Niett Docket

8/12/2019 Niett Docket

1/234

TRAINING TECHNOLOGY

AND

INSTRUCTIONAL

METHODOLOGIES


2/234

FOREWORD

1. The field of Training is a vast and continually evolving arena. This

dynamic nature of training demands a solid understanding of the original

ideas, theories and systems that form their fundamentals. As instructors inthe Navy, it is of utmost importance that the various nuances of goodtraining practices are understood and followed in true letter and spirit. This

docket on Training Technology and Instructional Methodology has !eenprepared with the aim of serving as a !asic reading material for trainee

instructors undergoing training at the Naval Institute of "ducational andTraining Technology #NI"TT$.

%. There has !een a long&standing demand from the trainee instructors ofthe Methods and Training Technology #'ailors$ courses to make the docketsimple and reader friendly. The terminologies and e(pressions normally used

in the Training Technology parlance, !y themselves, are technical and some

times conte(tual. Notwithstanding this fact, an attempt has !een made tomake the language as simple and lucid as possi!le.

). In this edition of the docket, a lot of new concepts on training andsome of the training practices as propounded !y Thames *alley +niversity,

+ that are suita!le to our training environment have !een included. At theend of the docket, a glossary of commonly used training terms has !eenappended to serve as a -uick reference tool for the trainees.

. A training docket is a collation of reading material culled from varioussources and presented as a package. Any such docket will only serve the

purpose of an elementary reading material for easy assimilation of !asicprinciples and concepts. Trainees have to resort to additional reading from

!ooks written !y eminent scholars, thinkers and researchers in the relevantfield of conte(t. A num!er of !ooks have !een listed at the end of eachchapter in this docket for suggested additional reading and reference.

/. I do hope that the trainees find this docket useful.

%0 Mar 0) #eorge 2aco!$ochi & 34%00 5aptain

6irector

2


3/234

CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page No

1 Teaching Learning Process 4

2 Learning Theories 9

3 Andragogy 15

4 o!r "ays o# Learning 21

5 Syste$atic Approach to Training %SAT& 2'

( )asic Teaching *odel 34

+ ,o$ains o# Learning 3+

' -riting O./ecti0es #or Training 4'

9 *ai$s o# Teaching (1

1 *oti0ation (5

11 *edia and Training Aids +5

12 O0erhead Pro/ector '3

13 *ethods o# nstr!ctions ''

14 Lect!re and Lesson *ethod 11

15 Coaching 1+

1( !estioning Techni!es 12

1+ nstr!ctor Li6e !alities %L& 125

1' Trans#er o# Learning 13

19 Co$p!ter )ased Training 13'

2 7ideo in Training 144

21 *aster Sylla.!s 15(

22 E0al!ation 1(2

23 eed.ac6 1+4

24 Tests and Types o# Test te$s 1+9

25 te$ Analysis 191

2( Ta.le o# Speci#ication 195

2+ nterpretation o# Test Scores 2

2' np!t O!tp!t Analysis 2(

29 Training ,esign and E0al!ation Cell 29

3 Co!nseling 213

31 Ti$e *anage$ent 219

32 8lossary o# Training Ter$s 225

3


4/234

CAPTE: 1;

TEACN8 LEA:NN8 P:OCESS

O)


5/234

which prepares a person #or $eeting general li0ing conditions of the society and the environment around him#

3# Training; !raining is a Planned Processof scientific instruction and learning which prepares a person

to do a speci#ic tas6 or set o# speci#ic tas6s

# !raining can also be defined as a Planned Processto modify attitude, *nowledge or s*ill behaviour to achieve effective performancein a particular activity or range of activities#

.# !he difference between Ed!cationand Training can be understood from thetable given in the following page#

SL NO E,=CATON T:ANN8

(a)

/ives students the*nowledge of theories,principles, facts and figuresthat may generally be usefulin day-to-day life#

0rings about change inbehaviour in the trainees,which help them inperforming some tas* ortas*s#

(b)

t is broad based and general

in nature#

t is specific to *nowledge,

s*ill and attitude re1uiredfor a particular tas* or tas*s#

(c)t enables students to controltheir environment and fulfilltheirpossibilitiesdesires#

t enables trainees toperform satisfactorily intheir profession#

(d)ducation is a continuousprocess# We get educatedeven as adults#

!raining can be terminatedor stopped, once a personachieves satisfactoryperformance of tas*tas*s#

# Teaching# !eaching is a process of i$parting4nowledge, $oti0atingandg!iding students to learn through their own activities#

5# Learning# "earning is a relatively Per$anent Changein )eha0io!r of the trainees brought about as a result of repeated practice#

6# Operations in Teaching# !eaching is conducted in thefollowing three stages: -

.


6/234

(a) 7re-active stage 8 !his is the planning stage of teaching#

(b) nter-active stage 8 !his is the stage in which the instructor interacts withthe trainees#

(c) 7ost-active stage 8 n this stage, the instructor analyses the performance ofthe trainees and identifies wea* areas for correction#

9# "et us now see the activities in each of the three stages:-

(a) Pre>acti0e Stage# !his is the planning stage# !he followingactivities are done:-

(i) %etting or 7reparing of &bectives#

(ii) Deciding the subect matter 8 What to teach, ;ow much to teach#(iii) rranging the ideassubect matter logically 8 from easy to

difficult, simple to comple$ etc#

(iv) %electing the acti0e Stage ; !he instructor should sit and observe the following>-

(i) !he progress of the trainees#


7/234

(ii) !he change in behaviour of the trainees 8 newly learnt *nowledgeand s*ill#

(iii) !he change in attitude and interest amongst trainees#

(e) n the 7ost-active stage, the instructor also plans and designs testing toolsli*e tests, e$ercises etc#

(f) ny change in the method of instructions teaching is also e$amined inthe post active stage#

'?# 8eneral Principles o# Learning# s instructors, the following principles oflearning must be *ept in mind :-

(a) 7eople learn better when they *now "hythey have to learn#

(b) "earning is better when ne" ideas are eplained in ter$s o# 6no"ledgealready learnt#(c) Acti0e st!dent participation is necessary for effective learning#

(d) f the res!lts o# the per#or$anceare told, it improves learning#

(e) Si$ilaritybetween tas*s leads to effective learning#

(f) @or generali=ation of concepts, range o# sol!tions?ea$ples sho!ld .e"ide#

(g) =nderstanding the pro.le$s lead to better learning#

(h) # a tas6 is done correctly, it leads to satisfaction and hence betterlearning#

() Pleasant s!rro!ndingspromote better learning#

''# Learning O!tco$es; !he visible outcome of "earning is a change in behaviourobserved in the trainees# !hese changes in behaviour as a result of learning can be listedas +"earning &utcomes as follows:-

(a) 4nowledge# "earning of facts, figures and e$periences#

(b) %*ill# 7erformance of a ob or tas* with a set standard#

(c) Anderstanding# /aining insight into the subect#

(d) Boncept# !rainees perceive new ideas, theories and generali=ations#

(e) ctivities# !rainees begin to get involved in new activities#

5


8/234

(f) ptitude# Cew abilities and talent are generated amongst trainees#

(g) nterest# !rainees ac1uire new interests, habits, hobbies etc

(h) dustment# !rainees learn to change depending on situations and beaccommodative#

)OO@S AN, :EE:ENCES

CAPTE: 2;

LEA:NN8 TEO:ES

O)


9/234

When you have mastered the content of this chapter, you will be able to(a) %tate the groups under which learning theories are defined#(b) "ist the pre-twentieth century learning theories#(c) $plain !horndi*es and van 7avlovs learning theories#(d) Describe the /estalt theories of learning#

LEA:NN8 TEO:ES

'# We have seen the meaning of learning in the earlier chapter as a relatively

permanent change in behaviour# f we thin* more about learning the following common1uestions will come to our mind:-

(a) What are the limits of learning

(b) What is the role of practice in learning

(c) ;ow important are rewards, incentives and punishment in learning

9


10/234


11/234

9# %F theory and theorists view that Ee$perience is the only source of *nowledge#!his is called as Empiricism# %pecial emphasis is given to sensory e$periences# !hefollowing features have been highlighted:-

(a) Sensationalis$# !he hypothesis that all *nowledge is derived

through the sensory e$perience#(b) :ed!ctionis$# !he theories that all comple$ ideas are built up outof basis stoc* of simple ideas#

(c) Associationis$# !he theories that ideas or mental elements areconnected through the action of association by contiguity in e$perience#

(d) *echanis$# !he belief that the mind is li*e a machine built out ofsimple elements with no mysterious components#

'?# Cogniti0e theories .elie0e in :ationalis$# Fationalism is the generalphilosophical portion that reason is the prime source of *nowledge# Feason is the onlyvalid basis for *nowledge rather than empirical revelation on intuition or insight#

''# S>: Theories# We shall now discuss few %-F theories and cognitive theories#

'2# Thorndi6eBs Theory;

(a) #"#!horndi*e ('65- '99) was the person who gave this theory of learningcalled as the !horndi*es !heory of Bonnectionism or !heory of !rial andrror# !his theory e$plains how people learn new things# !horndi*e gave histheory on the basis of his e$periments conducted on cats , chic*ens , dogs , fish ,mon*eys and rats# ;e placed them under different learning situations and studiedhow they learned new things# ;e conducted very interesting e$periments ondifferent animals# !he following is one such e$periment:

(b) ;e put a hungry cat in a cage # !here was only one door for e$it, which could beopened by correctly operating a latch# fish was placed outside the cage# !hesmell of the fish wor*ed as a strong +motive for the hungry cat to come out# !hecat tried to s1uee=e through every opening > it clawed and bit at the bars or wiresof the cage# trusted its paws through any opening and claws at everything itcould reached# n this way the cat made a number of random attempts to get out ofthe cage to get the fish# n one of such random attempts , by +chance , the catclawed at the latch and the door opened and the cat could come out and eat thefish# t got its reward of its attempts#

(c) @or another trial , the above e$periment was repeated #!his time the cat madelesser random attempts and could 1uic*ly operate the latch to come out of the

''


12/234

cage to eat the fish #s this e$periment was repeated a number of times on thesame cat , the cat gradually learned how to operate the latch as soon as it was putin the cage#

(d) !he e$periment suggests that a learning process consists of the following stages :

(i) ,ri0e ; n the present e$periment , drive was hunger and was intensifiedby the sight of food #

(ii) 8oal ; !o get the food by getting out of the cage #

(iii) )loc6 ; !he cat was confined in the cage with a closed door #

(iv) :ando$ *o0e$ents or Atte$pts ; !he cat , persistently , tried to get outof the cage #

(v) Chance S!ccess ; s a result of this striving and random movement, the

cat, by chance , succeeded in opening the door #(vi) Selection o# Proper *o0e$ent ; /radually, the cat selected the proper

way of operating the latch out of its random movements #

(vii) iation ; t last, the cat learned the proper way of opening the door byreecting all the incorrect responses and *eeping only the right responses #Cow the cat was able to open the door of the cage without any error, or inother words it learned how to open the door #

'3# !horndi*e named the learning of his e$perimental cat as G !rial and rror

"earning#G

'# La"s 8i0en )y Thorndi6e !he laws given by !horndi*e after his e$perimentsare as follows :

(a) The La" o# :eadiness; !eacher should prepare the minds of thestudents to be ready to accept the *nowledge, s*ills and aptitude #;e shouldarouse the students capacity to lin* the e$periences with their everyday life#!he teacher should ma*e the students learn simple things first and thencomple$ things#

(b) The La" o# E##ect ; pleasing environment should be created inthe classroom# !he teacher should be sympathetic but firm #;e himselfshould enoy his wor*# $periences provided to the students should bemeaningful and satisfying #!he e$periences should be organi=ed in the orderof increasing difficulty#


13/234

(c) The La" o# Eercise or :epitition ;


14/234

stic* and the bananas# ;e could easily get the bananas inside the cage with thehelp of the stic*#

(b) Ept # n the second e$periment, two stic*s were used whichcould be fitted with each other with some techni1ues# !he Bhimpan=ee could

reach the bananas with the help of both stic*s fitted each other# ;e tried to get thebananas with the help of one stic* but failed# %uddenly he reali=ed the e$istenceof the second stic* fitted it with the first and reached the bananas#

'9# ccording to /estalt theorists problem are to be solved sensibly, structurallyorganically rather than mechanically or by trial and error method# nsightful learning isthus more appropriate method of learning# !hey argued that %F bond theories suggestedrote process and it is not a advisable as learning by understanding is better than roteprocess#

)OO@S AN, :EE:ENCES

CAPTE: 3;

AN,:A8O8

S;NO; TTLE O )OO@ A=TO: NETT L); ACCN;

NO;

?'# !e$t 0oo* &f 7rogrammednstructions

% % Bhauhan '

?2# teachers world Ielon and Weinstein ?'

?3# !heories &f "earning /ordan ; 0ower ndrnest F ;ilgend 2?

'


15/234

O)


16/234

AN,:A8O8

'#


17/234

# Andragogy !he word +ndragogy is derived from /ree*, +Andrameaning Concept# s a person matures, his self-concept moves from one ofbeing a dependent personality towards one of being a self directed human being#

(b) Eperience# s a person ages, he accumulates a growing reservoir ofe$perience that becomes an increasing resource for learning#

(c) :eadiness to learn# dults readiness to learn becomes orientedincreasingly to the development of tas*s of his social roles#

(d) Orientation to Learning# dults orient their learning to subects thathave immediate relevance or application to their ob rather than orient towardspostponed application of *nowledge#

(e) *oti0ation to Learn;s a person matures the motivation to learn isinternal#

6# o" do Ad!lts Learn; We will come to *now from the chapter on +@our waysof "earning that learning ta*es place by :-

(a) 0eing told (b) mitation (c) !rial and rror (d) !hin*ing

9# ll the four components are present in 7edagogy as well as ndragogy# n7edagogy the component 0eing !old is more compared to the other three# !he order ofinfluence would be 0eing !old, mitation, !rial K rror and then !hin*ing# ;owever, incase of ndragogy, !hin*ing is more compared to others and the order of influence isThin6ingD Trial ErrorD $itation and )eing Told;

'?# dults do not learn in the same way as children# !his is because of the followingreasons:-

(a)


18/234

(d) "earning is related to real life situation, they are concerned more withsolution of the problems#

(e) !end to avoid, reect situations in which they are treated li*e children#!hey are to be treated with respect#

(f) 7refer e$periential and participative learning process# ("i*e Discussions/roup $ercises, 7roblem solving, Base studies, Fole-playing etc)#

(g) 7refer more self-assessment and free e$change of feedbac*, stress on self-assessment K criterion-referenced evaluation#

''# n practical terms, ndragogy means that instruction for adults needs to focusmore on the process and less on the content being taught# %trategies or methods such ascase studies, role-playing, simulations and self-evaluation are most useful# nstructors are

to adopt a role of facilitator or resource person rather than a teacherlecturer orgraderevaluator#

'2# Co$parison o# Pedagogy Andragogy; comparison between 7edagogy andndragogy is as follows:-

Pedagogy Andragogy

(a) !eaching Bhildren (a) ;elping adults to learn

(b) !ransmission of *nowledge What K Why (b) 4nowledge and s*ill, what, why, how ,when and where

(c) !ransmitting what is *nown (c) Discovering what isun*nown

(d) !rainer centered (d) "earner centered

(e) Fesponsibility of the !eacher (e) Loint responsibility of thetrainer K the learner

(f) "earner is comparatively passive (f) "earner is activeand participative

(g) @ormal assessment by teacher (g)


19/234

Pedagogy Andragogy

(a) 7assive (a) ctive

(b) Dependence (b) ndependence

(c) 0ehave in a few ways (c) Bapable of behaving inmany ways

(d) rratic shallow interests (d) Deeper and stronger

interests

(e) %hort time perspective (e) "ong time perspective

(7ast and @uture)

(f) %ubordinate position (f) 1ual or super ordinate

position

(g) "ac* of awareness of self (g) wareness K Bontrol over

self

'# $plications in Training; n the Cavy, we mostly train adults# @ollowing theprinciples of ndragogy in training, will have the following implications:-

(a) 7sychological climate should be one of mutual respect K co-operation(ccepted, Fespected, %upported, @riendly and nformal)#(b)


20/234

(l) "earning e$perience at present will have continued effect on their learningactivities later#

'.# s an e$ample, for designing a course for internet and its usage for adult learners,we would adopt the following strategies(*eeping the principles of ndragogy in mind):-

(a) !here is a need to e$plain why specific things are being taught# ($ample,certain commands, functions, operations etc#)

(b) nstructions should be tas*-oriented instead of memori=ation 8 learningactivities should be in the conte$t of common tas*s to be performed usinginternet#

(c) nstructions should ta*e into account the wide range of differentbac*grounds of learner> learning materials and activities should allow for differentlevelstypes of previous e$perience with computers# !he use of internet should be

lin*ed with all their e$periences and interests#(d) %ince adults are self-directed, instruction should allow learners to discoverthe e$ploitation of internet for themselves, by providing guidance and help whenmista*es are made#

(e) 7rovide comfortable furniture and ade1uate resources li*e computer withinternet lin* facility etc#

(f) 7rovide for a self-evaluation mechanism, li*e as*ing them to browse thenet and down load some information of their interests# !he result of theirperformance would in itself be a self-assessment and would also be 1uite self-motivating

(c) 7rovide challenging tas*s learning situations step by step and ma*e themdiscover that they can ta*e responsibility for their own learning#

)OO@S AN, :EE:ENCES


NO;

?'# Bhallenges n ndian ducation % "a*shma 2?2# dult ducation n ndia C nsari 25??3# 0oundaries &f dult "earning Fichard dwards,

nn ;anson, 7eterFaggatt

'.3

?# Burriculum Development ndducational !echnology

- '.

2?


21/234

CAPTE: 4;

O=: -AS O LEA:NN8

O)


22/234

O=: -AS O LEA:NN8

'# "earning is a continuous process# We begin to learn from our childhood andcontinue to learn through out our lives# "earning ta*es place generally in any of thefollowing four ways: -

)eing Told Trial and Error $itation Thin6ing

2# )eing Told; "earning ta*es place by receiving direct instruction, either orally,or in writing# @ollowing are some e$amples of learning situations of 0eing !old: -

(a) sailor learns to fill up a leave application form, on being told#(b) sailor learns to wear his pea* cap correctly on being told#

(c) trainee learns to use a telephone by following written verbal instructions#

3# When one analyses the process of "earning by +0eing !old, the following pointsemerge: -

(a) !he trainee has little or no information on the subect, must want to learnthe information, and accepts the trainer as a provider of it#(b) !he trainer must *now the information, be able to communicate iteffectively and be trustworthy to the trainee#(c) n instructional session must be created which gives the trainee, the

opportunity to learn#(!his re1uires preparation, effective presentation, and a sufficient amount of timefor learning to ta*e place#)

# Trial Error; "earning ta*es place by trying for oneself# t isuseful in learning s*ills# !rainees learn by attempting to do something# fthey do it correctly, they feel happy and do it again# !raineesget motivated to repeat their performance and "earning ta*esplace# ven if they attempt to do something and fail, they learnfrom their failure#

.# @ollowing are some e$amples of learning by +!rial Krror: -

(a) "earning to assemble a small electrical circuit#(b) "earning to write a computer program#(c) "earning to hit the bull of target using a pistol#

22


23/234

(d) "earning to surf on a +Wind %urfing 0oard#

# When one analyses the process of "earning by +!rial K rror, the followingpoints emerge: -

(a) !rial and error learning situations should be so designed that the traineehas a good chance of ma*ing successful attempts, leading to positivereinforcement#

(b) "earning events leading to probable failure should usually be avoided#@re1uent errors lead to a lowering of confidence and develops reluctance toattempt further trial and error#(c) ;owever, the learning situation should cater for one or two failureattempts# !his would allow the trainee to learn from what went wrong#

(d) !he trainee should feel a sense of security# ;e or she should feel confident

that if the attempt results in failure, it would lead to nothing other than friendlyadvice#

5# $itation; n imitation, learning ta*es place by copying the actions of anotherperson, usually an instructor or a s*illed person#

6# @ollowing are some e$amples of learning byimitation:-

(a) "earning of correct method of saluting#

(b) "earning of correct method of pulling a whalerboat#

(c) young boy learning to bowl a cric*et ball by observing his favouritecric*et player on !M#

(d) baby learning to eat with a spoon by observing others#

9# "earning situations by way of mitation must be created *eeping the followingpoints in mind: -

(a) good model performance should be available so that the trainee can imitateit#

(b) !he learning event should permit accurate and complete observation by thetrainee#

23


24/234


25/234

(b) Prod!cti0e Tas6; !hese tas*s can be done in more than one way#(@or e$ample 8 7lanning and utili=ation of funds allocated to a trainingestablishment, 7lanning a industrial visit for a particular course, 7lanning

and conducting a sailing e$pedition#)'# Applying the #o!r "ays o# learning; "et us apply the four ways of learning tothe two distinct types of tas*s:-

(a) :eprod!cti0e Tas6; !he figure below shows a learning event for areproductive tas*# !he figure clearly shows that the influence of mitation and0eing !old is more than !hin*ing and !rialK rror# n fact, there is very little!hin*ing and !rial K rror involved# ;ence, while creating learning situationsfor reproductive tas*s, instructors should create conditions and opportunities inwhich learning ta*es place by +0eing !old and +mitation#

2.


26/234

(b) Prod!cti0e Tas6; 7roductive tas*s re1uire trainees to apply their basic*nowledge, e$perience and professional wisdom for completing the tas*successfully# !he figure below clearly shows that the influence of !hin*ing and!rial K rror is more than 0eing !old and mitation# ;ence, while creating

learning situations for such tas*s, instructors should create conditions andopportunities in which learning ta*es place by +!hin*ing and +!rial K rror#;elping trainees to thin* and try should be the attitude of the instructor# !heinstructor should play the role of a +@acilitator or +/uide#

2


27/234

)OO@S AN, :EE:ENCES


NO;

?'# /eneral 7sychology ;enry /arrett 5'?2# ducational 7sychology Lanaradhan 7rasad 9'2?3# 7sychology nd !he !eachers Dennis Bhild '??

25


28/234

CAPTE: 5;

SSTE*ATC APP:OAC TO T:ANN8

%SAT&

O)


29/234

ntrod!ction

'# Bhanges are unavoidable both in our day to day activities as well as in our wor*environment# Bhanges re1uire people to learn new *nowledge, s*ills, and also bringabout change in their attitude# lso, people often have to do away with some of their

ac1uired *nowledge, s*ills and ma*e appropriate modification in their attitude that isappropriate to the changed or new wor*ing environment#

2# "earning can be based on formal study, or on everyday e$periences at home or atwor*# !he accumulation of these e$periences enables us to carry out certain activities ortas*s# %o what is the difference between +learning and +training

3# !raining is done for a specific purpose> it is concerned with helping someone tolearn-1uic*ly and effectively# Training re!ires a clearly de#ined o!tco$e;

# !he difference between +learning and +training is that learning re#ers to a

nat!rally occ!rring process that may, or may not contribute to a persons obperformance; Training is a planned process that directs learning to"ards achie0ingspeci#ic o!tco$es, leading to achieving performance obectives#

:easons #or Training

.# Why bother about +training Why not rely on people simply learning forthemselves %ome of reasons for training are given below:-

(a) 7eople may never learn how to perform the tas* properly#

(b) f they do learn, they will do so much more slowly without training#

(c) !hey are li*ely to learn a way that is wrong#

(d) Bonse1uences of poor performance results in poor 1uality, customercomplaints etc#

(e) &nce they learn the tas* wrongly it is very difficult to +unlearn and thenrelearn correctly#

(f) !he high hidden costs to the organi=ation#

# !raining is a very costly idea for any organisation# t is therefore, important to

weigh the benefits vis-N-vis the money invested on training# %ome the visible benefits ofsystematic training are:-

(a)


30/234

(c) mproved 1uality

(d) 0etter utili=ation of time, material, e1uipment and money

(e) 0etter use of personnel

(f) @ewer brea*downs or errors

(g) Feduced costs

(h) 0etter identification of employee potential

() 0oosts morale of personnel

5# "ow productivity, poor 1uality of services, ineffective services, high costs andlow employee morale etc# are typical problems encountered by organi=ations# We mightresolve some of these problems if people learn how to do their obs or duties better, inother words, train them in a systematic way#

SSTE*ATC APP:OAC TO T:ANN8

'# !he training option and the steps in systematic training could be illustrated asfollows:-

3?

,ENT

T:8 NEE,S

ASSESS*E NT

O

:ES=LTS PE:O:*ANCE

P:O)LE*

*PLE*NT

T:ANN8

PLAN

AN,

,ES8N


31/234

(We can recall this concept of %ystematic pproach to !raining (%!) through thefollowing acronym#

> ,ENT

N > NEE,

, > ,ES8N > *PLE*ENT

A > ASSESS )

denti#y Training Needs %TN&

9# !he first stage of the %! is to use various types of analysis to identify areas forimprovement and the nature of the problem, as accurately as possible# detailed analysisof the following is to be carried out:-

(a) OrganiGational Training Needs Analysis;!his is done to consider such

1uestions as policy, production, new technology and cost escalation, resulting in abroad picture of where the problems e$ist and e$amine if training can overcomesuch problems#

(b)


32/234


33/234

'# ssessment needs to answer the following three basic 1uestions:-

(a) Did the training achieve what it tried to achieve

(b) Did the training improve performance or solve the problem it was

intended to solve

(c) Was the training worthwhile

'5# !he four stages of the systematic approach to training provide a framewor* foreffective training that is closely related to the actual performance problems# t istherefore, important that each stage is carefully loo*ed into for effective training#

)OO@S AN, :EE:ENCES


NO;

?'# %ystems pproach !o !eachingnd "earning 7rocedures

!he &lnesco 7ress '69

?2# !raining %*ill %haron 0artrom nd0renda /ibson

'?

?3# %taff !raining nd ssessment David &sborne '.?# dentifying !raining Ceeds !om 0oydell nd


34/234

CAPTE: (;

)ASC TEACN8 *O,EL

%)T*&

O)


35/234

)ASC TEACN8 *O,EL

'# Teaching *odels; model is the representation of the actual obect# !eachingmodels are the ones which are used to depict the functioning of the !-" process in a

simple way with significance to behavioral outcomes#2# Characteristics; !eaching models provide a specific outline of teachingactivities to achieve the laid down obectives# !he following are its characteristics:-

(a) !he terminal behavior of the trainees#

(b) !he correct stimuli are selected for promoting desired responses of thelearner#

(c) Marious learning situations are specified for observing students responses#

(d) !he criterion behavior is defined for students performance#

(e) Marious types of teaching tactics are specified for causing effectiveinteraction between the students and the trainees#

(f) !he teaching situations and tactics can be improved and modified foeachieving the obective#

3# )asic Teaching *odel; !he simplest of all models is the 0asic !eaching


36/234

(b) Entry )eha0ior; !he achievement of specific obectives depend of the*nowledge already possessed by the student at the starting of instruction# ny newe$perience has to be related to past one# ;ence it is of paramount importance to assessthe ntry 0ehavior (#0#) of the learners before the teaching begins#

(c) nstr!ctional Process; !his is the most crucial part of the 0!


37/234

CAPTE: +;

,O*ANS O LEA:NN8

O)


38/234

,O*ANS O LEA:NN8

'# ntrod!ction; We come across a number of learning situations in our day-to-daylife# s trainers, we create appropriate learning situations so that trainees learn to performa specific tas*# !hese learning situations can be related to the abilities of trainees underthe following three main categories:-

(a) ntellectual abilities or faculties of the mind li*e thin*ing, recall andapplication of information etc#

An e"ample o this would be, a trainee has toirst identiy the parts o an A$ %& assault

rile and also may be able to e"plain the

unction o each part beore he actually

learns to use'ire an A$ %&. (ere the verbsidentiy and e"plain reer to the aculties o the mind )recall and give

details*.

(b) 7hysical or practical s*ills where the trainees movement, control andcoordination of body is involved#

+"ample o this would be the trainees! hand movements,

control and coordination o his hands, posture o body

while he ta#es aim with the A$ %& rile etc. To be ableto ire using the A$ %& rile would require him to use all

the practical and physical s#ills. The verb ire reers to

the trainees! practical and physical s#ills#

(c) ttitudes and interest of the trainees in performing the given tas*# t is allabout internal behaviour#ontinuing with our e"ample o a trainee learning to ire a gun,

attitudes would include the trainees! inclination to ollow the

saety rules, his desire to ollow correct procedures, his

li#ing to perorm with perection etc. Interest would includehis very basic willingness to learn and many other related

aspects and willingness to spend time and energy to acquire

#nowledge and s#ill to perorm.

2# 0enamin 0loom an educational psychologist, classified the above three uni1ueareas of learning as follows:-

(a) Cogniti0e ,o$ain; t is concerned with the area of subect matter,*nowledge and mental s*ills#

36


39/234

(b) A##ecti0e ,o$ain; t deals with feelings, attitudes and values- the properconcern of education and training# !hese are internal behaviours#

(c) Psycho$otor ,o$ain; t is concerned with the learning of physical s*ills,

manipulative ability and neuromuscular co-ordination#

3# Cogniti0e ,o$ain# !he cognitive domain includes those behavioural outcomeswhich re1uire *nowledge of specific information li*e principles, concepts, andgenerali=ations necessary for problem solving# $amples of cognitive behaviours are:-

(a) define the termsP (d) e$plain the principleP#(b) select a suitable materialP (e) solve the 1uadratic e1uationP(c) summarise the topicP# (f) compare the two methodsP##

# !he learning situations in the cognitive domain or in short the cognitivebehaviours can be further bro*en down in to hierarchical levels as shown in thefollowing page

39

PSCO*OTO:AECT7E

mustfollow thetraffic rules

(QHI)2R

CO8NT7E

4&B;


40/234

?

Co$prehensionA.ility to reorganiGeD

restateD interpretDtranslateD generaliGe

gi0en in#or$ation;

Application=tilisation o# 6no"ledge

in a ne" and di##erent

sit!ation;

AnalysisSeparation o# "hole into

partsD !ntil relationships

a$ong ele$ents is clear;

3ncreasing

di##ic!ltyP

P

@no"ledge:ecognition and recall o#

#acts and speci#ics

SynthesisCo$.ine ele$ents to

#or$ ne" $eaning #ro$

the sit!ation;

E0al!ation,ecision>$a6ingD

or selecting .ased on

criteria?rationale;

-equires #nowledge in order todemonstrate comprehension

-equires #nowledge,

comprehension o inormation toapply in new situation.

-equires #nowledge,

comprehension, ability to apply

inormation in order to analyse.

-equires analysis and previ

level in order to synthesie

-equires synthesis / previo

levels in order to evaluate

Cogniti0e )eha0io!r


41/234


42/234

Dont worry shall also helpyousolve the problem if it is difficult# "etus wor* together#

internal behaviours and hence while we create learning situations in this domain, we have tocreate situations in terms of +e$ternal indicator performances, which show the desired internalbehaviour# +$ternal indicator performance means the behaviour e$hibited by the trainees as a

result of the internal change# !o see a change in the affective domain, trainers should design thelearning event in such a way that the trainees are able to epressthe affect they possess#

5#

!raining in this particular domain is the most difficult amongst the three domains# !his isbecause an +affective behaviour should be voluntary and it should not be forced or coerced# !he

trainee or learner should ma*e a voluntary choice#

6# t is important to reali=e that for every tas* that we do or e$pect trainees to do, a certainattitude is re1uired# @or e$ample, while carrying out welding operations on board as ship, it isimportant that all personnel involved follow the necessary safety precautions and stic* to theorders pertaining to welding operations on board a ship# ;ere, following the rules voluntarily isimportant, rather than mere *nowledge of the rules and regulations# 4nowledge of the ruleswould fall in the cognitive domain, while following them willingly is an affective behaviour# strainers, while conducting training for a said tas* or ob, it is very important to determine theaffective behaviour or attitude re1uired to perform the ob# !he learning situations in theaffective domain can also be bro*en down in to hierarchical levels as shown below:-

2


43/234

CA:ACTE:SATON

t is concerned "ith possessing a 0al!e syste$ that has controlled his orher .eha0io!r #or a s!##iciently long ti$e; A partic!lar Ili#e>styleB

.eco$es his?her character;

O:8ANJATON

t is concerned "ith .ringing together di##erent 0al!esD resol0ing

con#licts .et"een the$ and choosing a 0al!e syste$

7AL=N8

t is concerned "ith the "orth or 0al!e a trainee attaches to a partic!lar

pheno$enon or .eha0io!r

Fecognitionbility to reorgani=e, restate, interpret, translate, generali=e

given information#call of facts and specifics

:ESPON,N8

t re#ers to acti0e participation on the part o# the trainee;

:ECE7N8

Bombine elements to form new meaning from the situation#t re#ers to the trainees "illingness to attend to a partic!lar pheno$ena or

sti$!li;

3


44/234


45/234

''# s discussed earlier, to see a change in the affective domain, trainers should design the

learning event in such a way that the trainees are able to epress the affect they possess# ne$ample of such behaviour in each level is given as follows: -

$a% Participates in classroo! activity $&eceiving and responding%

1istens attentively

As#s relevant questions

ontributes in classroom discussion

$b% 'hows concern or the welare o others $(aluing%

As#s others i they need help.

(elps others with their problems. Than#s and commends others, when appropriate

$c% )or!ulates a rationale concerning the role o society in conserving natural

resources. $organizing%

-elates the needs o society to the conservation o resources.

States personal position relecting a reasonable balance between the needs o

society and the needs to conserve resources$d% &espects the 'ervice nor!s and eti*uettes. $characterization%

Is always on time to oice

2ears clean and perect uniorm.

$eeps his senior inormed o important developments.

3oes not tolerate any behaviour that is unbecoming o a service personnel.

'2# Psycho$otor ,o$ain; !he psychomotor domain includes physical movement,coordination, and use of the motor s*ills# Development of these s*ills re1uire practice and ismeasured in terms of speed, precision, procedures, or techni1ues in e$ecution# !he levels in thisdomain are as follows:-

(a) $p!lsion;!his is the first step# person must have an inner drive or force to

perform a particular muscular movement, which will eventually result in mastering thepsychomotor s*ill# @or e$ample, as a first step, trainees are impelled to hold and feel thepistol when they see a gunnery instructor demonstrate the procedure to fire using a pistol#

(b) $itation; !he second step in this domain is imitation, in which the trainees see ademonstration or performance and attempts to repeat it or copy the performance# !hetrainee copies the gunnery instructor in order to learn to use a pistol#

.


46/234

(c) *anip!lation; !he ne$t natural phenomena that follows imitation is manipulation#!he trainee manipulates his abilities with his physical structure, vi=#, height, weight,posture etc# @or e$ample, the trainee adusts his posture, while holding the pistol

according to his height, eye sight etc and then fires#

(d) Coordination; !his involves coordination of the muscles, body in order to get thedesired physical movement for the necessary psychomotor s*ill#

(e) Control;Boordination is followed by control of all the muscles to achieve precisebody movement and mastery of the s*ill#

(f) a.it #or$ation;Fepeated practice and continuous use of the s*ill results in masteryhabit formation# @or e$ample a person can swim as easily as he wal*s by repeatedpractice# n e$perienced driver handles his car or bus at ease on account of continuous

use of his s*ills that has resulted in habit formation#

'3# %ome e$amples of verbs or behaviour that represent the psychomotor domain are asfollows:-

Assemble, alibrate, onstruct, 3ismantle, 0astens, S#etches, 4easures, 0ires, Tunes,Operates, uts, 3rives, 5rinds, 4ends, (eats etc#

'# s nstructors, or people concerned with training, it is important to understand the threedomains and their respective levels in order to determine the area or training and the difficultylevel competency up to which you e$pect trainees to attain# t may also not be possible to

achieve the highest level of each domain very easily# @or e$ample, it is difficult to train a personto reach a level of evaluation in the cognitive domain in a short time# t must be remembered thatsome of the learning situations do not strictly fall under one domain# !here may be anencroachment of two domains and some times a learning situation may necessitate training aperson in all the three domains (though one of the three domain may be prominent)# @ore$ample, a person learning how to drive a bus, re1uires *nowledge of parts of bus and theirfunctions (cognitive domain), he needs the right attitude, concern for traffic rules, interest etc(affective domain) and the ability to move his hands and legs to control steering, bra*es andaccelerator (psychomotor domain)#

must have the *nowledgeof parts, their function,attitude, interest K abilityto move my bodycorrectly to master driving


47/234

)OO@S AN, :EE:ENCES


NO;

?'# 7sychology &f


48/234


49/234

-:TN8 O)


50/234


51/234

''# Per#or$ance O./ecti0es;!he ultimate aim of training is to help a person achievemastery of the tas* so that he or she will be able to perform it to an acceptable standard in normal

wor*ing conditions# ;owever, under training conditions, this may not be possible for thefollowing reasons:

(a) The a$o!nt o# ti$e needed to gain eperience; @ormal training maylast only for a few days, whereas the comple$ity and variations of the tas* mayre1uire a much longer period# dditional time is needed for learning to continuelong after +training has been completed#

(b) The di##ic!lty in si$!lating the real "or6ing en0iron$ent #or trainingp!rpose; !raining may be conducted at place away from the pressures of thewor*ing environment where reality is simulated for learning purposes#

%imulation can rarely represent the actual situation involving +real people, norcan it ta*e into account of factors such as fatigue, pressures of the wor*ingenvironment and the often-unpredictable nature of the persons wor*##

(c) The a0aila.ility o# $achines and syste$s #or training that tr!lyd!plicates the ones act!ally .eing !sed; !his is li*ely to be a problem whentraining is being done off the ob and therefore away from +hands on learninge$periences in the normal wor*ing environment# !his is especially is the casewhen people attend often, off the ob, training courses#

'2# !he performance obective is an important consideration when designing training #

lthough it may be setting a higher standard of performance that you intend your learners toachieve at the end their training# @or certain training situations, there can be no compromisebetween what is re1uired for performance of ob and what has to be achieved at the end oftraining# !ypical e$amples of this are found in training or emergency situations, where peoplehave to tac*le fires, engine failures, accidents, heart attac*s, plant shutdown, criminal activity,flying aircrafts, receiving messages through a BW


52/234


53/234

(a) !he basic and essential *nowledge of the concepts and principles associated withthe performance of the tas*##(b) %pecific *nowledge and s*ills needed to enable a person to perform the tas*#

(c) !he attitudes re1uired to perform the tas*#

'6# ach significant element of these categories can be identified and designated as a+specific obective# !he cumulative effect of completing all of these specific obectives is toenable a person to achieve the training obective# !he relationship between the !raining&bective and %pecific &bective is illustrated in the following figure:-

'9# !he preceding figure shows a training obective with four specific (enabling) obectives,but the actual number can be two or more# !he number will depend on the comple$ity of the

tas* to be learned, the training obective, the assumed entry behaviour of the learner, and the wayyou decide to brea* the learning event into suitable sessions#

2?# -riting O./ecti0es; &bectives have to be framed or written with great care, as it has adirect bearing on the implementation of training# !here are some synta$es or rules to be followedwhile writing obectives# t is advisable to adhere to these synta$es for writing good obectives#

2'# n obective sho!ld .e a preciseD clear state$ent o# "hat the learners "ill .e a.le todoat the end of a learning event# !his may be a +specific obective, because it is at the end of aparticular *nowledge or s*ills training session, or it can be the +training obective, defining thetas* the learner will be able to do to at the end of a learning unit#

22# @or all obectives there are three elements to be included, or at least considered: -

(a) statement of the Per#or$ance(b) !he Conditionsunder which it will be done(d) !he Standards, which will be applied#

T:ANN8

O) to train a person to operate all types small arms,when actually on the ob, all that will be used is a pistol#

%o, in the conditions it should be specified that pistol isthe only piece of e1uipment on which the learner willcarry out the performance 8 training will be based entirely onthe pistol# gain, all that may be necessary is that thetrainee should only *now to operate the pistol# %ome one elsemay service it, repair it or trace faults on it etc# gain, if therefore, to state the range of learningthat learners will have to undergo 8 by doing this, training can be geared to whatis re1uired#

(b) ToolsD E!ip$ent and Clothing; When specialtools, e1uipment and clothing have to be used, they mustbe specified# %ometimes all regulations, procedures, toolsand e1uipment should be detailed-this depends onparticular circumstances# @or e"ample, trainee will beable to e$tinguish an electrical fire using a +-extinguisher.

(c) Per#or$ance Aids and *an!als;


56/234

(whenever possible) and they must be included in the obectives# @or e"ample,trainee will be able to operate a ?? gun mounting while the ship is sailing insea state /0.

(e) SpecialD Physical or Social ,e$ands; %ome tas*s have to beperformed with the body in uncomfortable positions or after particular e$ertion#lso social factors may influence performance, such as dealing with riot, etc#;ere again such conditions should be stated# @or e"ample trainee provost sailorswill be able to control an unruly $o. in0ol0ed in arson looting and stonethro"ing

25# Ea$ples o# Standards; !he standards of performancestate the minimum level of acceptable performance the learner mustattain at the end of learning unit, course or programme# n setting

standards the following two main factors have to be considered:-

(a) Do we want the learner to perform at the standard of a competent wor*er O:

(b) Ban we accept a lower standard at the end of training, leaving, it to e$perience onthe ob to improve the standard and achieve competence

26# s far as training obectives are concerned, the answer to the above 1uestions can begiven only by the management, ob e$perts or policy ma*ers# !hey are the only ones who cansay what the minimum standard should be# s far as specific obectives are concerned, in ourtraining environment, they have been clearly laid down#

29# Types O# Standards# /enerally spea*ing standards can be classified in terms of :-

(a) ccuracy

(b) %peed

3?# Ea$ples o# Acc!racy Standards; @ollowing are some e$amples of accuracystandards>

(a) !he tas* must be completed without error#

(b) ll measurements must be within ?#?' mm#

(c)


57/234

3'# Ea$ples o# Speed Standards;@ollowing are some e$ample of %peed %tandards:-

(a) !he tas* must be completed in not more than '? minutes#

(b)


58/234


59/234

36# list of action verbs that can be used for writing obectives is given in the followingpage:-

ccept Blean Design $press "oosen Fecognise !ransfer dapt Bleanse Determine @ile


60/234

)OO@S AN, :EE:ENCES


NO;

?'# Burriculum development andeducational technology

- '.6

?2# !a$onomy nd ducational&bectives

0enamin % 0loom ndDavid F 4rothwol

'99

?


61/234


62/234

*AH*S O TEACN8

'# *ai$s o# Teaching;-ccording to W#< Fyburn G !o teach we must use e$periencealready gained as a starting point of our wor*J# Bertain principles have been laid down forteaching# !hey are the guidelines for the teachers# !he ma$ims of teaching are fundamentalprinciples, which play vital role in ensuring the logical development of the course content to the

trainees in an easily assimilable manner# !he main aim of the ma$ims is that the teaching shouldbe effective and successful# !hese ma$ims have been laid down based on the deep and diversee$periences of educationists and philosophers# !hese


63/234


64/234

then the attention should be diverted to the whole# When we have to prove that all the three anglesof a triangle are e1ual to two right angles, we must first draw up a triangle and then prove bymeasuring all the three angles that the three angles are e1ual to two right angles# @or analy=ing the

angles we should measure the angles and then revert bac* to the triangle to prove that its threeangles are e1ual to two right angles# fter synthesis we should again proceed to analysis and againto synthesis# !his cycle should go on and on#

'2#


65/234

CAPTE: 1;

*OT7ATON

O)


66/234

*OT7ATON

'# s instructors, we would often find that while we are interested to teach or impartinstructions, the trainees are not interested to learn# Bonsider the following situations in which aninstructor very often finds his trainees indulging in:-

(a)


67/234

(a) *oti0ation is an internal #eeling;


68/234


69/234

this need in their middle age while some of the people never attain# &ne of the important aspectsof self-actuali=ation is freedom, vi=#, freedom from cultural and self-imposed conditions andrestraints# !he self-actuali=ing person wants to be free from restraints created by society# t is

important to note that a person who has attained self-actuali=ation does not bother or worry abouthis survival needs# ll the other lower order needs become very insignificant to him# t does notmean that a person who attains self-actuali=ation will not perform or wor*# &n the contrary, itmeans that a person who attains self-actuali=ation is self-motivated to carry out even the mostdifficult of the tas*sobs#

'3# n interesting phenomena that the


70/234

LO-

(b) $pectancy @unction

(c) ncentive @unction

(d) Disciplinary @unction

'5# A:O=SAL =NCTON; n the beginning of a lecture or lesson the students arealways switched off# !his is due to the fact that every human being is troubled by his ownpersonal problems and ta*es some time to get out of them# !he trainees have a tendency to *eepthin*ing about these personal problems and other interestsdistractions# ccording topsychologists, this is the state of deep sleep# !herefore, an instructor has to use novel techni1uesto stimulate the interest of the trainees by giving them suitable e$amples and triggering of thelearning process# gain it must be remembered that in classroom teaching, the students resort todaydreaming or again getting lost into a thought process of their old problems# !herefore, the

instructor has to ma*e his tal* interesting, by reducing monotony to a minimum# !his can bedone by giving good e$amples, modulating the voice appropriately to ma*e an impressive startto the lecture, ma*e the narration effective, bring in relevant 1uotes, stories or even o*es andthereby wa*eup the trainees from their deep sleep (or slumber)#

'6# !he behavioral efficiency of a class and the role of arousal function is depicted in thegraph shown below:

OPT*AL LE7EL

LE7EL O A:O=SAL

ncreasing AlertnessD

nterestD Positi0e E$otion

ncreasing E$otional

,ist!r.ancesD Aniety

7&C! &@ W4C/

)

E

A

7

O

=

:

A

L

E

C

N

C

5?


71/234

'9# !he instructors should try to *eep the graph within the shaded portion at all times#2?# EHPECTANC =NCTON; t is a momentary belief that a particular outcomewill follow a particular act# !he students should be able to readily observe the result of theirlearning# !he obectives being defined in behavioral terms could be easily identified ase$pectations# !o impart instructions, an instructor should accordingly consider the studentse$pectations and values# part from ma*ing the obectives clear to the trainees beforecommencement of every learning eventlecturelesson, instructors should also resort to as*ingand clarifying the trainees e$pectations before the commencement of a course# !hesee$pectations should be shared amongst the entire faculty, so that all the instructors understandand act according to the e$pectations of the class# ( word of caution is that the faculty membersneed not go out of their way to satisfy the e$pectations of the trainees if they are beyond the

scope of the course syllabi or curriculum)#

2'# NCENT7E =NCTON; t is a function of the instructor to provideincentives to students for tas*s well done, in such a way, which stimulates further interest#/iving rewards, praise, and holding competitions etc#, are the techni1ues for the said purpose#7raising or giving reward not only boosts the ego of the students but at the same time motivatesthem to improve in their studies# ;olding of competitions by giving proect wor*, syndicatemar*s etc will generate enthusiasm# n Cavy, other than classroom incentives given byinstructors, there is an inbuilt system of giving incentives to trainees by way of awarding +gain inseniority in their ran* for their good performance in the courses#

22# ,SCPLNA: =NCTON; !his is the ultimate and the last step to be ta*en bythe instructor when all other efforts to motivate the students have failed# t may also be used as awarning to other trainees in a class# good instructor will not use this function often#

23# n instructor has to, therefore, ma*e an appropriate use of the above motivationaltechni1ues in order to generate and motivate interest in his class and, thereby, ensure effectivelearning#

2# !a*ing into account the motivational function of an instructor and also various theories ofmotivation, the


72/234

&utcome, ? !rainers Fesponses (!F) "earners Fesponses ("F)

or ? !F "F (7roduct of the two)2# Cow let us loo* at the grid whose Q and I a$is vi= !F and "F# /rid has been ta*en

arbitrarily from ' to on both the a$is# ncreasing number indicates increasing EFesponses of!rainer as well as "earner# !he origin of the grid is not (?,?) but (',') since by virtue of a personcoming for a training session, some learning is bound to ta*e place#

*OT7ATON 8:,

? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ???

??

O O O O O O OO O O O O O OO O O O O O O

O O O O O O OO O

4

9

1(

25

=EEN )EE APP:OAC

W"D%;FA0

A!&7(7CB")

IFTray Eercises

-hat t s

+ form of training which attempts to stimulate the wor*ing situation bysetting the trainee realistic tas*s# !he trainees are presented with papers such asletters and memos, placed in the +in bas*et or +in tray to which they respondindividually# !he results of the e$ercise are then analysed, discussed andassessed on the basis of the decisions made#

*ain =ses

7roblem solving# Development of analytical s*ills# @or gaining confidence in decision ma*ing# !ransfer of theory learned to practical#

Ad0antages

7rovides concrete subects for practical wor* and discussion opportunities foractive participation#

,isad0antages

!ime consuming to produce# %ometimes difficult to achieve + real life situations#

*ethod Lect!re

9


97/234

-hat t s

straight tal* or e$position, possibly using visual or other aids, but withoutgroup participation other than at the conclusion#

*ain =ses

@or transmission of facts and information which may be classified as of+interest value only and which the learners would not be e$pected toremember in full#

Ad0antages

large amount of material can be covered in a relatively short time# &ne lecturer, virtually no limits, can handle a large number of learners# Bontent and se1uence under the learners complete control#

*ethod Lect!re %ContdM&

,isad0antages

"ac* of learner activity they are passive with little or no opportunity forparticipation#

4nowledge information imparted by tal*ing is not easily memorable#

!he lecturer has little or no immediate feedbac* from the learners# +%aturation+ point is reached relatively 1uic*ly# !he learners attention can be easily distracted#

*ethod Lesson

-hat t s

+ form of instruction incorporating a number of instructional techni1uesdesigned to ensure the participation of the learning group in reaching thespecified behavioural obectives# !his is fre1uently achieved by the use of1uestion and answer#

*ain =ses ll types of *nowledge learning# %ome s*ills learning# "earning procedures#

Ad0antages

Blose contact between the direct trainer and learner# "earners can receive individual attention# &pportunity to ma$imi=e group activity#

!rainer can receive immediate feedbac*# Bhange in level and pace of training can be made 1uic*ly#

,isad0antages


98/234

*ethod Pro/ect

-hat t s

+ form of e$ercise leading to the accomplishment, often within a fi$ed time,of a definite tas*, e#g#, a report containing recommendations on a statedproblem, or the design and manufacture of e1uipment to a given specification#

*ain =sesDevelopment of s*ills# !ransfer of off-ob learning to real situation#

Ad0antages

&nus of learning is put on the learners shoulders# %timulates interest and creativity# Ban involve application of a range of s*ills self pacing# Ban be wor*ed by the learner at convenient times#

nd product may have a practical use#

*ethod Pro/ect %ContdM&

,isad0antages

Ceeds very careful control by the trainer#


99/234


100/234


101/234

CAPTE: 14;

LECT=:E AN, LESSON *ETO,

O)


102/234

LECT=:E *ETO,

'# "ecture is a straight tal* or verbal e$position using visual or other aids but withouttrainee participation other than through 1uestions at the end of the class# t is used e$cessively inschool and Aniversity teaching where the students are large and it is not possible to divide them

into smaller groups# t is particularly useful to inform students of general developments andapprise them and educate them on subects of topical interest# %ubects such as ;istory,%ociology, Bivics and 7olitical %cience etc could be easily taught by adopting this method#

2# "ecture can be divided into four phases:-

(a) Planning; n this phase the teacher has the plan for the lecture dependingupon the audience it is meant for# !he following are the points to be followedwhile planning:-

(i) 7repare lecture notes#

(ii) 7repare the training aids if re1uired#

(iii) 7repare 1uestionnaires#

(iv) Write down the lecture and rehearse#

'?2


103/234

(b) -ar$ =p Phase; !his is the introductory part of the lecture and is servedto generate sufficient interest amongst the audience on the subect# !he followingshould be the order:-

(i) nnounce the theme#

(ii) Blarify the obective for giving a strong sense of direction#

(iii) nalyses the level of audience, start at the lowest level#

(c) ,e0elop$ent Phase; !his is the main body of the lecture# n this phase thesubect of the lecture is developed in a logical and interesting manner:-

(i) Develop the lecture in logical se1uence#

(ii) stablish the ideas#

(iii) Ase training aids as re1uiredconsidered necessary#

(d) Consolidation? S!$$ary Phase; !his is the phase for summing up the lectureand emphasi=ing important points where necessary# !his is important as there is noprovision for feedbac* in this method# !he following are the steps involved:-

(i) %um up the whole session by relating all elements in your lecture#( diagram or a chart, if could be used, would be the best way to

summarise the lecture)#

(ii) s* the audience to clear any doubts, if any#

Ad0antages

3# !he main advantages of this method are that it is:-

(a) Econo$ical; t can be used to teach a large audience with hardly anye$penditure on training aids and other accessories#

(b) *oti0ating; !he theme of the lecture could serve to motivate trainees#

(c) =se#!l #or Eplaining Principles; 7rinciples could be taught easily byadopting this method of instruction#

(d) =se#!l #or ntrod!cing topics; "ecture method can be used tointroduce topics and pave the way for detailed e$planation subse1uently#

'?3


104/234


105/234

5# !here are four stages of development of lesson method of instruction as e$plained in thesucceeding paragraphs#

6# ntrod!ction; !his is the first phase of the lesson method of instruction and should beprogrammed according to the entry behaviour of the students# !he lesson should only start afterascertaining the entry behaviour of the class by as*ing 1uestions and generating discussions# !heobectives of the lesson should be understood before developing the lesson# !his will help thestudents in *nowing what e$actly is desired from them on completion of the particular class andwill, therefore, elicit ma$imum co-operation from the class# ntroduction should also cover therelevance of the subect being taught and its use in the life of the learner which will in turnmotivate him to learn better# n appropriate e$ample or historical perspective often help tolocate the topic#

9# ,e0elop$ent; !his is the second and most important phase of the lesson method of

instruction# !he lesson should be developed with the help of demonstration wherever possible#!he leading 1uestions should be put on the students so that they are allowed to thin* and ta*eactive participation in classroom activities# /roup discussion of short duration should beencouraged to enable participation by all students# !his will help the learner to come out of hisshell and create confidence in him# 7roper training aids should be used for illustrating importantpoints# !his will brea*s the monotony of the classroom instructions and foster faster learning#

'?# Consolidation; n this, the teacher summari=es the entire proceedings of the class#!his is done at the end of each lesson# fter summari=ing, the teacher should evaluate thestudents by as*ing proper 1uestions# !his will enable the teacher to *now whether the learner hasachieved all the obectives set by him at the beginning of the lesion# n case the obectives are not

met in full, the teacher may reinforce those points which were not clear to the students#

''# ollo" =p# !his is the last phase of the lesson method of instruction# n this studentsare given home assignments# !hese assignments can be in the form of 1uestions, proectsdepending upon the subect matters# !he instructor should identify the wea*er students in theclass and give them personal attention# !he instructors should also cater for the individualdifferences of trainees and try to bridge the gap created by culture, language and educationalbac*grounds#

'2# Lesson Plan# lesson method of instruction should always be accompanied by adocument called the E"esson 7lan# !he activities of the teacher and the learner are preplanned

and indicated in this document containing the guidelines for the teacher on the strategy to befollowed, the various resources and training aids available and the time at his disposal# lessonplan helps the instructor in many ways such as :-

(a) t motivates the instructor to ta*e a class properly as he is well e1uipped andguided at every stage#(b) t gives proper emphasis to various parts of the lesson#(c) ;elps the instructor to chec* coverage of essential information#

'?.


106/234

(d) ;elps the instructor to use various training aids effectively at the right timeand at the right place to emphasis a particular point#(e) ;elps the instructor to as* the right 1uestion at the right time#

(f) ;elps him to stay on schedule#


107/234

CAPTE: 15;

COACN8

O)


108/234

COACN8

'# We have referred to the process of helping people to learn, and a lot of training isindividual#


109/234

.# tas* is an element of wor* with a clearly defined beginning, leading to a specific result#;ere are some e$amples of tas*s :

(a) Bhanging a car wheel

(b)


110/234

6# !he person can perform most of the tas*s, and is competent and does notre1uire training for these# ;owever, some of the flowers shown above

represent the following :-

(a) new tas* to the person, which he or she will have tolearn#

(b) tas* which has a problem and the person who will needhelp to learns how to do it better#

(c) tas* that is especially important and is a target for the person toachieve competence#

9# ach tas* will have a clear beginning and an end# tas* is wor* leading to a +specificresult# %o for every flower included in the bo$ shown in the figure, there must be some *ind ofspecific result# &ne must therefore be able to dermine for each flower or tas* what tas*, whatspecific result the trainee needs to achieve, and what standards to use to assess the performance#


111/234

sound reason for as*ing people to learn tas*s, and to ensure that they have enoughopportunities to learn how# n a training establishment or school tas*s are li*ely tobe either planned within the design of a course, or provided to help individual

trainees cope with learning difficulties#

'2# nother factor that one has to consider as a trainer is, if the tas* to be trainedis a Feproductive !as* or a 7roductive tas*# Feproductive tas*s are those that arealways performed in the same way# !here is one set procedure to perform these tas*sand the trainee has to learn that set procedure# s a trainer we must realise that for a reproductivetas* the order in which the four ways of learning influence the learning of anyreproductive tas* is mitation, 0eing !old,!rialKrror and !hin*ing#

'3# &n the other hand, a 7roductive

tas* can be performed in any number ofways# %uch tas*s re1uire the trainee toac1uire *nowledge and use it to plan anddecide# ach performance of the tas* or method is li*ely to be different#!here is an element of creativitiy in reproductive tas*s# lso the trainee has to developcompetence by performing the tas* in many different situations# !he order in which the fourways of learning influence the learning of any productive tas* is !hin*ing, !rial andrror,mitation, and 0eing !old#

'.# With large class si=es and fre1uent changes of trainer, it may be difficult to ensure a closefriendly understanding with trainees, such that they feel to see* personal help with their

problems# t is also often difficult to create practical conditions closely matching the realwor*place# t may therefore be more difficult to include tas*-related training in a course#;owever, unless you do so, wor*-based trainers will ta*e over their training needs#

'# !he wor*place is more li*ely to provide opportunities for tas*-related training# Lobschange, and so does the wor* people do# !his will result in new tas*s emerging, new problemsbesides e$isting ones, and new targets being set due to changing priorities# !his creates a generaland continuous need for learning, most of which people can do for themselves without formaltraining# ;owever, there will be other occasions which need on ob coaching# @or e$ample to :

(a) identify tas*s clearly

(b) set standards of performance(c) train members of staff to coach(d) arrange time and resources for coaching

'5# !he wor*place can provide ideal opportunities for training# 7eople can learn by doingtas*s there, using the actual systems and e1uipment# lso most importantly, recognised e$pertscan supervise their learning, and provide coaching as it is needed# Boaching is therfore animportant method of instruction which we use almost on a day to day basis in our wor* places#

'''


112/234

TAS@

T:ANE:

T:ANEE

COACN8 A :EP:O,=CT7E TAS@

'6# @or coaching a reproductive tas*, the trainer must first study the tas* and brea* it downinto small steps# trainer should then follow the following se1uence:-

(a) E$plain :- $plain the tas* to be performed#(b) ,emonstrat e:- Demonstrate the tas* by giving a model

performance of the tas*#(c) mitate:- s* or allow the trainees to imitate the performance#(d) Practice:- /ive sufficient time and opportunitity for the trainees

to practice the performance of the tas* on their own#(e) Assess:- ssess the performance of the trainees and if re1uired

review and correct the mista*es#

'9# !he entire se1uence can be remembered by the acronym short form E,PA;

2?# While coaching a reproductive tas*, as a trainer you have the necessary e$pertise and canadopt a trainer-centered approach to coaching as shown below:-

2'# @or a reproductive tas* a coaching sessision should be adopted by applying the followingframewor* (!his framewor* constitutes a "earning Anit in training argonterms):-

''2


113/234

(a) O./ecti0e; s a trainer, you should be able to state clearly the performancere1uired by the trainee and describe where the tas* will be done and under whatconditions and state the standard of performance# !he trainee should be clearly told about

the obective# !he more clearly defined and e$plicit the obective, the easier will be thecoaching session# !he trainee has a clear target to aim for and *nows the standard ofperformance re1uired#

(b) Entry )eha0io!r; !he trainee will bring to the coaching session manycomple$ and inter-related factors that will influence his or her learning# @or e$ample

(i) Does the trainee want to learn the tas*(ii) Does the trainee *now you(iii) What is your status relative to the trainees

(iv) re you a recogni=ed +master performer of the tas*(iv) s the tas* a realistic one for the trainee to learn and does it fit comfortablywith the rest of the trainees repretoire of tas*

(v) What is the trainees li*ely reaction to the trainer-centred approach youmay plan to use#

(c) Learning E0ent; !his is li*ely to be based on the trainer-centred approachbecause the tas* is reproductive and the trainee has to learn to imitate or copy a clearlydefined performance# 0ecause the tas* being taught is reproductive the coaching tendsto be reproductive# !he following procedure is a good way to plan and implement suchlearning#

(i) a0e E0erything :eady; ;ave all materials, tools andpaperwor* out in the correct place, and put all instructional aidswithin easy reach#

(ii) Esta.lish a Contact; /ain the attention of thetrainee before beginning the instruction#

(iii) ntrod!ce the tas6; 0riefly introduce the tas*,giving its name, purpose and relevance to other tas*s and the wor* ingeneral# %tate the obective#

(iv) ,e$onstrate; 7lace the trainee so that he or shehas the same view as you# mphasise handmovements# Do the s*ill elements of the tas*sseveral times until the trainess seems tounderstand# Do not e$plain at this stage, let the trainee concentrateon what is being done#

''3


114/234

(vi) ,escri.e the Senses =sed; 7oint out any senses of particularimportance- sight, hearing, feeling, etc#

(vii) As6 the Trainee to Eplain; !o chec* the success of the demonstrationand e$planation, as* the trainee to name in order the points that have beenemphasised# Borrect if there are any errors and repeat several times to ensuremastery#

(viii) As6 the Trainee to Try; !he trainee should e$plain whathe or she is doing# ncourage trainee to spot his or her ownmista*es# Fepeat to ensure there are errors#

(i$) Let the Trainee Practice; llow the trainee to practice

with the minimum of supervision, Bhec* fre1uently toensure correct procedure#

(i$) ,e$onstrate Target Ti$e; s the traineeapproaches mastery of the tas*, introduce the targettime if appropriate to the tas*# Demonstrate, *eepingto the target time#

($) :e>Chec6; llow the trainee to practice, ensuringcorrect mastery within the target time# Watch out for anyproblem areas n performance#

($i) Lin6 FOn; $plain and demonstrate, where appropriate, how masteryof this tas* will enable the trainee to learn other tas*s as part of an overall trainingprogramme#

''


115/234

($ii) Per#or$ance Assess$ent; With a reproductivetas*, and where there are clearly defined performancestandard to achieve, the performance assessment can be

fairly difficult# Depending on the tas*, performancemeasures can be either based on the +process of performingthe tas*, or the +product of what is achieved# Processassess$ent is usually based on some form of chec*listdeveloped from analysis of the tas*# t draws attention to important proceduraldetails of performance and can be used by either the trainer, another person in asupervisory role, or by the trainee# Prod!ct assess$entis concerned with what isproduced as a result of performing the tas*# !his usually something physical(e#g# a piece of woodwor*, or a completed form) and is often fairly easy tomeasure and assess# %ome tas*s re1uire careful assessment of process thanproduct# &ne of the advantages of coaching is that it is usually possible to do

both, and often assessment becomes an integral part of the coaching session#

($iii) nother feature of performance assessment that is applied to all coachingsessions is the e$tent to which the trainee accepts responsibility for his or her ownperformance assessment# f assessment is seen as achieving standards ofperfomance set by somebody elese (e#g# a %upervisor or !rainee) then once atarget has been achieved it cannot easily be repeated# &n the other hand ifassessment is the responsibility of the trainee it becomes continuous and anintegral part of performing the tas*# !wo phrases serve to describe this aspect ofperformance assessment:

($iv) or$ati0e assess$ent; Which involves the trainee and serves to providenon threatening feedbac* about performance# t is particularly suitable for +trialand error learning, both during coaching sessions and on occasions when thetrainee is performing the tas* under normal wor*ing conditions#

($v) S!$$ati0e assess$ent;!his is where the obective for the tas* defines aclear standard of performance that must be achieved# further re1uirement isthat the trainees performance is assessed against the obective to determinewhether or not the trainee is capable of performing the tas*# n e$ample of thisform of assessment is the driving test#

COACN8 A P:O,=CT7E TAS@

'9# ;ere you may or may not have full mastery of the tas* yourself, but if not, there areothers who can act as +resource people# Iou can adpot a trainee>centred approach to the

''.


116/234

coaching session, re1uiring the trainee to contribute to planning the learning as illustratedbelow:-

2?# @or coaching a productive tas*, the following framewor* is usually adopted:-

(a) O./ecti0e; 0ecause the tas* is productive it might be difficult to determine aprecise obective# !his will depend on the conte$t in which the tas* is being learned#@ollowing are some e$amples to illustrate:

(i) !he trainee might be newly appointed and learning a tas* performed by amember of the wor*ing group# n obective would therefore be fairly easy todefine#

(ii) !he tas* might be a new one with no performance criteria# t might

therefore be inappropriate to set rigid obective that do not ta*e account of wor*-related factors that might only materialise during successive performances of thetas*#

(iii) !he tas* might be considered as a problem for the particular trainee# !hetrainee might be an established member of the wor*ing group and the coachingsessions are designed to help the trainee improve performance# ny improvementwill help and it would be unrealistic to set what might be unattainable obectives#

(iv) !he final e$ample is one where the tas* is given to a person fordevelopment purposes# !he obective might include a phrase such as +to develop

a new appraisal system and the obvious challenge is to learn about appraisalsystems and to develop one for a particular application# /iven a highly motivatedperson, no further statement of obective is needed# !he danger of listinge$amples such as those is that they may lead to the conclusion that for productivetas*s no obective or should be stated# Bertainly, it is more difficult to fi$ a clearobective for a productive tas* for a reproductive one, but most tas*s can andshould be described in performance terms#

!%4

!FC

!FCF

''


117/234

(b) Entry )eha0io!r;


118/234

(d) Per#or$ance Assess$ent; !his will depend on the clarity with which theobective was set# f this was specific and unambiguous it should be possible to establishrealistic and measurable performance criteria# &ften this will not be possible and may be

inappropriate# !he points made earlier regarding process and product, and formative andsummative measures of assessment, still apply# !he emphasis should be towardsformative assessment introduced early in the learning event, and continued throughoutthe coaching session# t is also worth noting that with a truly productive tas* there maybe no absolute standard of performance and that learning continues long after satisfactorytas* performance has been attained and coaching activities completed#

T:ANE:BS :ELATONSP -T TE T:ANEE

2'# Boaching a person to learn a new tas*, or helping some body improve their performance

by one-to-one learning demands a lot from a trainer# s we said earlier, coaching can often behighly productive# Ase the four ways of learning sensitively and you will improve yourrelationshp with a trainee# nother way to improve it is through your behaviour# ;ere are threee$amples of helpful behaviour :

(a) S!pporting; s an instructor, you accept what the traineesuggests and support their proposals and decisions#

(b) )!ilding; !he trainee proposes an idea and you as aninstructor build on it, developing and adding value to the idea#

(c) 8i0ing in#or$ation; s an instructor, you provide informationwhich helps the trainee to perform the tas*#

22# nstructors often do not e$hibit positive behaviour# %uch behaviour can demotivate thetrainee in a coaching session#;ere are some e$amples of bad behaviour:-

(a) ,isagreeing; s instructor, you criticise thetrainees proposals#

(b) Stating ,i##ic!lty; nstructors e$plainwhy the trainees proposals would not wor*#

(c) :epetition o# sel#; s instructor, you constantly return to yourown point of view, imposing your ideas and decisions on thetrainee# !his should never be done especially in a coaching sessionfor a productive tas*#

23# chec* list for coaching is given in the subse1uent pages#

''6


119/234

CEC@LST O: COACN8

Planning

- dentify tas* - Bonsider people doing the tas*- Decide the +best way to perform the tas*- nalyse the tas* - %pecify obective to be achieved- Bonsider the wor*ing environment- dentify productive and reproductive elements

- Describe reproductive procedures- dentify tas* related behaviours- Bonsider trainees entry behaviour- 7repare performance aids- Write training obective- %pecify performance assessment- Decide time available- Decide se1uence

ntrod!ction

- /ain attention and rapport- $plain purpose and reason for learning tas*- %tate !raining obective- Bhec* entry behaviour - $plain participation and responsibilities for learning event- $plain how time is to be used- Describe tas* and safety considerations

,e0elop$ent

- Describe the tas* within conte$t of wor*ingenvironment

- dentift reproductive and productive elements

- 7erform the tas* where possible- Demonstrate and e$plain reproductive elements

''9


120/234

- ssist trainee to practice reproductive elements- Bhec* performance of reproductive elements with trainee performing and

e$plaining actions

- nsure mastery of reproductive elements- $plain productive elements- llow trainee to thin* about the practice of productive elements- Bhec* understanding- 7ractice performance of whole tas*- Borrect errors

End

- Festate purpose and reason for performing tas*- Festate training obective- nvite 1uestions

- Barry out performance assessment- /ive trainee feedbac* on performance- !han* the trainee- 7rovide remedial training where necessary- 7rovide further opportunities for practice

)OO@S AN, :EE:ENCES

CAPTE: 1(;


NO;

?'# !he Braft &f !eaching mri* %ingh 6.9?2# Feadings n ducational !echnology nand Fao ?33

'2?


121/234


122/234

'# ,e#inition; Tuestioning !echni1ue is the method of as*ing 1uestions to the trainees inthe classroom# t has got a special relevance in the "esson


123/234

@or+"ample> +2hich method o instruction is best suited to train jobs li#e handling ocomplicated radio equipment, guided practice method or coaching method!#

# *odi#ied O0erhead !estions; %uch1uestions are addressed to the entire class# %ometime is given to trainees to thin*# @inally one of them is named and as*ed# &nly this type to bepracticed by the instructors#

@or +"ample> !o the entire class, address the 1uestion by as*ing> G 2hy are theengines'rudders o the ship tuned o when diving operations commence8 > give a pause,have glance at each of the faces of trainees in front of you, then point out the trainee (sayFaesh) and as* him, +-ajesh what is the answer7!

5# :elay?:e"orded !estions; When a trainee as*s the instructor a 1uestion, theinstructor can reword it and relay it to the class# !his would stimulate the minds of other trainees

also# %ometimes, this is also done if other trainees do not understand a trainees 1uestionproperly# !his is often used in lesson method#

@or+"ample> a trainee as*s a 1uestion, Gwhy is the rile!s saety liver positioned in 9S!and then carried8, the instructor $ay re"ord and relay to the classas> Gwhy is itimportant to put the saety liver o rile to 9S! position beore carrying a rile rom oneplace to another#J

6# !he relayreworded 1uestioning techni1ue should however not be used to avoidresponding to a 1uestion for which the instructor does not *now the answer# n such cases, theinstructor should politely say , G shall refer and get bac* to youJ#

9# :e0erse !estions; t is a !eaching !echni1ue# When a trainee as*s a 1uestion theinstructor replies by as*ing another 1uestion#

@or+"ample> a trainee as*s, G5eographically, where is the city o Sydney located, in thenorthern hemisphere or the southern hemisphereJ nstructor adopts a reverse1uestioning techni1ue by as*ing G5eographically, where is Australia located, in thenorthern hemisphere or the southern hemisphereJ

'?# :hetoric !estions; t is a 1uestion, which is as

Niett Docket

Documents

Transcript of Niett Docket