nigerian Bill Becomes Law

PARTY SYSTEM AND ELECTIONS

Political Parties

Party System in Nigeria: Factionalism led to creation of many political parties however, Use of winner-take- all has led to domination by largest ethnic

groups Parties formed and faded around personalities Multi-party system reinforced and strengthened ethnic and religious

cleavages

Independent National Election Committee (INEC) – registered a number of parties following the death of Abacha in 1998

In order to run candidates for the legislative and presidential elections of 1999, a party had to qualify by receiving at least 5% of the votes in two-thirds of the states in the 1998 election

This cut the number of parties significantly, only 5 parties were eligible to run candidates in the 2003 election

Political Parties

People’s Democratic Party (PDP) Well-established Party Began running candidates in 1998 Party of President Olesugun Obesanjo (Igbo, Christian

from the North) Obesanjo received 62% of vote in 2003 election PDP gained majority in National Assembly and most

of the governors throughout the country Due to voter fraud, difficult to determine accurate

level of support for the PDP

All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP) General Muhammadu Buhari, Muslim from the

North, ran against Obesanjo Received about 32% of the vote His running mate and potential future candidate

was Chuba Okadigbo, an Igbo from the Southeast

Voting Behavior

Nigerians have voted in elections since 1959

Voting patterns difficult to determine because of fraud, postponement, and election cancellation

Political parties are numerous and fluid

Babangida’s annulment of 1993 election hurt political participation during the 1990s

Local, state, & national elections have continued since the late 1990s

About 2/3 of eligible voters participated in the 2003 election

Elections & Electoral Procedures

Citizens vote for candidates on 3 levels: local, state, and national.

National level citizens vote for the president, representatives to the National Assembly, and senators from their states.

National Elections Presidential Elections

After annulled election of 1993, first election took place in 1999, with another in 2003.

If presidential candidate does not receive outright majority, a second ballot election takes place.

President must receive at least 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the states

A purely regional candidate can not win Requirement reflects difficulty

experienced in attempt to unify Nigeria

Interest Groups

Have actually played an important role in Nigerian politics

A large number of civil society organizations often cooperate with political parties

Religious interest groups important in Nigeria Christian Association of Nigeria protested

when General Babangida changed Nigeria’s status in the Organization of Islamic Conference from observer to member

Muslim civil society organizations in the north work to support the shari’a court system

Citizens have worked around military authoritarianism to have an impact on political life through labor unions, student groups, and populist groups.

Interest Groups

Labor Unions Independent and politically influential prior to 1980s Through the introduction of corporatism the Babangida regime limited the

influence of labor unions A central labor organization supplanted the older unions, and only candidates

approved by Babangida could be chosen as labor leaders In July 2003 labor unions widely and openly protested the government’s attempt to

raise oil prices for Nigerian consumers

Business Interests Business interests have tended to work in collaboration with the military regimes,

in return for the spoils related to the corruption of the elite class Associations for manufacturers, butchers, and car rental firms have operated

outside the realm of government and helped promote economic reforms of the 1990s

Human Rights Groups Promote democratic reforms Include university students, teachers, civil liberties organizations, and professional

groups (doctors, lawyers) These groups protested against the abuses of Babangida and Abacha

Mass Media

Nigeria has well-developed, independent press

General Abacha attempted to curb criticism of his regime by closing several newspapers and magazines in Nigeria in 1994

Press reflects ethnic divisions in the country

Outspoken and critical newspapers mainly in the south

Radio is the main source of information for most Nigerians

All 36 states have their own radio stations

Military

Strong, policy-making force in Nigeria

“Military in Government” – those that initiate coups and take over the responsibility of the executive branch

“Military in Barracks” – fulfills traditional duties of military, its leaders have been critical of military control of political power.

Military has been subject to internal discord, military presidents often have to keep a close eye on other military leaders.

Babangida protected his authority by constantly moving military personnel around and appointed senior officers through his patronage system

Military is one of the few institutions that is truly national in character.

Military has restored and maintained order during ethnic strife and conflict

ECONOMY

Economic Issues

Loyalty pyramids and corruption have led to a squandering of Nigeria’s wealth

Nigeria is currently in debt and majority of the population lives in poverty

Large oil revenues have been pocketed by government officials

Economic situation complicated by ethnic & regional conflict

In February 2001, federal government asked the Supreme Court to all the government to collect oil revenue and put it in a “federal account” (Revenue Sharing)

Economy

Oil Oil wealth during the 1970s

gave Nigeria international leverage

OPEC member

Conflicts in Middle East have made Nigeria more important as a trade partner since 1970s

Lack of economic diversification hurts Nigeria when oil prices drop

DEBT – as a result of drop in oil prices and lack of revenue surplus

Structural Adjustment 1980s, Nigeria seeks

assistance to deal with debt crisis

World Bank & IMF involvement

Restructure & diversification of Nigerian economy

Privatize parastatals Cut government

spending

“Shock Treatment” not very successful

Parastatals still under government control

Debt repayment had to be fixed

Economic Reforms

Economic Reforms of the late 1990s Further privatization of state-owned industry

Limitations on economic controls of the central government Money taken by General Abacha returned by foreign banks and

placed in the state treasury

Scheme for alleviating poverty in Nigeria

Increase in public wages Hope of decreasing instances of corruption

Increase in financial reserves as a result of stabilized oil prices