Nielsen 2009 Ancestors at War

8/3/2019 Nielsen 2009 Ancestors at War

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8

Ancestors at WarMeaningul Confict and Social Processin the South Andes

Axel E. Nielsen

War as PracticeIt is wiely reognize tht the time eore the Inks, known s the

Regionl Developments Perio (or RDP, ad 115), ws hr-

terize y enemi wrre throughout the Anes. Arheologil t

rom the Cirumpun rethe Anes o northwestern Argentin,

northern Chile, n southwestern Bolivi (g. .1)inite tht the

onits roke out roun ad 1 n ontinue until the Ink expn-

sion in the 1s. Tis phenomenon seems to e temporlly orrelte

with the worst perio o long-term yle o rought tht ete the

Anen highlns (Tompson et l. 195), initing tht srity owter-relte resoures ws one onition unerlying these onront-

tions (Nielsen 1).

Conits must hve eete multiple n signint hnges in the

soieties involve. In the Cirumpun re, or exmple, the RDP is

ssoite with rpi popultion ggregtion, the emergene o well-

ene settlement hierrhies, n the evelopment o regionlly is-

tintive mteril ulture orms (e.g., textile n ermi styles, uril

ptterns, n omesti rhiteture), initing tht new politil

orer ws orn out o this time o turmoil. Few rheologists, how-

ever, hve nlyze in etil how wr n soiopolitil hnge relte

to eh other, n when they hve one suh nlysis, they hve one

it mostly on the sis o utilitrin ssumptions onerning how rme

onits universlly relte to soiopolitil phenomen, suh s prestige

umultion, territoril expnsion, or surplus pproprition mong

hieom soieties (Crneiro 191; Remon 199).

Consier the se o the Centrl Anen Wnkpeople o the

upper Mntrowho re presente s prigm o the evolutionry

08 Nielsen Ch 8.indd 218 6/5/09 1:24:30 AM


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Anestors t Wr 19

limittions o militry-se hieoms in imothy Erles (1997) essy

How Chiefs Come to Power. Aoring to the uthor, Wnk hieoms

were wekly institutionlize (9), never evolve into lrge, entrl-

ize polities, n lke istint elite lss. Wr hies (cinchekona)

rose to power y oering protetion to their ommunities, ut ile

to orgnize stle regionl systems euse they were unle to evelop

strong nnil se or their leership ue to environmentl on-

strints on intensive griulture, s well s their lk o n elorte

ruling ieology mterilize in wys tht llowe ontrol through

linkge with the politil eonomy (19).

8.1. South Anen regions mentione in the text.



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220 Axel E. Nielsen

Some o Erles oservtions regring the Wnk, like their rel-

tively low levels o politil entrliztion n onspiuous onsump-

tion, seem to pply to mny pre-Ink soieties o the Cirumpun re

n o the south Anes in generl t this time. Inste o onstruing

these oserve hrteristis s politil ilure o leers, however,

one oul interpret them s testimonies o very suessul politil

projetut lerly ierent rom the Polynesin onetht mnge

to hol together very lrge ommunities (o thousns) uring more

thn entury o enemi violene, with rther eglitrin istriu-

tion o resoures n power. Moreover, ethnohistory hs emonstrte

tht the politil orer tht the Europens oun in the sixteenth en-

tury reste on omplex n strong institutionl se, supporte y n

elorte osmology, whose roots n e rheologilly tre k

or millenni in Anen history (e.g., Murr 1975; Pltt 197; Zuiem

199). Inee, these roots were so strong tht elements o this ieology

n institutionl rmework hve resiste more thn ve enturies o

imperil intervention in some rurl res.

We nnot explin the role o rme onits in the emergene o

this unique politil orer, however, i we reducewrre to mehni-

l response to environmentl stress (i.e., n exerte orm o om-petition) or n ggrnizing strtegy implemente y wr leers lone

in ulturl n soil vuum. Prtie entils meningul tion n

multiple genies. A prtie pproh to onit is neessryrst,

euse people onstrue their gols n projets, experiene their on-

itions, n ssess lterntive ourses o tion (ghting mongst them)

within n inherite rmework o representtions n ispositions; n

seon, euse wr lwys involves negotition, not only etween ene-

mies, ut mong host o knowlegele tors (humn n nonhu-

mn) tht were prt o those ommunities (Ltour 5). In the nientAnes, these inlue, or exmple, live people n nestors; rmers,

pstorlists, n rt speilists; wrriors, nimls, mountin spirits,

n other eities; n men n women, uthorities, n other memers

o peoples linege. Neither wr nor its reltion to ny other phenom-

en (e.g., wether, politis, or the eonomy) n e unerstoo with-

out tking into ount these two ts. Moreover, sine (1) the ppro-

prition o nything s resoure ( neessry onition or tion) y

someone presupposes some orm o (onsious or emoie) interpre-



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Anestors t Wr 1

ttion n () these rmeworks n ssoite ispositions re lwys

reproue n onteste in prtie, it ollows tht the stuy o ul-

turl sujetivities n power re inseprle prts o single projet.

Te gol o suh n enevor woul e to unerstn how ulturl,

prtil logis (sensu Bourieu 19) n power reltions onstitute

eh other through the prtie o wr in spei historil settings.

Te Semantics o Confict in Materiality

As rgue in the introution to this volume, rheologil stu-

ies o wr re urrently ominte y mterilist pproh. Cultur-

lly spei pereptions n ispositions re o little explntory vlue

when using this pproh euse they re unerstoo s purely mentl

n ritrry phenomen, whose roots n internl workings lie out-

sie o wht people relly o n the mterility o this oing. Tis on-

eption is the mirror imge o the textul moel o ulture, se on

Sssuren semiology tht trets mteril ulture n tions s signiers

o ies, oring to reltionship or oe whih is essentilly ri-

trry. Whether this ielist oneption is expliitly presente (e.g., rti-

ts s text [Hoer 1991]) or is ue s orm o mterilism (e.g.,

rtits s mteriliztions o impliitly mentl ieologies (DeMrriset l. 199]), it is not very promising or rheology, sine it ples the

usl powers wy rom wht we stuy (mteril rrngements n,

inerentilly, the ts tht proue them) n in purely ritrry rel-

tion with it. It is not surprising tht mny people resist the notion tht

something s serious s wr nees to e expline y some inessile

ulturl onvention (e.g., Ferguson 1:1).

In the lst ew yers, however, some sholrs hve pointe out tht

the semiotis o Chrles Peire is etter heuristi moel to tret the

meningul spets o prtie (e.g., Gottiener 1995; Kene 5; Pr-mentier 1997; Preuel ). Peire oneive o semiosis s trii

proess tht relte sign (representamen), n ojet eing represente,

n n interprettion (interpretant), or eet o the sign on n inter-

preter. Anything ( qulity, n ojet, n tion, n ie, lw) n e

signsomething whih stns to someoy or something in some

respet or pity (Nth 199:)i it eomes prt o this pro-

ess, n inee most things o (Mroti :75). Tree spets o

Peires moel re relevnt here. First, y oneiving o semiosis s



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222 Axel E. Nielsen

tri tht nnot e reue to pirs, it situtes every t o represen-

ttion in reltion to spei tors. Te signition o prtie n

only e unerstoo with reerene to prtiulr interpretnts who re

ete y it.

Seon, the reltionship etween representmen n ojet is not

lwys ritrry n intentionl, s in lnguge. Peires unmentl

lssition o these reltionships in ions, inexes, n symols se

on shre qulities, tul onnetion, n onvention, respetively,

tkes into ount wie rnge o nonritrry wys (or grounds) in

whih prties re potentilly meningul, justiying the inorportion

o mteril ttriutes tht rheologists ommonly reor (e.g., sptil

n orml reltionships, rtit untion, rw mteril, n tehnil

trits) when pprohing the signine o pst prties. It simultne-

ously llows or numer o prgmti, emoie, ple, n oje-

tie semnti onnetions tht re not neessrily meite y ies,

mentl oes, or intentionlity (. Bourieu 1977). In this pper, the

terms mening n signine will e use in this prtil sense.

Tir, Peires moel tkes into ount the tive role tht mteril

ulture n ssume in the semioti proess, not only s pssive reipi-

ents o menings ritrrily given to them y people, ut s motors osignitionPeires notion o the ynmi ojet s the Relity

whih y some mens ontrives to etermine the Sign or its Represen-

ttion (in Nth 199:). When pplie to mteril entities, this ie

lls lose to the notion o ojet geny tht thrives in the urrent

literture on mterility (e.g., Bost 1997; Meskell ; Wlker, this

volume; . Gell 199; Ltour 199). It is lso importnt or situting

onit in historil ontext. Mterils rry with them memory

o the pst in whih they prtiipte, memory tht shpes the urther

signine tht they or their uses my quire in new ontexts.Using these ies s kgroun, in the rst prt o this hpter we

will explore some menings n ulturl implitions tht wr h or

Anen people in the pst. We will not use lnguge s our min point

o entry, however, s other uthors hve nlyze the lexil repertoire

ssoite with wr n onit in the Anes (e.g., Pltt 197; opi

n opi 1997, this volume). Inste, we will ous on numer o

wr-relte rtits tht re requently oun in rheologil ontexts

o the Regionl Developments n Ink perios o the south Anes,1



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Anestors t Wr

looking t their multiple uses, ionogrphy, history, ssoitions, n

when villeethnohistoril n ethnogrphi ounts o their

signine. Te gol o this exerise is to sketh the semnti we tht

the mterility o these ojets wove roun onit in lte prehispni

times, s wy o getting loser to wht wr my hve ment or those

who suere it in the pst, rther thn wht it mens to us who stuy

it toy.

Contesting Power Meaningully in imes o War

Peoples oings re prtie s long s they hve politil impli-

tions, n most o them o (Ortner 19:19). A prtie pproh to

wr, then, emphsizes the implitions o rme onit or power is-

triution, tking into ount tht every gents sujet o pr-

tiehs some power n, thereore, soil reltions re lwys the

unstle result o negotition. But prtie pproh lso requires

looking t these politil proesses s emerging property o prtie

itsel, o how wr is onute n unerstoo in spei ses.

Te notions o orporte power n heterrhy hve reeive

onsierle ttention in the reent rheologil literture on soil

omplexity (Blnton et l. 199; Ehrenreih et l. 1995). Tis literture isrelevnt to Anen rheology euse ethnohistory n ethnogrphy

suggest tht tritionl politil prties in the re h strong or-

porte orienttion. A rwk o these moels, however, is their typo-

logil orienttion, in whih the olletive pproprition o resoures is

tken s one trit mong others tht hrterize type o soiety. One

prolem with this pproh is tht the neessry interepenene o the

trits is not grnte; the other is tht it oes not explin why one or the

other strtegy previls. Both prolems n e overome y ousing on

politil prtie n history rther thn typologil evolution, i.e., ylooking t howpower is negotite y gents orgnize s networks o

iniviuls or s olletives n howother prties (suh s wr n

oopertion) et the outome o these negotitions in spei ses.

Tinking o these speiities rings k our erlier point regring

the reltionship etween power n semiosis (see lso DeCerteu 19;

Fouult 1999). We n oneive this reltionship s twool. First,

soilly institute power presupposes n epte reltionship mong

gents, resoures, n tsks. Tis is sense o the gme (Bourieu



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224 Axel E. Nielsen

19:), shre unerstning tht ertin things re t to some

tions y ertin iniviuls uner ertin irumstnes. For exm-

ple, in lte Anen ontext, lor triute (mita) oul e use y

leer (kuraka) to nne the ult o ommunity eities (wakas), ut

not to ompenste ollower or personl enet (unless it ws on-

strue s olletive one), possiility tht oul e legitimte in i-

erent ulture. When we look t this reltionship s semioti proess,

the entrlity o interprettion n sujetivities or the onstitution o

power eomes evient (. doxa in Bourieu 1977). Seon, these kins

o reltionships re unstle n ontingent upon previous prties

(n powers) tht weve new meningul onnetions. Intentionlly or

not, people shpe n ontest rmeworks o menings in their tions,

n in so oing, they trnsorm power reltions.

Consequently, the unoling o semioti weslike tht o the

soil reltions immnent to themis struturtion proess (Gi-

ens 19) in whih iniviuls onstntly reproue n trnsorm in

their tions the onitions o their own ulturl existene. As long

s this proess involves ontingeny, it hs to e explinet lest

prtillywith reerene to the genelogy o prties or the trition

o negotitions (Pukett 1:) tht rought it out. Te seonprt o this hpter tkes this pth, tring the min steps o the history

through whih the semnti system n its politil struture unole

in hnging prties, uner onitions o inresing environmentl

hrship. In this wy, we hope to get loser to the intertion mong

wr, ulture, n power uring the lte prehispni history o the south

Anes, highlighting some speiities o the institutionl rrngements

tht emerge rom this proess.

Metaphors of War

Te legenry ount o the Age o the Awqrun (the wrring peo-

ple) given y the Inin uthor Felipe Gumn Pom e Ayl (g.

.) oers goo point o entry into Anen pereptions o wr n

speilly o the er o onit tht preee the expnsion o the

Ink:

From their towns in low groun they move to live in high [ples] n

mountins n outrops n in orer to een themselves they egn



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Anestors t Wr 5

to mke ortresses tht they ll pur. Tey uilt wlls n enes n

insie them houses n ortresses n hie-outs n pits to get wter

rom where they rnk.

8.2. Te ge o the awqaruna, or wrring people, oring to FelipeGumn Pom e Ayl (19:51).



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226 Axel E. Nielsen

An they egn to ght, n ttle, n lot o wr n eth with

their lor n king ginst nother lor n king, rve ptins n

ourgeous n spirite men, n they ought with wepons tht they

lle chasca chuqui, zachac chuqui[spers], sacmana, chanbi[mes],

uaraca [sling], conca cuchona, ayri uallcanca [xes], pura pura [metl pe-

torl], uma chuco [helmet], uaylla quepa [shell trumpet], antara [Pns

ute]. An with these wepons they eete eh other n there ws

lot o eth n looshe until they suue eh other. (Gumn

Pom e Ayl 19:5, my trnsltion)

Tis gives us rst list o items tht, in the eyes o n erly seven-

teenth-entury Anen person t lest, were iretly ssoite with

wrre. In this hpter, I will ous on ve o these itemsmetl

plques (oten use s hest pltes), xes, slings, pukrs, n trum-

petsn sixth one Gumn Pom introues lter in his portryl

o wrriors (g. .), isemoie hes, using them s winows into

the prgmti semntis o Anen wr.

Metal Plaques

Metl plques with ierent shpes, untions, n ionogrphy

were use in northwestern Argentinwhere they re most requentn jent regions o Bolivi n Chile or more thn two millenni,

sine the Mile Formtive Perio (5 bcad 5) until the Spnish

onquest (Gonzlez 199; Lthm 19:9). RDP plques re me

o ronze or silver n re retngulr or irulr, rnging in im-

eter etween eight n orty entimeters. Some o them were hel like

shiels using hie strps tie to semiirulr metl ers, others were s-

tene to rigi hnles so they oul e rrie s stnrs, n others

were use s petorls, suspene rom the nek (Gonzlez 1979:17

17). Some o them re plin, others re eorte with one or more othe ollowing motis: snkes with two hes (mphisens), nthropo-

morphi hes (represente without the oy), n wrriors holing

shiels (Gonzlez 199:171).

In his illustrte letter to the King, Gumn Pom lwys epits

wrriors wering irulr plques on their hests when they are in battle,

ut without them when they re not (e.g., 19:51, 1, 1, 1; . 1,

1, 1, 1; ompre gs. n ). In the Cirumpun highlns,

rok-rt representtions o ghts sometimes lso show iniviuls wer-



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Anestors t Wr 7

ing these hest plques (g. .). Tis suggests tht plques were spei-

lly ssoite with ttles rther thn with the ientity o wrriors.

A omprehensive stuy o South Amerin plques hs le Alerto

Rex Gonzlez (199) to the onlusion tht they were mteril reer-

ents o the Anen sun golle Punho y the Inks eity

tht ionogrphilly n e tre k to t lest the Mile Perio.

Aoring to the testimony o n Arunin hie reporte y Gonzlez

8.3. An awqa kamayuq, or wrrior, oring to GumnPom (19:1).



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228 Axel E. Nielsen

(199:17), the reetive properties o these ojets were use in griul-turl eremonies to projet sunlight onto the rops, thus enhning the

ertility o the els. Were the plques use in similr wy, s mirrors to

she sunlight on the omtnts? Ws this wy o invoking the power

o Punho to i Anen wrriors in ttle? Another Inin uthor

writing in the erly seventeenth entury, Jon e Snt Cruz Phuti

Ymqui Slmygu, supports this interprettion when stting tht the

Inks me mnypura purasin silver n gol n silver or the sol-

iers, to put on their hests n ks, so the rrows n spers woul

not hrm their oies (199:1).

Te reltionship etween the solrult n wr implie y this prtie is urther inite y nother

o Gumn Poms illustrtions; it epits Cui Unhirethir om-

mner o the Ink rmieswho rst h to rink with the sun his

ther eore going to ttle (19:117).

Axes

Axes with ronze les o ierent shpes, plin or eorte, hve

een oun in lte prehispni ontexts throughout the Cirumpun

re (Gonzlez 1979; Lthm 19:1), ut like metl plques, they

8.4. Rok pintings t Kollpyo (Quer e Humhu, Argentin). Notethe irulr plques in the wrriors ostumes.



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Anestors t Wr 9

pper or the rst time severl enturies eore. Although some xes

my hve een eetive or ghting, their reltively smll numers n

the exeptionl skills investe in the mnuture n eortion o

some o them suggests tht they serve more s speil ritul tools or

emlems thn s orinry wepons.

Te signiying powers o xes re strongly inite y the iono-

grphi relevne they quire, s isolte elements (Ashero 1979) or s

prt o other imges like the so-lle srier. Tis is omplex moti

tht represents n iniviul, sometimes showing eline ttriutes, who

hols n x in one hn n isemoie he in the other, nlogous

to wht Gumn Pom expliitly reers to s wrrior (g. .). Te

he tkers we will ll it to ous on the ion rther thn on its

interprettionhs een portrye on vriety o mei, inluing rok

rt, metl plques, ermi vessels, n wooen snufng prphernli.

In the entrl Anes, this moti goes k t lest to the Formtive Perio

(e.g., Prs, Mohe), ut only rehes the eserts south o the iti

sin uring the Mile Horizon, s n e seen in the eortion o

importe iwnku rtits oun in Sn Pero e Atm (Mostny

195; orres 197) or in the ionogrphy o L Agu (Gonzlez 199).

It is wiely epte tht xes serve s emlems o power mongCirumpun peoples n tht they h n extrorinry vlue t the

time (Ashero ; Nez 197:99). A ew speimens hve een

oun in exeptionlly rih urils r wy rom their prole mnu-

ture ressuh s on the Atlnti ost o Ptgoni (Gmez Otero

n Dhinten 1999)highlighting the me o these ojets eyon the

Anes. In rok rt, xes n relte motis (e.g., oule xes or nhor-

like motis, x-shpe he piees) pper minly in ssoition with

interregionl trf routes (Ashero ; Berenguer ; Nez

197:9). In Quer e Humhu, they hve lso een oun onthe ege o the griulturl xis o the vlley (e.g., in Uumzo), s i

they were mrking the rontiers o the Humhu relm. Tis rties

the emlemti hrter o xes n their reltionship with the eni-

tion o the territoril ounries n tre routes tht pre-Ink wrre

my hve thretene.

rumpets

Unlike Centrl Anen trumpets, ommonly me o shell, Cir-

umpun ones re mostly me o nimlexeptionlly humn



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230 Axel E. Nielsen

one (Guemos 199). Tey re omposite instruments me with

three tte piees sele with resin. rumpets hve een oun minly

in urils n re prtiulrly requent in Quer el oro n Que-

r e Humhu. Some o them hve engrve eortions, e.g.,

geometri esigns or shiel motis.

Te soun o trumpets, like the win, ws onsiere the voie o

supernturl eings or wks, so these instruments were neessry in

situtions tht require the intervention o these entities, like initition

or wr (Gruszzynsk-Zitkowsk 1995:15; Mrtnez 1995:5). As

suh, trumpets emoie the eneil s well s the ngerous powers

o eities; their ility to oth rete n estroy ws ulity summ-

rize in the pereption o these ojets s wepons, whih ring pros-

perity to the ommunity y estroying those who threten it.

Anen rmies plye trumpets not only in ttle, ut lso ur-

ing the propititory eremonies hel eore going to wr (Mur 19,

II:9; Pizrro 195, 75). Teir soun ws onsiere so powerul tht,

oring to some hroniles (Phuti Ymqui Slmygu 199:),

Athulpthe lst Inkuse speil ivision o e-mute soliers

(yndios mudos) s vngur in his ttk ginst his rother Husr

(Guemos 199).Aoring to the logi outline eore, trumpets were lso plye

to ght the elements tht oul threten the rops or the hers (i.e.,

insets, hle, or lightning). Gumn Pom, or exmple, esries

proession to expel

hle n ie n lightning whih they rive out with wepons n

rums n utes n trumpets n little ells, yelling, sying: . . .

[Tieve, spoiler o the people, I will ut your throt, I ont wnt to see

you ever gin!] (Gumn Pom e Ayl 19:59).

Jos Luis Mrtnez (1995) hs lso emonstrte tht trumpets

together with stools (tianas), iers (andas), n etherswere wiely

reognize emlems o uthority in the Anes, rom the Ink to the

lesser kurks. Tis ssoition is urther sustine y the t tht sev-

erl trumpets oun in Quer e Humhu re engrve with the

shiel moti, whih some interpret s highly stylize representtion

o shiel, nother element tht woul ssoite trumpets n wr. Tis

esign, whih s note eore, ppers lso on metl plques, ermi



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Anestors t Wr 1

vessels, n rok rt throughout the Cirumpun re, hs een repet-

ely interprete s n emlem o politil power (Ashero :).

Slings and Pukaras

Slings (warakas) hve een rrely preserve, exept in extremely ri

environments like the eserts o northern Chile. However, the piles o

selete, st-size oles ommonly oun ehin the eensive wlls

o Cirumpun ortresses ttest to the importne o these rtits in

pre-Ink wrre.

Te oule untion o slings s wepons n hering tools est-lishes rst onnetion etween wr n pstorl proution or relte

onepts (e.g., lie, ertility), s implie in Gumn Poms epition o

the Coi Rimi or solemn est o the queen in Septemer (g. .5):

An in this month the Yngs orere to throw wy the iseses n

pestilenes o ll the kingom. Te men, rme s i they were going

to ght wr, shoot with re slings, sying, Get out, iseses n

pestilenes, rom mong these people n this town! Leve us! with

very lou voie. (Gumn Pom e Ayl 19:7, my emphsis n

trnsltion)

Herers use slings to le their nimls n keep them together

while grzing, n tivity tht evokes wiely shre onepts o uthor-

ity. Until reent times, slings serve s emlems o ethni hies or

jilakatasin the southern Bolivin ltiplno. Te sling ws the wepon

hosen y the Ink himsel when going to ttle, s in Gumn Poms

ount o Wyn Cp shooting stones o ne gol to his enemy Apo

Pinto ( mountin spirit? mythil nestor?) to onquer the northern

provines o the empire (19:).

Orl ounts throughout the Cirumpun highlns ommonly

envision mountin spirits, known s Mllkus, using the sling to look

ter the hers n to ght. Tese stories typilly hve two Mllkus

qurreling over emle mountin spirit (ll), isputes tht usully

en with one o them eheing the other with slingshot. Mllkus

re esrie s ommunity hies (inee, the wor mllku lso es-

igntes ethni uthorities), s wrriors who protet the territory, n

s soures o unne n ertility (aviadores), who ontrol the rin



15/26

232 Axel E. Nielsen

n the reproution o oth humns n hers. Ultimtely, ll these

roles erive rom the representtion o mountins s mythil nestors,

ouners o the ommunity or ayllu n rst onquerors o its ln in

8.5. Men ghting pestilenes with re slings t the Coi Rymi, oring toGumn Pom (19:).



16/26

Anestors t Wr

mythil time tht is ommonly ssoite with the pre-Ink Age o

the Awqrun.

Te importnt role plye y nestors n mterilities inuse with

their geny in Anen wrre ws note y severl Spnish witnesses

in the sixteenth entury (see Rowe 19:1). In the Cirumpun

re, this role is urther inite y rheologil eviene rom the

pukrs o the southern Bolivin ltiplno (Nielsen ). Tese or-

tresses, whih were uilt roun ad 1, re lwys surroune y oz-

ens, even hunres o stone hullp towers. Chullpswhih pper in

gret numers t out the sme time s pukrsserve s nestor

monuments (Alunte n Cstro 191; Isell 1997), nlogous to the

wanka monoliths (Duviols 1979) or ove-groun sepulhers oun

in other prts o the Cirumpun highlns. As suh, hullps h mul-

tiple untions (s sepulhers, ltrs, storge hmers, or lnmrks)

tht were oherent within prtil logi tht oneive o nes-

tors s ultimte soures o lie, politil power, n protetion (Nielsen

). In the se o ortresses, hullp towers re ligne to protet

the most vulnerle sies, istriute long outer wlls or, sometimes,

inset within these wlls, s i they were prt o the eensive engineer-

ing o the sites.

Disembodied Heads

Skulls speilly prepre s trophies only pper in the Cirum-

pun highlns (speilly northwestern Argentin) uring the RDP,

roun ad 1 (Nielsen 1), lthough eheing hs erlier iono-

grphi expression in the re with the he tker moti esrie

eore. During the RDP, ionogrphi reerenes to epittion re

less requent ut onsistently present, not only on metl plques n

snufng prphernli, ut lso in rok rt (e.g., Berenguer ).Isolte he urils without the hrteristi mutiltions o tro-

phies, on the other hn, pper even eore, in the erly ormtive

(e.g., Yoio ). I we onsier them s prt o more gen-

erl set o prties involving the mnipultion o selete prts o the

humn skeleton (urtion, trnsport, n reuril), then the genelogy

o these prties my go k to the Arhi Perio (Ashero ;

Stnen n Sntoro 199), lthough they lso eome prtiulrly re-

quent in the re uring the RDP. Moreover, oth trophy hes n



17/26

234 Axel E. Nielsen

hes o selete humn prts hve een oumente t the sme sites,

suggesting tht these two prties my hve een quite relte t the

time.

Disemoie hes n epittion hve reeive multiple inter-

prettions n hve rise onsierle ete in the Anen liter-

ture. Usully these rguments re onronte in n ttempt to eie

whih one o them ptures est the signine o this prtie or

nient people in spei ses. Te omplexity o the evienewhih

explins why the ete remins unresolvesuggests tht eheing

my hve een prt o ierent hins o tion n my hve h mul-

tiple menings in ierent ontexts. I this is true, inste o serh-

ing or thetrue interprettion, we oul look t isemoie hes s

polisemi items tht weve ll the ojets n semnti omins we

hve onsiere thus r into single system. On one hn, they hve

een ssoite with wr (Rowe 19:79). Te possession o trophy

hes llowe wrriors to ontrol the spiritul powers o their enemies

n serve s orm o protetion ginst their geny ter eth (Vig-

nti 19). Teir puli isply oul e n eetive wy o ommemo-

rting the hievements o wrriors in ttle, liming the soil reog-

nition they eserve (Remon 199; . Gumn Pom 19:11).On the other hn, John Verno (1995) hs interprete the ritul

mnipultion o humn remins, isemoie hes inlue, s testi-

mony o nestor worship. Tis interprettion is supporte y rheo-

logil t rom Los Amrillos n stil, two lrge, eensive settle-

ments in northwestern Argentin ting to the 1s. In the rst o

these sites, urils o selete humn prts hve een oun in iret

ssoition with three ove-groun grves nlogous to hullps

uilt on n rtiil pltorm overlooking the min puli re o the

site (Nielsen ). In stil, 75 perent o the ult skeletons ounin the 1 urils tht were exvte y Euro Ciglino (197) were

missing their skulls, inluing the two mummy unles oun with

welthy oerings insie n ove-groun grve oun in the mile o

the entrl plz.

Tis flition with nestorship is proly responsile or the

requent use o isemoie hes in ertility rituls note y severl

uthors (e.g., DeLeonris :; Gonzlez 199:15; Swyer 191).

Armno Vivnte (197), or exmple, ites severl ses rom the high-



18/26

Anestors t Wr 5

lns o Peru n Bolivi, in whih skulls tken rom moern emeter-

ies or rheologil sites re expose to stop the rin, wheres in the

southern Bolivin ltiplno, we hve oserve the urrent prtie o

urying llm n sheep skulls in the summit o powerul mountins

(Mllkus) in orer to ll the rin.

When isussing xes, we mentione the reltionship etween is-

emoie hess prt o the he tker motin the onept

o uthority. Te requent representtion o the he tker on snu

trys n tues (Mostny 195; orres 197) reltes epittion to hllu-

intory experienes, introuing whole new semnti omin, whih

lies t the hert o Anen onepts o power n whih we my ll

trnsmuttion. Tis reltionship hs een interprete s n ini-

tion o the importne o oth humn srie n shmnisti pr-

ties or the onstitution o politil leership in Mile Perio soi-

eties like Agu n iwnku (Berenguer 199; Gonzlez 199; Prez

). Given the sene o signint wrre initors t this time,

it is thought tht the he tker oes not portry rel humn wr-

rior ut supernturl entity or mythil hrter enowe with these

ttriutes.

During the RDP, however, ll these elements proly relte totul rme onits. As we mentione eore, when presenting the

awqa kamayuqor pre-Ink wrrior, Gumn Pom shows mn hol-

ing leeing he in his right hn n n x n shiel in his let

hn (g. .).5 Arheologil evienes rom the Cirumpun show

ontextul n ionogrphi ssoitions etween trumpets ( wr

emlem) n the onsumption o hlluinogeni sustnes (Guemos

199:91; Prez e Are 1995). One snu tue oun in the lte ortie

settlement o L Py, or exmple, is eorte with the represent-

tion o meli n mn holing hevy x n lowing trum-pet (Amrosetti 19:). Tese reltionships rell yet nother set o

imges ssoite with wrre, whih lso ll within the onept o

trnsmuttion. In his ount o the Age o the Awqrun, Gumn

Pom esries the metmorphosis o wrriors into mythil nimls

uring ttle: Out o their ourge, the aucaruna or amqa eme

gret ptins n rve prines. Tey sy tht uring the ttle they

turne into lions n tigers n oxes n vultures, sprrows n wil-

ts (19:5; . Pltt 197:9).



19/26

236 Axel E. Nielsen

Tis pssge suggests tht wrriors ought with strength tht ws

greter thn their own; through this trnsmuttion, whih ws proly

ie y the use o msks, speil ostumes, nperhpshlluino-

geni sustnes, they emoie the powers o mythil nimls n

other supernturl entities. Perhps this explins why some o the ui-

rsses o Cirumpun wrriors were me with wil niml skins. One

o these uirsses ws reovere y Stig Ryn (19) in Lsn, where

it preserve ue to the extremely ry onitions tht previl in the At-

m Desert. It is me o ymn (lligtor) hie eorte with mon-

key ur, omintion tht woul e hr to ttriute to utilitrinism,

onsiering tht these nimls live more thn ve hunre kilometers

est o Atm s the ir ies, on the other sie o the Anes. Similr

uirsses epite in rok rt re otte, s i they were me o jgur

skins, or hve ir esigns on them. Coul we estlish genelogil

onnetion etween the metmorphosis o wrriors in ttle n the

trnsmuttion o erlier shmn/leers into jgurs n other eities

uring hlluintory trnes?

On How Ancestors Defeated Warriors

Te nlysis o wr-relte ojets rom the Cirumpun Regionl

Developments Perio hs revele network o prtil, mutully

reinoring metphors tht relte wrre to other semnti omins,

suh s ertility, uthority, trnsmuttion, n nestorship. Now we

will look riey t the events n proesses tht rought this system

into eing.

Let us go k to the pre-wr time, to the en o the rst millen-

nium ad, when the inuene o iwnku on the southern highlns

egn to wne. Tis seems to hve een time o reltive prosperity.Fvore y goo environmentl onitions, the popultion ws grow-

ing n gropstorl eonomies were expning, olonizing even the

griulturlly mrginl hitts o the ry pun. Long-istne r-

vns n other orms o exhnge llowe reltively ui irultion

o people n resoures ross regions.

Current t inite tht lol utonomy o smll ommunities

ws the previling pttern in the politil lnspe o the south Anes.

It hs een propose on the sis o ionogrphi fnities n the



20/26

Anestors t Wr 7

istriution o tre goos tht two intertion spheres evelope

in this re uring the Mile Perio (ad 51); one o them ws

relte to iwnku n lolly entere in Sn Pero e Atm

(northern Chile), while the seon one ws ssoite with the Agu

ulture omplex n evelope in the temperte vlleys o northwest-

ern Argentin. We purposeully use this vgue onept euse (1) the

egree o ulturl homogeneity tht took ple uring this perio o

integrtion hs not een sufiently oumente; () i these trens

towr unition were emonstrte, it is unler wht kins o pr-

ties oul ount or them or whether they involve some orm o

suorintion etween ommunities; n () it is ler tht mny res

within the Cirumpun Anes were not signintly ete y these

suprregionl phenomen. Tese vets notwithstning, it seems tht

uring the seon hl o the rst millennium ad, the popultions o

the south Anes shreor knew out numer o generl ispo-

sitions n representtions regring osmology n politil power,

even i they h ierent importne n prtil implitions in eh

region. We wnt to point out three spets o this ommon view. First,

politil power ws ssoite with religious elies tht show some

homologies with iwnku;7

these elies involve some o the themeswe hve ientie in lter osmologies, like the sun go, the sri-

er, elines, reptiles, n other zoomorphi eities. Seon, shmni

experienes inue y the onsumption o hlluinogeni sustnes

(Anadenanthera sp.) were entrl to the onstitution o politil uthor-

ity, perhps euse they were thought to give ertin iniviuls

speil ontt with those eities. Tir, ess to nonlol goos n

some sophistite rts (metl rtits, semipreious stones, ne pot-

tery, textiles, hlluinogeni sustnes) ws entrl to the reproution

o oth spheres n the politil orer ssoite with them.Between ad 1 n 1, Agu, Sn Pero, n iwnku ol-

lpse, phenomenon tht hs een relte to the onset roun ad

1 o long-term yle o roughts tht woul quire tstrophi

proportions etween 15 n 11 (Tompson et l. 195; . Binor

et l. 1997; Gonzlez 199). Whtever the merits o this explntion,

the isrtiultion o Mile Perio intertion networks mrks the

eginning o the Regionl Developments Perio. Unortuntely, this

erly phse o the RDP (ad 115) is poorly known. Some Mile



21/26

238 Axel E. Nielsen

Perio themes n representtions persist, ut they seem to e inorpo-

rte into new semnti strutures.

In the Cirumpun re, limti eteriortion proly ete

most severely the popultions o the ry pun (the entrl n southern

Bolivin ltiplno, the Argentine pun), who epene on omin-

tion o ry rming n pstorlism, two tivities tht re extremely

sensitive to vritions in preipittion (Nielsen 1:7). Tis situ-

tion my hve een hnle through tehnologil improvements n

the intensition o tritionl reltions o eonomi omplementr-

ity, suh s rvn journeys, vertility, n other rrngements tht

llowe or multiethni ess to key resoures. Tis woul e onsis-

tent with rheologil t tht show the onstrution o irrigtion

systems, the pperne o highln olonies in the temperte vlleys

o northern Chile (Berenguer ; Nez n Dillehy 1979), n

progressive intensition o interregionl tre within the Cirum-

pun re.

By the lte 1s, when roughts eme most severe, violene

roke out. Ws it ue to er o srity? Proly, ut how i this er

trnslte into prtie? How i oopertion turn into hostility? How

i wr trnsorm the ulturl rmework in whih new power rrnge-ments were orge? Goo nswers to these questions will hve to wit

or more reserh; here, we n only point to some ts tht re rel-

evnt to those nswers. First, onits rystllize interregionl ientity

ontrsts (. Arkush, this volume, or the entrl Anes). Dierenes

in ermis, rhiteture, n textiles, s well s in uril ustoms n

the orgniztion o omesti spes, spek to the mterility o this new

ulturl mosi n point to some o the prties tht rete these

olletive ientities.

Aville eviene suggests tht rme onits i not preventinterregionl exhnge. On the moern ssumption tht wr n tre

re inomptile, south Anen rheologists hve propose severl

senrios to ount or the oexistene o wr n tre. Aoring

to one o them, onits hppene reltively erly in the RDP, then

stoppe n tre ws resume (Berenguer ; Shippsse et l.

199). Conversely, others think tht exhnge n oloniztion me

rst n le to wr (Nez n Dillehy 1979; Nez Regueiro 197).

Te prolem is tht hronologil t rom multiple regions (Nielsen



22/26

Anestors t Wr 9

1, ) inite tht the min time o onit ws the ourteenth

entury, ontinuing until the expnsion o the Inks in the teenth

entury. Some o the eensive settlements o the RDP were still inh-

ite t the time o Europen ontt.

Te question o how wr n tre oexiste is still mtter o spe-

ultion. Teir o-ourrene oul e relte to the emergene o non-

flite rvn rovers (or n exmple o shiting ethni lels use

y rvnners in the sixteenthth entury, see Lozno Mhu 199) or

oul e prt o purposeully miguous poliy tht llowe or rp-

ily lternting, even oexisting, orms o intertion (see Wiessner, this

volume). Te multiple onnottions o some o the wepons-emlems

previously nlyze, whih omine notions o lie n nger, seem to

mterilly sustin these miguities, n their skillul mnipultion is

n importnt imension o uthority.

Te new onern with onit is revele y the proliertion o

wepons, hnges in their esign, the option o rmory (uirsses n

helmets), trophies, n the ionogrphi protgonism tht reerenes to

ghting quire in the rok rt o some regions. Te est inex o the

inseurity tht hostility proue mong people is the ril hnge

in settlement ptterns tht took ple in the lte thirteenth n our-teenth enturies throughout the re. People ggregte, let vulner-

le positions or eensile ones, ortie their villges or uilt hilltop

reuges lose to them (pukrs), n none res to rete uer

zones. Te loss o ple n ssoite memory implie y this set-

tlement shit ws ertinly n importnt onition tht ilitte the

politil trnsormtions o this time. In ition to these, Cirumpun

peoples moilize numer o ulturlly unique resoures to e this

perio o onits; with milir ritul tehniques (mirrors, musi, os-

tumes, litions, psyhotropi rugs), they invoke the protetion nestrutive powers o nient (Mile Perio) eities like the sun go

n his zoomorphi ompnions; eheing their rivls, they emoie

mythil heroes.

Most signint, however, ws the intervention o nestors. As

note eore, rheologil eviene o nestor worshiptht is,

the mnipultion o humn prts or lithi representtions o nestors

(Gr Azrte 199; Yoio )pper sporilly in ier-

ent prts o the Cirumpun highlns sine Preermi times. During



23/26

240 Axel E. Nielsen

the Mile Perio, these expressions re not prtiulrly visile, ut

in the 1s, when wrre initors prolierte in the re, nestors

ome k to the sene in monumentl ormssuh s hullp towers

n wanka monolithstking ontrol o the lnspe, the surroun-

ing ommunities (llacta), n their els (chakra).

Anestors were lso entrl to the orgniztionl hnges o this

time. As note eore, the popultion ggregte rpily to orm set-

tlements o up to one or two thousn people n integrte into

multi-ommunity politil strutures tteste y the emergene o

lerly ene settlement hierrhies. Tis llowe the oorinte

tion o lrge numers o people or eense. Te ssoition o hull-

ps, ove-groun grves, n wnks with the plzs o these resi-

entil onglomertes, together with initors o the preprtion n

onsumption o lrge quntities o oo n mize eer (chicha) in

some o them, suggest tht omintion o nestor worship n

esting plye entrl role in the integrtion o the new polities

(Nielsen ).

Unlike Mile Perio politil systems, whih pprently orme

through the ttrtion exerte y ertin eremonil/eonomi noes

on n unoun network o interting ommunities, RDP poli-ties rystllize through violent territoril ompetition. ristn Pltts

moel o segmentry usion (197:95) is proly goo pproxim-

tion o the proesses o soioterritoril integrtion tht took ple in

the Cirumpun highlns etween ad 1 n 1.9 Initilly, out-

stning wr leers woul hrness the support o their own ommuni-

ties; through their vitories, some o these leers (mallkus) woul gin

uthority over other ommunities, thus uiling new, more enom-

pssing levels o politil tion. During this proess, rme onront-

tions (chaxwa), whih t the eginning my hve een uiquitous, weregrully pushe out towr the newly evelope territoril oun-

ries, turning lol tensions into ontrolle, intrgroup ompetitions,

perhps nlogous to the ritul ttles (tinku) oumente y eth-

nohistory n ethnogrphy (Hopkins 19; Urton 199).1 At the time

the Inks egn to expn over the south Anes, this proess h inte-

grte to some extenti not s unie polities, t lest s oneer-

tions or llinesthe popultions o every mjor griulturl region

o the Cirumpun re, s inite y their ssoition with istin-



24/26

Anestors t Wr 1

tive rheologil ultures seprte y uer zones (e.g., Nielsen

1).11 Te emerging power strutures were ierent rom their Mi-

le Perio preeessors in other importnt wys. Tey integrte lrger

numers o people n were le to moilize superior lor ore (s

reete in the sle o the griulturl inrstruture n other on-

strution projets), with more limite use o welth or ionogrphi

isply, t tht hs le some uthors to tlk out n er o ulturl

impoverishment in some regions (Nez 1991:1) n evokes imo-

thy Erles isillusion with the Wnks lk o elorte, mterilize

ieology. Wht this ontrst seems to imply is shitin some regions

t lestrom n exlusionry to orporte moe o politil tion

tht ws only superilly mske y the ontinuity o iniviul ions,

prties, n representtions re-signie in the new historil ontext.

Gumn Pom seems to support this interprettion n gives us hint

o the semnti trnsormtion involve y expliitly rwing on-

netion mong wrre, trnsmuttion, nestorship, n the politil

orer tht emerge rom the Age o the Awqrun:

Out o their ourge, they [the wqrun or wrriors] eme gret p-

tins n rve prines. Tey sy tht uring the ttle they turne into

lions n tigers n oxes n vultures, sprrows n wilts. Tus,

their esennts up to now re lle pom [lion], otorongo [jgur],

to [ox], onor, n [sprrow], uo [wilt], win, pn [sky],

ir, uyny [mw], mhuy [snke], mro [serpent]. An in

this wy their nmes were lle like other nimls n wepons rrie

y their nestors; they won them in the ttles they hel. Te most

prize lor nmes were pom, gumn hwk, n, onor, pn,

guyny, uri [gol], ullque [silver], s it is until toy. (Gumn

Pom e Ayl 19:5; my trnsltion)

Beuse o the merits they gine in ttle, nient wrriors hieve

(institutionlize) positions o uthority (suh s tht o ptin or

prine) n eme the ouners o lineges (i.e., nestors). Tey were

not rememere y their iniviul nmes, however, ut y the nmes

o the gurin nimls n other supernturl ores they emoie

in wr, point tht highlights the unmentlly orporte nture o

politil power in these soil ormtions. Anestors (n thereore

their esennts s olletivity) rther thn iniviul wr leers



25/26

242 Axel E. Nielsen

were the ones who hrnesse the prestige n politil power orn out

o onit.

Tis pssge lso rings k the ssoition etween the ility

to trnsmute n politil power, this time pplie to wrriors who

turne into nestrl nimls. Te pperne o the nestors in this

ontext shoul not e surprising, onsiering the ovious t tht wr

rings lie n eth lose together, thus ilitting the ommuni-

tion etween the living n their orethers; in the sme wy tht

person my ie in ttle, the e my slip k to lie (Bouysse-Cs-

sgne 1975:). But it oul lso e one spet o more generl per-

eption o ttles s liminl ontexts, where numer o extrorinry

trnsormtions my ourlike the metmorphosis o wrriors into

nestrl nimlsor o wr s onition tht n eet omplete

hnge in soiety.

Note lso tht the wepons rrie y their nestors (or perhps

some o the mterils o whih they were me, like the gol or silver

o petorls) eme the most prize lor nmes. I the politil orer

we hve just outline ws orn out o wr, it is only resonle tht

wepons woul eome importnt emlems o uthority. Although

some o them (e.g., xes) my hve lrey rrie similr onnottionssine the Mile Perio, others (e.g., slings) my hve only quire

suh menings t this time. Tis prtil onnetion woul e lter

rtie y the use o the sme wepons y the Inks.

Finlly, we shoul onsier the semnti onnetions mong wr-

re, the uthorities tht emerge rom it, n ertility or relte on-

epts (lie, prosperity). Bse on the nlysis o ethnogrphi n lexil

t, it hs een emonstrte tht (1) or Anens, there ws no shrp

istintion etween rel (hxw) n ritul (tinku) wrrethey

were extremes in ontinuum; n () oth elong to lrger semn-ti el tht omprises multiple kins o reltionships mong ontrr-

ies, inluing reonilition, sexul interourse, n mrrige (Bouysse-

Cssgne n Hrris 197; Pltt 197; opi n opi 1997). Tese

semnti onnetions revel tht rme hostility ws viewe s tem-

porry orm o intertion etween ierent n symolilly opposite

soil units, whose oopertion in other times woul e n importnt

soure o prosperity. Te emergene o more inlusive uthorities in

time o wr (pachakutiin Aymr [Bertonio 11:]) woul iretly



26/26

Anestors t Wr

eet this reversl o onitions (kutimens revolution, omplete rever-

sl [Bouysse-Cssgne 1975:]), enowing emergent leers with

prtil onnetion to ertiliy n lie.

Acknowledgments. I woul like to express my grtitue to ll the pr-

tiipnts in the vne seminr on Wrre in Culturl Context or

n extremely enrihing intelletul experiene n to John Wre or his

hospitlity t the Amerin Fountion.

Nielsen 2009 Ancestors at War

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