NHA2 - Form Classes - Copy

8/3/2019 NHA2 - Form Classes - Copy

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CHAPTER 1: WORD CLASSESI> DEFINITION

II> CLASSIFICATION

II.1> FORM CLASSESII.2> POSITIONAL CLASSESII.3> STRUCTURE CLASSES

III> EXERCISES


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SYNTAX

A linguistic description, and consequently alanguage, is often regarded as beingcomposed of three parts:

phonetics/phonology, grammar andsemantics. And there is a sense in whichgrammar links phonology and semantics:phonemes combine into words (phonology),words combine into sentences (grammar), andsentences refer to events, actions and statesin the world (semantics) (Jackson 1982:55).


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Syntax is the study of how words

combine to form sentences and the

rules which govern the formation ofsentences (Richards et al 1999:370).


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I> DEFINITIONAccording to Howard Jackson,

The major classes of lexical morphemes,which are the basis of words, are traditionallyknown as the parts of speech.

The notion of parts of speech is still auseful one, though the term of word classisusually preferred these days.

The definition of the word classeslookedmore to the internal structureof language,rather than to the relation between language

and the external world.


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Words classes are groups of words whichfunction similarly. In other words, words

are grouped into classes according to howthey combine with other words and howthey change their forms (Richard et al.,

1993: 407) to create well-formed structures.E.g.: the words boy, toy, and song are alldefined as nouns because they can inflect

for plural number (boy boys, toy toys,

song songs), function as head of a nounphrase (e.g. a very naughty boy, a safe toy,an everlasting song),


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or typically function as subject or

object of a clause or sentence (e.g.

The boy threw his toy at thewindow where the boy and his toy

function as subject and objectrespectively).


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A necessary distinction is often madebetween lexical words and grammarwords. This distinction also appearssometimes as content words vs.function words, or full words vs.empty words. The distinction is auseful one in that it enables us toseparate the words which belong tomajor class from those that belong tothe minor one.


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Major class contains lexical wordsthat have a meaning outside the

context in which they are used. Major classes are receptive to new

members also called openclasses(Jackson:1980,7)

Minor classes are not receptive to

new members; they are closed.


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II> CLASSIFICATIONII.1>Form classes

Membership in the class is

determined by the form of a word.

These classes are large and openclasses, admitting new members.

English four form classes arenouns, verbs, adjectives, andadverbs.


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NOUNS

Morphologically, or in terms of form, an

English noun can be realized by word final

noun-forming bound bases (e.g. onym,

scope, and sphere in synonym, telescope,

and biosphere), inflectional suffixes

including plural suffix and possessive suffix

(e.g.flowers, springs

flowers), andnoun-forming derivational suffixes added to

verbs, adjectives, nouns, adverbs, & bound

forms


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such asage, -ad, -ade, -ance, -ancy,-ant, -ar,-ce, -cian, -dom, -ee, -ence, -ency, -er, -esis,-ess, -ion, -ism, -ist, -ity, -ment, -ness, -

ology, -or, -osis, -sia, -sion, -sis, -sy, -tian, -tion, -tude, -ty, -ure, andy

E.g.: blockage, monad, blockade, assistance,

hesitancy, attendant, beggar, musician,freedom, employee, difference, fluency,writer, thesis, stewardess, prediction,realism, dentist, establishment, carefulness,

theology, doctor, tuberculosis amnesia,suspension, ecdysis, fantasy, dietitian,communication, solitude, liberty, structure,

honesty.


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PROPER NOUNS AND COMMONNOUNS

Proper nounswhich are names ofparticular persons, places andthings usually can not be used with

a determiner, however, they canassume the functions which aretypical of nouns. E.g.: Paris is alwaysin my heart, next stop well visitParis.

Common nouns are not namesofparticular persons, places and things,& do not refer to unique things.


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Count Nouns& Noncount (Mass) Nouns

Common nouns can be further divided into

count nounsand noncount (mass)nouns.

Count nouns must occur with a determinerin their singular form, but noncount nounsare not required to.

Count nouns have plural form. Non-count nouns do not have plural form

and usually cannot be used with anindefinite article. Some nouns can be both countable and

uncountable, depending on how we use

them.


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E.g.: in a supermarket we buymilk, not a milk, because milk

is a non-count noun, but in arestaurant we can order two

milksbecause here it is acount noun.


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Count and non-count

nouns can be furtherdivided into concrete

and abstract,collective and general.


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Concrete & Abstract Nouns

Concrete is descriptive of nounswhich refer to physical entities, or

perceivable objects, e.g.: table,chair, mother, father.

Abstract applies to nouns lackingphysical reference, e.g.: thought,idea, uncertainty, morality.


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Collective and General Nouns

A collective noun denotes a group ofentities, e.g. committee, family, staff, jury

It has a distinctive three-way pattern ofnumber contrast:

-can be used as a singular noun with a

singular verb (e.g. My family has fivepersons) and a plural verb (e.g. My familyhave five persons)

-as a plural noun with a plural verb (e.g. Thefamilies in my neighborhood get along withone another.


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VERBS

Verbs generally refer to actions,events and processes, & have amaximum of five inflectional forms.

E.g.: (to) walk-infinitive, walks-3rdperson singular present tense,

walked-past tense, walking-presentparticiple, walked-past participle.


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An English verb can be identifiedvia its form:

word final verb-forming bound

base(e.g. cede, ceed, cept, cess,

cise, fect, ject, and taininprecede, proceed, accept,process, circumcise, affect,inject, and obtainrespectively)


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inflectional suffixesconsistingof third-person singular present-tense, past tense and past

participle suffixes (e.g. drives,

cooked, walking), verb-forming derivational

affixes(e.g.-e,-en, -ize, -fy, en-,iveadded to nouns & adjectivesinbathe, ripen, solemnize, satisfy,

enlarge, strive)


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Lexical (Main) Verbs & AuxiliaryVerbs

Auxiliary verbs, having amainly grammatical function,

consist of two subclasses:primary auxiliary verbs (be,have, do) and modal auxiliary

verbs (can, could, may,might,..).


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Lexical verbs can be furtherdivided into 3 subgroups:

intensive (copula/linking) verbs ,intransitive verbs that do not takean object, and transitive verbsthat require an object and includemonotransitive verbs,

ditransitive verbs, complextransitive verbs & prepositionaltransitive verbs.


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She seems tired. (intens) The child slept well last night.

(intrans) I like fish. (monotrans) My mother makes me a new

dress. (ditrans.) We call him Mr. Late.(complex)

She looks at the newspaper.

(prepV)


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Dynamic Verbs & Stative Verbs

Lexical verbs can be grouped intodynamic verbs and stative verbs.

A dynamic verb typically occurs in

the progressive form and in theimperative, and expresses meaningssuch as activity, process, bodilysensation, transitional event, andmomentary action, e.g.: work, grow,ache, die, hit.


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a stative verb usually neitheroccurs in the progressive nor inthe imperative, and expresses

a state of affair rather than an

action, including verbs ofemotion, knowledge, & belief(love, hate, know, believe), & of

relationships (belong to, equal,own, matter)


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Note:

-Some Eng. Verbs such as have & think, can

be used statively, describing a state, ordynamically, describing an action or activity.E.g.:

Statively: I have a really bad headache(state)Dynamically: We are having a party tonight

(activity)

Statively: I think its going to rain (opinion,mental state)

Dynamically: Im thinking hard about how to

solve this problem(mental activity)


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ADJECTIVES

can be recognized by two aspects of form:

inflectional suffixes made up of adjectivecomparative suffixerand adjectivesuperlative suffixest, and adjective-forming derivational suffixes added tonouns, verbs, adjectives & bound forms (able, -al, -ible, -ful, -ic, -ish, -ive, -less, -like, -ly, -ous, andsome)

E.g.: lazier, tallest; doable, national,responsible, careful, dramatic, childish,active, careless, childlike, friendly, cautious,troublesome, deadly, & local.


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Dynamic & Stative Adjectives

dynamic adjectives, e.g.careless, cautious, fast

stative adjectives, e.g. angry,lazy, tired, tall.


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Attributive & Predicative Adjectives

An attributive adjectivecharacteristically occurs within a nounphrase,& pre-modifies a head noun,e.g. an interesting play, a beautiful girl

Apredicative adjectiveoccurs in apost verbal, i.e. after a copula verbsuch as be, seem, sound, feel, & may

contain a complement (post-modification),e.g. Students areconfused about his explaining.

pred.adj. complement


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The adjectives which canoccur in both of these

positions are referred to ascentral, e.g. A beautiful girl,

shes beautiful.


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Gradable & Non-gradable Adjectives

Gradable adjectives can be pre-modified by adverbs, particularlyadverbs of degree or intensifyingadverbs (e.g. surprisinglyintelligent,

extremelydifficult, toobusy) can be used in comparative and

superlative sense (e.g. lessinteresting, moreconfusing, the leastinformative, theprettiest).

can also be used in questions with howto ask about degrees (e.g. How long

does the test takes?).


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non-gradable adjectives are notcharacterized by these features.

E.g.: deadis non-gradable. It willbe semantically odd to say verydead, more deador how dead.


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Inherent & Non-inherent Adjectives

Inherent adjectives are the ones thatcharacterize the referent of the noundirectly , e.g. awoolenscarf, anold

coffee grinder. Non-inherent adjectivesdo not exhibita direct characterization of the noun

(Jackson, 1999: 9), e.g. anewstaffmember. In this example, newis a non-inherent adjective, the staff memberisnot invented or produced.


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ADVERBS

Adverbs can be identified byinflectional suffixes: adverbcomparative -erand adverb superlative -

est, and adverb-forming derivationalsuffixes: -ly, -wise, -wards, -s, & thefree form like

E.g.: earlier, earliest; casually, likewise,forwards, days& nights, studentlike


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English adverbs are of two kinds:

adverbs of degree or intensifyingadverbs which modify an adjective oranother adverb (e.g. veryas in very

fast, extremelyas in extremelyfascinating)

circumstantial adverbs whichprovide circumstantial informationsuch as time, place and manner (e.g.

now, here, cleverly).

III> EXERCISES: Classify italicized words as N (noun)


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III> EXERCISES: Classify italicized words as N (noun),V (verb), Adj (adjective), Avd (adverb)

1. Sue likes to play golf on Sunday mornings.2. Only the dregsare left.3. There will be a meetingat 4 tomorrow afternoon.4. Which nation colonizedTierra del Fuego?5. Every social class has its own snobbery.6. May you be healthy and prosperous.7. Be careful not to run aground.8. She smiled cheerfully.9. The quickestway is to use your pocket calculator.10. We counted the tickets in haste.11. Jim was distressed by his failure.12. The judge personifiesjustice itself.13. It is a collectivenoun.14. He works days.15 Sh t d th h d l k i

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