NIGER DELTA AND RESOURCE CONTROL: PARADIGM FROM THE

THE

STRUGGLE FOR

OLD TESTAMENT

A SEMINAR PAPER PRESENTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS (M.A.) RELIGION BY ITEBIYE, BERNARD OZIEGBE (REVD) REG. NUMBER: PG/MA/04/35639 COURSE: SUPERVISOR: MASTERS RESEARCH SEMINAR (REL. 502) DR. MALACHY I. OKWUEZE

DEPARTMENT OF RELIGION UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA.

JULY, 2006.

TOPIC: NIGER DELTA AND THE STRUGGLE FOR RESOURCE CONTROL: TESTAMENT OUTLINE 1. Introduction 2. definition of Terms 3. The Issues Involve 4. Paradigm from the Old Testament: An Analysis of Numbers 31:27 Justice Equity 5. Conclusion and Suggested Solution Bibliography

PARADIGMS FROM THE OLD

1.

INTRODUCTION

(And judgment is turned away backward and justice stands far away; for truth is fallen in the street and equity cannot enter.) Isaiah 59:14. Peace is the work of justice indirectly, in so far as justice removes the obstacles to peace; but it is the work of charity (love) directly, since charity, according to its very notion, causes peace. Saint Thomas Aquinas (As quoted in Braining quotes, 2005)

Justice (Hebrew = )and equity (Hebrew = )are the hall mark of every society that operates under the rule of Law, both in the Old Testament era and now. It entails rendering to everyone that which is his due. The Justice of the LORD (Hebrew = ) or Gods justice (Deuteronomy 33:21) as revealed in the Old Testament is not only the perfection of his nature, whereby he is infinitely righteous in himself and all that he does, but an important requirement of all his rational creatures. In recent years, oil production in Nigerias Niger Delta region has been characterized by heightened restiveness, resulting in loss of man hours and in many cases lives and property. The people of the Niger Delta are claiming that they have been unjustly treated; they have suffered from environmental degradation of their land and the displacement of their communities and have received no benefits from over 40 years of oil extraction. They are therefore agitating for Resource Control (Adenikinju, 2002: 3). Much has been written, especially in form of journals, periodicals, articles, field reports, essays, seminal papers, et cetera, on the issue of Resource Control (and other related crises in the Niger Delta region), but all appear to see the subject as political or economic problem and nothing seems to change. Moreover, there has been a clear case of the theoretical limitations of trying to apply war and conflict theories or what Soremekun (2004: 21) refers to as the nexus between one general and useful interaction and conflict to the Niger Delta worsening crisis, while paying little or no attention to what Omoweh (2004: 11) refers to as the dialectics of the conflicts. The dialectics of the Niger Delta crisis in our opinion is what we ought to do that we failed to do and what we ought not to do that we did a clear apparent lack of Justice, equity and fairness. 2. DEFINITION OF TERMS:

Struggle: A.S. Hornbys Oxford Advance Learners Dictionary of Current English (2000: 1190) defines struggle as, to try very hard to do something when it is difficult or when there are a lot of problems. It therefore maens a great effort made over a period of time to overcome difficulties or achieve something. Resource: It has been defined as Every natural element which is of use to man (Ugwu, 2004:2). The list of the natural element is very long and even includes conditions of climate and land forms. In addition to these, man uses some of the inorganic materials of the earth and some of its natural vegetable and animal life. These are not grown or manufactured by human enterprise but simply exist as parts of the natural earth, and unlike climate and land form, man actually consumes them or fashions them into more useful forms (Ugwu, 2004:2). Because they either are obtained from the earth or exist in or upon it, they are called natural, or earth resources. Control: To control means three things: (i) to manage- command, supervise, run, direct or organize; (ii) to rule- manipulate, influence, dominate, have a hold over, hold sway over or dictate; and (iii) to oversee- monitor, regulate, inspect, etc. Paradigm: A paradigm is a typical example of something or a model that forms basis of something. It is an example that serves as a pattern or model for something, especially one that forms the basis of a methodology or theory. In other words, the struggle for resource control means making great effort to

manage, organize and rule over the natural elements organic or inorganic within ones domain or territory. But the struggle in the Niger Delta is assuming what Naanen (2004: 4) refers to as a hugely complex enigma that is difficult to interpret. What are the issues involved? 3. THE ISSUES INVOLVED IN THE STRUGGLE FOR RESOURCE CONTROL IN THE NIGER DELTA: Patterson Ogon (2006: 12) submits that the Land Use Act, which he described as a contentious piece of legislation is the main issue in the Niger Delta crisis. Ibeanu (2003: 17) agrees and said that the land issue is mirrored in the various protest and demands by ethno-nationalist, community groups and social movements in Nigerias oil belt. Indeed, the Ogoni Bill of Rights (1990) and the Kaiama Declaration of 11 December 1998 made strong reference to this Act. Part of the declaration states: 1. All land and natural resources (including mineral resources) within the Ijaw territory belong to Ijaw communities and are the basis of our survival. 2. We cease to recognize all undemocratic decrees that rob our Peoples/communities of the right to ownership and control of our lives and resources, which were enacted without our participation and consent. These include the Land Use Decree and The Petroleum Decree etc (Kaiama Devlaration, 1998: 3) However, the issues can better be articulated as follows: 1. Oil spillage. 2. Gas flaring. 3. Environmental degradation. 4. Poor health status 5. Poverty 6. Pipeline explosions. 7. Limited government/public sector presence 8. Distrust of the government/petrobusiness alliance. 9. Lack of basic infrastructure. 10. Political marginalization. (Ile and Akukwe, 2001) Oil Spillage: The issue of spillage is as old as drilling itself. In every area where there is oil exploration, oil crude spills on the surface of the earth and surrounding waters. This kills plants, defertilizes the earth, harms animals, fouls farmlands, and destroys aquatic life. Consequently, farming and fishing industries, the major sources of economic sustenance in oil producing areas have suffered irredeemably from oil exploration. Gas Flaring: Nigeria flares more gas than any other nation in the world. At least 75 percent of Nigeria's total gas production is flared, and about 95 percent of associated gas, a by-product of crude oil extraction from reservoirs. According to the Nigeria's Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR), between 1998 and 1999, the total volume of gas utilization for industrial and domestic use in Nigeria was approximately 916 million standard cubic meters. However, during the same period, the oil producing companies flared about 1.7 billion standard cubic meters of associated gas (Ile and Akukwe, 2001: 15). Much of the flared gas, it must be noted, is methane, with high warming potentials, and prone destructive health hazards. Environmental Degradation: According to the World Bank, there are five great plagues of mankind: war, famine, pestilence, environmental pollution, and death. The Niger Delta is in the throes of becoming an environmental wastebasket. Dimieri Von Kemedi ( 2003: 17), quoting David Moffat and Professor Olof Linden of Stockholm University, the World Bank environment specialists, gives this vivid picture: Even official statistics suggest that every year the delta is polluted by 2.3 billion cubic metres of oil from some 300 separate spills, almost one a day, but

the true figure may be 10 times higher. It confirms a reportthat gas flaring from oil production in the area emits some 35 million tons of carbon dioxide and 12 million tons of methane a year, making it the world's largest single contributor to global warming. Poor Health Status: From a simple perspective, the scarcity of clean drinking water in the water soaked Niger Delta is not only an irony but also a potential health hazard. According to the landmark 1999 Human Rights Watch report on Niger Delta, an oil producing community reported that 180 people died following a large scale oil spill; Spills had made people sick or hospitalized, and; Fish from contaminated streams sometimes tastes of kerosene (paraffin), suggesting hydrocarbon contamination (Ile and Akukwe, 2001: 15-16). It is important to note too that the long term effect of hydrocarbons on humans is still evolving, with speculations on carcinogenic consequences. Poverty: The destruction of the land and waterways of the Niger Delta Region has denied the people their major source of fishing and farming livelihoods. One of the most visible images of Niger Delta is the distinct world that exists: the affluent Government/Petrobusiness alliance versus the wretched poverty of host communities. Ibeanu (2000: 22) put it thus: In todays Niger Delta, Oil exploration has not only banished joy and laughter on the faces of the people; it has also democratized poverty and hunger. Life for the communities and peoples from the Niger Delta region has been like birth pains, tough, in the midst of an arrangement that attempts to silence the views of the people, deny their social conditions and state of development and make sustainable livelihood a nightmare. The resource base of the Nigerian State has become like the proverbial African axe that fetches the wood but sleeps in the cold. Pipeline Explosions: Niger Delta is criss-crossed by approximately 10,000 miles of pipelines (NDDC master plan, 2004: 35). Most of the pipelines were laid more than 30 years ago. Contact between water and steel will eventually result in rust, wear, tear, and leakage of highly inflammable liquids. Since 1999, there have been a series of pipeline explosions, with hundreds of people roasted alive. In most cases, villagers are accused of siphoning oil from pipelines. The central question should be: What will cause a rational human being to risk his or her life for a bucket of gasoline? Perhaps, faced with severe and sustained economic hardship, the pangs of hunger may outweigh the risk of death. Lack of Sustained Government Presence: The oil producing communities lack any meaningful government presence. In most of these communities, any evidence of local, state or federal government presence exists in the fertile imaginations of government spin-doctors and sycophants. However, there is a recurring government presence in Niger Delta: Police stations and Military patrol units armed to the teeth and ready for "action" (Ile and Akukwe, 2001: 18). For the inhabitants of the oil producing communities that sustains the Nigerian State, basic necessities such as functional schools and hospitals are luxury items. Lack of Basic Infrastructure: The lack of basic infrastructure in the Niger Delta is perhaps one of the most visible signs of neglect. Electricity, drinkable water, roads, elementary and secondary schools, health centres, and telecommunication system are "not present" in Niger Delta (Ile and Akukwe, 2001: 18). Oil companies have active community-based projects that are promoted with evangelical fervour in media establishments but with little or nothing on ground; while the State (local, state, federal) appears to have become experts on "earmarks" of major projects without any evidence. The lack of basic infrastructure in Niger Delta is not only outrageous but also wicked. Distrust of Government and Oil Companies: In Niger Delta, the people are used to not believing the Government and oil company promises. The commonnest remark to

any government promise is we are tired of earmarking, we want to eye-mark. Political Marginalization of the People: The inhabitants of Niger Delta have always agitated for fairer treatment in Nigeria. The Willinks Commission was set up in 1959 in response to the Niger Delta question. For the past 45 years, the Government/Petrobusiness alliance has ignored its inevitable partner, the oil producing communities, with increasingly unacceptable costs and consequences. Therefore, this research believes that the main issue in the struggle for resource control in the Niger Delta is one of moral concern. It is what can be referred to as the error ab initio. Victor Ojakorotu (2003: 26) refers to it as The exclusion of these minoritiesof the Niger Delta. It is the erroneous omission of the oil bearing communities from the management of oil and its resources by the Multinational Oil Companies and the Centre (Federal and states) Governments. This, perhaps, explains why even the 13% derivation formula appears not to be having any palliative effect on the crisis. In other words, the struggle for resource control in the Niger Delta is a struggle for JUSTICE, EQUITY and FAIRNESS. For instance: 1. Whereas every other state of the Federation has a Federal University, Polytechnic or College of Education, the two largest oil bearing states in the Niger Delta, Bayelsa and Delta have no Federal University, Polytechnic or even College of Education (NDDC Master Plan, 2004: 131). 2. Whereas must Local Government Headquarters are already connected to the national grid, Yenagoa, the state capital of Bayelsa, the largest oil bearing state (onshore and offshore combined) is still not connected by the Federal Government controlled Power Holden Company. 3. The only Federal road linking Warri, Yenagoa and Port Harcourt is a singlelaned, narrow, windy road that is full of pot holes which can be described as a death trap. This is a far cry from what we have in Abuja and Lagos. 4. According to the World Bank report (1995), GNP per capita in the Niger Delta region is far below the national average of US$280 despite the high population growth rate combined with severe habitable land constraints (NDDC Master Plan, 2004: 110). 5. Available figures show that there is one doctor per 82,000 people, rising to one doctor per 132,000 people in some areas, especially the rural areas. This is more than three times the national average of 40,000 people per doctor (Ibeanu, 2004: 16). 6. Data also show that only 27% of people in the Delta have access to safe drinking water and about 30% of households have access to electricity, both of which are below the national averages of 31.7% and 33.6%, respectively. Similarly only 6% of the populations of the Niger Delta have access to telephones, while 70% have never used a telephone (Ibeanu, 2004: 16). In fact, Warri, the economic nerve centre of Delta state (the largest oil bearing state onshore) and host to Warri Refinary and Petro-chemical Company does not have a pipe borne water. The much published World Bank assisted project has long been abandoned. Most Local Government Headquarters in the Country have pipe borne water. There is no Local Government Headquarters in Oyo, Ogun, Ondo, and Kaduna that has no pipe borne water. 7. Apart from a Federal Trunk B road (earlier described above) that crosses Bayelsa State, the State has only 15 kilometers of tarred road (Ibeanu, 2004: 16). This is less than half of the total length of the 30 minutes drive 3rd mainland bridge in Lagos built with oil money. 8. According to a World Bank study, in the urban areas of Rivers State the cost of living index of 783 is the highest in Nigeria. The national average index is put at about 450 (NDDC Master Plan, 2004: 110). 9. unemployment in Port Harcourt, the premier city of the Delta, is as high as 30% (Ibeanu, 2004: 16). The national average is put at about 5%

10. In addition to the absence of Federal Higher Institutions, access to primary and secondary education, central to remedying some of these social conditions, lags abysmally when compared to other parts of the country. While 76% of Nigerian children attend primary school, in the Niger Delta the figure drops appallingly to between 30% and 40% (Ibeanu, 2004: 16). In some states like Lagos, Ogun and Ondo, the figure is between 89 and 95%.

4.

PARADIGM FROM THE OLD TESTAMENT AN ANALYSIS OF NUMBERS 31:27

(Number 31:27) The Lord said to Moses, "Take the count of the booty that was taken, both of man and of beast, you and Eleazar the priest and the heads of the fathers' houses of the congregation; and divide the booty into two parts, between the warriors who went out to battle and all the congregation. (Numbers 31: 25-27 [RSV]). 1. The first Hebrew word ( ,)translated here as and divide is different from the common Hebrew verb ( )to divide. The New Jerusalem Bible translates it as and you will then share out. It is, therefore, an imperative, you must divide. 2. The second word ( )is actually a combination of two words ( and .)The word is unrepresented in English language and generally used to point out more definitely the object of a verb or preposition (New Strong, Hebrew, 1995: 15). It is therefore, used here, as in many cases, to point out the definite object of the statement. The other word ( the object of the statement), translated by RSV as the booty actually refers to the prey (KJ) or the spoil (NJB). It can therefore be properly translated as the proceeds 3. The third word is a preposition meaning between or among. 4. The next is a phrase ( ) translated by RSV as warriors. There are actually two words here: ,meaning the battle and ,meaning ability to manipulate or skilled in. The two words are rendered by the New American Version as, those who took active part in the war. In other words, those who bear the risk; the hazard bearers; those who exposed themselves to danger, peril, death, etc. 5. The next is again a phrase ( ) translated as who went out to battle It can also be properly translated as by going out to combat (NAV), because of the presence of the word ,which means to arise or get up. 6. The last words, ( , and all the congregation) can also be translated as and the rest of the community (NJV). In other words, the verse can be properly translated, as the New American Bible puts it, then divide them evenly, giving half to those who took active part in the war by going out to combat, and half to the rest of the community. Or as the Living Bible renders it, then divide it into two parts. Half of it is for the men who were in the battle, and the other half is to be given to the people of Israel. That is, and you shall (must) divide the prey (proceed) into two (equal) parts; between those that took the war upon themselves (by bearing the risk of the war) and went out to do the battle, and the (rest of) the congregation. Many have asked why God gave such an imperative order. We are told that the warriors who went to the battle were only 12 thousand men, 1 thousand from each tribe (Numbers 31: 4) out of a possible population of 603,550 men of 20 years and above who are able to go to war (See Numbers 1: 20-43). The recommended sharing formula appears arbitrary. But Peter Pett (2003: 28) observes that the fact that the skilled men of war were specifically distinguished here confirms that they

each received the larger portion as a reward for risking their lives in battle. S.R. Obitts (2003: 128) suggests this to be the biblical example of casuistry. He defines casuistry as, the art of applying moral laws, which tend to be general, to specific cases. He argues that ever since Aristotle called attention to what he termed the need for equity, a method for deciding what is the right or wrong act in concrete situations has been an important part of the study of ethics. He posits that Gods system of justice, which adheres strictly to moral values, involves casuistry and even agues that it is indeed the goal of ethics (Obitts, 2003: 129)). The two key words here, therefore, are justice and equity. 4.1 Justice: Defining the term justice in the Old Testament is difficult given its complexity and varied usage. In the legal codes, the term describes ordinances which regulate communal life (e.g., Ex. 21:1-23:10) and which prescribe restitution for injury done to person or property, as well as for cultic regulations (Donahue, 1977: 66). Throughout the Old Testament, justice is overwhelmingly related to the idea of relationship and the life of the community; thus, justice in biblical thought concerns fidelity to the demands of relationship to God and neighbour (Donahue, 1977: 69). What God demands is justice and His concept of justice is beyond what most people think. To understand this demand of The Creator requires a much broader understanding of the human law and justice. There are, generally, four Hebrew words translated in the Old Testament as justice. They are: 1. (tsdaq): This is a primitive root word meaning, (causatively) to be made right (in a moral or forensic sense): to be cleanse; clear self; to be or do just, justice, justify or justify self; to be turn righteous or do righteousness. See 2 Sam. 15: 4 and Psalm 82:3 2. ( tsedeq): This is derived from (tsdaq) and implies the right (natural, moral or legal); it also means (abstractly) equity or (figuratively) prosperity. That which is altogether right or righteous and just or justified. See Job 8:3; Psalm 89:14; 119:121; Prov.1:3; 8:15; Eccl.5:8; Isaiah 58:2; 59:4; Jer. 31:23; 50: 7 3. ( tsedqh): This is also from ( tsdaq). It implies rightness (abstractly), or rectitude (subjectively). Objectively, it means justice, morally (virtue) or figuratively (prosperity). Moderately, it means right (or righteous) and just. See Gen. 18:19; Deut. 33:21; 2 Sam. 8:15; etc 4. ( mishpt): This is from the root word ( shphat). Properly, it connotes a verdict (favourable or unfavourable) pronounced judicially, especially a sentence or formal decree (human or divine law, individual or collective), including the act, the place, the suit, the crime, and the penalty. Abstractly, it means justice or rectitude, including a participant's right or privilege (statutory or customary). It also connotes, to be judged, judgment, just or justly. It could also be used for measure, (rule) order, ordinance, right, sentence, etc. The original significance of the root word ( tsdaq) was "to be straight." But it stands for a "norm." Perhaps the origin of the word is not so clear or even significant. Words having a secular origin often are baptized into special meanings and a word originally meaning straight may develop easily into a moral term just as canon "rod or "measuring rule" becomes a standardized list of sacred books (Snaith, 1964: 73). However, the Hebrew terms (tsdaq), ( tsedeq), ( tsedqh) and (mishpt) can rightly be translated righteousness or justice and are

consistently tied together in relationship to Gods role as judge; their meanings at times are practically synonymous. According to Abraham Heschel (1962: 199), There are few thoughts as deeply ingrained in the mind of biblical man as the thought of Gods justice and righteousness. It is not an inference, but His selfevident; not an added attributes to His essence, but identified with His ways. To distinguish between the two terms, justice usually relates to legal issues, while righteousness denotes conformity to a norm. Often the norm is the covenant. (Snaith, 1964: 73). Both terms as employed in the Old Testament are ultimately relational terms, interpreted in the light of the covenants purpose in maintaining relationship between God and the people, and the people with their neighbours. Heschel recognizes righteousness to be what might almost be called the underlying soul of justice. (Heschel, 1962: 201) Although justice involves legal issues, it does not compare to righteousnesss burning compassion for the oppressed (Heschel, 1962: 201). In reality, Gods justice cannot be separated from Gods love. While it is arguable that justice is central to the Old Testament Theology (Von Rad, 1962: 370), other intertwining concepts, such as Gods love, mercy, compassion, grace, and truth, must interpret the Old Testament view of justice. 4.2 Equity: Equity defined as "fairness; impartiality; justice," can only be clearly understood in it functions. The Webster's New World Dictionary (1984: 674) defines it as "A system of doctrines supplementing common and statute law." Peter J. Wallace (2000: 25) defines it as, "how you figure out what to do when the law does not apply". In other words, equity is justice administered according to fairness as contrasted with strictly formulated rules. The term "equity" denotes the spirit and habit of fairness, justness, and right dealing which would regulate the intercourse of men with men. It is a system of jurisprudence collateral to, and in some respects independent of "law"; the object of which is to render the administration of justice more complete, by affording relief where the courts of law are incompetent to give it. This is where some who are of the view that, the campaign on Resource Control has been conducted more on the emotive, sentimental plane than on the factual, practicable and most importantly, realistic plane (Dangora, 2005) got it wrong. They are of the view that the campaign has been for the most part conducted without taking the realities of the Nigerian situation into consideration and that those pushing the issue have not been able to provide us with political antecedents anywhere in the world of the type of Resource Control concept they are canvassing. Conscience should be applied here. Conscience, according to Okwueze (2003: 23), can be understood in two senses, in a wide sense it is called syntheses, which is the knowledge we naturally have of the principles of the moral order. In the strict sense, it is the application of these principles to our actions. Thus, equity and conscience are defined here as universal standard of justice in contrast to the local, limited, or strictly formulated laws of a particular jurisdiction. The former transcends all political or national distinctions and binds all men alike, while the latter are enacted for a specific purpose or circumstance and are therefore unable to speak to the human race as a whole. Moreover, John Calvin (1960: 15) believes that The judicial law, given [the Jews] as a kind of polity, delivered certain forms of equity and justice, by which they might live together innocently and quietly. Calvin (1960: 17) further posits: Now, as it is evident that the law of God which we call moral, is nothing else than the testimony of natural law, and of that conscience which God has engraved on the minds of men, the whole of this equity of which we now speak is prescribed in it. Hence it alone ought to be the aim, the rule, and the end of all laws. Wherever laws are formed after this rule, directed to this aim, and restricted to this end, there is no reason why they should be disapproved by us, however much they may differ from the Jewish law, or from each other.

In other words, Justice and equity are natural and universal requirements. The whole ideal is fairness. Therefore, this research is of the view that the principle of justice and equity, as applied by Moses and Eleazar, following Gods instruction in Numbers 31:25-27, can be applied in the Niger Delta crisis. Though there were no records of agitation in the said passage, the scenario and struggle in the Niger Delta appear the same. Both situations carries the same moral question: how can a given society adequately, justly and equitably compensate the risk bearers? 5 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTED SOLUTION

From the above discussion, we can conclusively establish that: 1. There is crisis in the Niger Delta region and it is not just politically or economically oriented but more of a moral issue. 2. The cry of injustice is true as the people and region that bears the burden of the main source of the Nations wealth remains the poorest or least developed. 3. Ecologically, the region is a difficult terrain that actually requires more attention. 4. The required attention is not given and what is given does not get to the source (the people that actually bear the risk). 5. The researcher believes that the problem can be solved if the Old Testament concept of Justice and Equity is rightly applied. SUGGESTED SOLUTION: To achieve the desired peace, anchored on the Old Testament idea of justice and equity, in the Niger Delta therefore, the researcher suggests, in addition to the immediate massive development of the region with concerted effort which other writers have suggested, the need to engage every oil bearing community as a stake holder in the entire process of oil exploitation in the community. The modalities of their engagement can be worked out by the Political Scientists while the level of their involvement can be worked out by the Economists. If this suggestion is taken, it would give room to the following: 1. Lead to security of lives of the people, property and the huge investments in the Niger-Delta and restore peace to the area. 2. Allow the people to live a normal productive life after they have been forced to shift from their primary means of livelihood 3. Be a just and appropriate compensation for people who have suffered much in providing a revenue base for the whole of the country. 4. Give the people a sense of belonging, and appreciation for their contributions to national development. 5. Lead to overall economic growth, and 6. Lead to a favourable resource allocation formula in which derivative is a key component and an appropriate expenditure by the people themselves, thereby taking some pressures off the Central governments who are presently required to bear, exclusively, the task of sustainable development of the Niger Delta area. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bright, J. (1967). The Authority of the Old Testament. Nashville: Abingdon Press. Calvin, J. (1960). Institutes of the Christian Religion. Philadelphia: Westminster. Hasel, G.F. (1991). Old Testament Theology: Basic Issues in the Current Debate. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Heschel, A.J. (1962). The Prophets, Volume 2. New York: Harper and Row. Hornby, A.S. (2000). Oxford Advance Learners Dictionary of Current English. Oxford: University Press. Niditch, S. (1993). War in the Hebrew Bible : a study in the ethics of

violence. New York: OUP Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC). 2004. Niger Delta Regional Development Master Plan: Summary of Draft Report. Obitts, S.R. (2003). Elwells Evangelical Dictionary. Oklahoma: Ellis Enterprises, Inc. Okaba, O.B. (2005). Petroleum Industry and the Paradox of Rural Poverty in the Niger Delta Benin City: Ethiope Publishing Corporation. Okwueze, M. and Ugwueye, L.E. (2002). Prophecy in the Old Testament: The Concept of Moral Responsibility in Ezekiel. Enugu: Aicon International Publishers. Okwueze, M. (2003). Ethics, Religion and Society: Biblical, Traditional & Contemporary Perspectives. Nsukka: Prize Publishers Okwueze, M. et al. ed. (2004). Religion and Societal Development: Contemporary Nigerian Perspectives. Lagos: Merit International Publications. Rad, G.V. (1962). Old Testament Theology, Volume 2. New York: Harper and Row. Snaith, N.H (1964). New York: Schocken. [ The Distinctive Ideas of the Old Testament.

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Ijaw Youth Council (1999). The Kaiama Declaration: Resolutions of the December 11, 1998 All Ijaw Youths Conference held in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Port Harcourt: Ijaw Youth Council. Naanen, B. (2004). The Political Economy of Oil in the Niger Delta. In the Warri Crisis, the Niger Delta, and the Nigerian State. ACAS Bulletin, No.68. Pp. 4-9. Omoweh,D.A. (2004)Is it the Warri Crisis or the Crisis of the Nigerian State? In, The Warri Crisis, the Niger Delta, and the Nigeria State. ACAS Bulletin, No.68, 2004. Pp. 10 15 Soremekun.K. (2004). The Warri Crisis A Case of Three in One In, The Warri Crisis, the Niger Delta, and the Nigeria State. ACAS Bulletin, No.68, Pp. 20 23 DISERTATION Ojakorotu, V. (2003). Oil Minorities and Politics of Exlusion in the Niger Delta of Nigeria. Johannesburg: A Doctoral Thesis in the Department of International Relation, University of Witwatersrand.