Neural Conduction and Synaptic Transmission (i.e., Electricity and Chemistry)
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Transcript of Neural Conduction and Synaptic Transmission (i.e., Electricity and Chemistry)
Neural Conduction and Synaptic Transmission(i.e., Electricity and Chemistry)
Neurons
Figure 2.5 A typical neuron and synapse Klein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
Figure 2.6 The four major types of synapses Klein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
Neural Conduction
An Electrical Process
Resting Membrane Potential
Figure 4.2 Recording the resting membrane potential of a neuronKlein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
Ions and the resting membrane potential
• K+
– Potassium ions, positive charge
Ions and the resting membrane potential
• Na+
– Sodium ions, positive charge
Ions and the resting membrane potential
• Cl-
– Chloride ions, negative charge
Ions and the resting membrane potential
• Inside the neuron– K+
– Protein-
• Outside the neuron– Na+
– Cl-
What the ions naturally want to do
• Force of diffusion– It’s getting crowded in here
• Electrostatic pressure– Opposites attract– Similarities repel
Figure 4.4 The influence of diffusion and electrostatic pressure on the movement of ions into and out of the neuronKlein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
What the neural membrane is making the ions do
• Differential permeability– Playing favorites
• K+ and Cl- pass through easily• Na+ -- not so easy to pass through the membrane• Proteins: not a chance!
– Ion channels: like doors
What the neural membrane is making the ions do
• Sodium-potassium pump
• Three Na+ out for every two K+ cells in
Figure 4.5 The sodium-potassium pumpKlein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
Putting it all together…• Na+ ions
– Want to go inside neuron because• There are fewer of them inside (force of diffusion)• There is a negative charge inside (opposite to their positive
charge)
– But• Neuron’s membrane not very permeable to Na+ ions• Sodium-potassium pump keeps kicking them out
– Therefore, most Na+ ions stay outside neuron
Putting it all together…• K+ ions
– Want to go outside neuron because• There are fewer of them outside (force of diffusion)• Neuron’s membrane very permeable to K+ ions
– But• There is a positive charge outside (similar to their positive
charge), so they are repelled by the outside• Sodium-potassium pump keeps kicking them back into
neuron
– Therefore, most K+ ions stay inside neuron
Putting it all together…• Cl- ions: can’t make up their minds
– Want to go inside neuron because• There are fewer of them inside
• Neuron’s membrane very permeable to Cl- ions
– Also want to stay outside of neuron because• The charge outside is positive (and their own charge is
negative
– Therefore, Cl- ions keep going back and forth, distribution of Cl- ions is held at equilibrium.
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Postsynaptic Potentials
Getting the membrane potential to change from -70 mv
Figure 2.6 The four major types of synapses Klein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
Figure 4.11 Overview of synaptic transmission Klein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
• Like relay team passing a baton• Causes something called
“postsynaptic potentials” to happen
Postsynaptic potentials can do one of 2 things…
• Depolarize neuron
• Hyperpolarize neuron
Postsynaptic potentials
• Depolarize
• Decrease resting potential
• Become less negative
• E.g., from -70 mV to – 67 mv
Postsynaptic potentials
• Increase likelihood that neuron will fire
• Excitatory postsynaptic potentials: EPSPs
Postsynaptic potentials
• Hyperpolarize
• Increase the resting potential
• Become more negative
• E.g., from -70 mV to -72 mV
Postsynaptic potentials
• Decrease likelihood that neuron will fire
• Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials: IPSPs
Characteristics of EPSPs and IPSPs
• Notes
There are a bunch of EPSPs and IPSPs There are a bunch of EPSPs and IPSPs happening in the same neuron at oncehappening in the same neuron at once
How EPSPs or IPSPs add up
• Spatial summation – A bunch of EPSPs/IPSPs combine together
Figure 4.14 Spatial summation and temporal summationKlein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
How EPSPs or IPSPs add up
• Temporal summation– When EPSPs/IPSPs are coming in real fast,
the next one happens before the previous one fades away
– They add together over time
Figure 4.14 Spatial summation and temporal summationKlein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
Getting a neuron to fire
• EPSPs and IPSPs travel until they reach near the axon hillock
Getting a neuron to fire
• Remember…– EPSP make membrane’s resting potential
less negative (e.g., from -70 mv to -68 mv)– IPSPs make membrane’s resting potential
more negative (e.g., from -70 mv to -75 mv)
• When combined they cancel each other out, and whichever is stronger wins
Getting a neuron to fire: Example 1
• EPSPs add up to change resting potential from -70 mv to -60 mv (change of +10 mv)
• IPSPs add up to change resting potential from -70 mv to -75 mv (change of -5 mv)
Getting a neuron to fire: Example 1
• Net difference of +5 mv, from -70 mv to -65 mv
• The resting membrane potential to become less negative
• The end result is the membrane is depolarized
Figure 4.7 Changes in the membrane potential during the action (spike) potentialKlein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
Getting a neuron to fire: Example 2
• EPSPs add up to change resting potential from -70 mv to -68 mv (change of +2 mv)
• IPSPs add up to change resting potential from -70 mv to -75 mv (change of -5 mv)
Getting a neuron to fire: Example 2
• Net difference of -3 mv, from -70 mv to -73 mv
• The resting membrane potential to become more negative
• The end result is the membrane is hyperpolarized
Figure 4.7 Changes in the membrane potential during the action (spike) potentialKlein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
Getting a neuron to fire
• The end result that matters is how the EPSPs and IPSPs cancel each other out near the axon hillock
Getting a neuron to fire• If it so happens that, near the axon hillock
– The net combination of EPSPs/IPSPs– Depolarizes the membrane (makes it less negative)– To a point called threshold potential
Figure 4.7 Changes in the membrane potential during the action (spike) potentialKlein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
Action potential
• Membrane becomes depolarized to about 40 mV
• All-or-nothing
Voltage-activated ion channels
• When a neuron’s membrane reaches the threshold of excitation, ion channels open
• Na+ ions (previously could not permeate the membrane) can now rush into the neuron
• As a result, membrane potential goes to about 40mv
Voltage-activated ion channels
• K+ ions (they start out being inside the neuron) now rush out of the neuron– Force of diffusion– When membrane potential is now positive,
also driven out by electrostatic pressure
Refractory period
• Absolute refractory period– Lasts 1 to 2 milliseconds– Impossible for another action potential to
happen
Figure 4.7 Changes in the membrane potential during the action (spike) potentialKlein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
Refractory period
• Relative refractory period– Possible for another action potential to
happen– But need extra-strength stimulation
Figure 4.7 Changes in the membrane potential during the action (spike) potentialKlein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
Action potential travels down axon
Figure 4.9 Propagation of the action potential along an unmyelinated axonKlein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
Action potential travels down axon
• Action potentials are nondecremental – do not become weaker as they travel
• Travel very slowly
• Action potential only causes those ion channels in one small spot of the membrane to open
• To travel down the axon, needs to nudge the adjacent ion channels
Conduction of Action Potential in Myelinated Axons
Figure 4.10 Propagation of the action potential along an myelinated axonKlein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
Conduction of Action Potential in Myelinated Axons
• This time,– Action potential travels rapidly– Action potential simply hops from one node of
Ranvier to another• Saltatory conduction (saltare = dance)
– Action potential grows weaker as it travels• But, still strong enough to initiate another action
potential at the next node of Ranvier
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Synaptic Transmission of Signals
A Chemical Process
Chemical signals
• In your nervous system there are chemicals called “neurotransmitters.”
• Neurons produce neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters
• Neurotranmsitters are packed into synaptic vesicles.
• Synaptic vesicles are found at the terminal buttons.
Release of neurotransmitters• Action potential travels down axon and reaches synapse• This causes Ca2+ (calcium) ion channels to open
Figure 4.11 Overview of synaptic transmissionKlein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
Release of neurotransmitters
• Ca2+ ions cause synaptic vesicles to join to presynaptic membrane
• Vesicles release neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft
• Neurotransmitters get passed on to the next neuron
Figure 4.11 Overview of synaptic transmissionKlein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
What happens next?
It’s like playing pinball
Back to where we started…
• Neurotransmitter binds with receptor, causes ion channels to open
• If Na+ channels open, then Na+ ions enter neuron, depolarizes membrane EPSP
Back to where we started…
• If chloride channels open, the Cl- ions enter neuron, hyperpolarizes membrane IPSP
• If potassium channels open, the K+ ions leave the neuron, hyperpolarizes membrane IPSP
What happens to the leftover neurotransmitters?
• Reuptake– Neurotransmitters return to presynaptic
buttons
Figure 4.18 Termination of neural transmissionKlein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
What happens to the leftover neurotransmitters?
• Degradation– Neurotransmitters broken apart in the
synapse by enzymes
Figure 4.18 Termination of neural transmissionKlein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals in the Nervous System
Neurotransmitters
• Acetylcholine (Ach)– Muscles– Memory: Alzheimer’s
• Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)– Seizures– Huntington’s disease
Neurotransmitters
• Epinephrine (aka adrenaline)
• Norepinephrine
– Activation of cardiovascular system
Neurotransmitters
• Dopamine– Schizophrenia– Parkinson’s
• Serotonin– Depression– Aggression
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Agonists and Antagonists
Agonists
• Synthesis of neurotransmitter
• Helps with release
• Obstructs autoreceptor
• Pretends to be neurotransmitter
• Prevents reuptake
Figure 4.16 AutoreceptorsKlein/Thorne: Biological Psychology© 2007 by Worth Publishers
Antagonists
• Obstacle to synthesis
• Obstacle to neurotransmitter release
• Fools autoreceptor
• Blocks receptor
How some drugs work
• Cocaine– Agonist of norepinephrine and dopamine– Prevents reuptake of leftover norepinephrine
and dopamine– Therefore, effects of these neurotransmitters
are increased
How some drugs work
• Botulinium toxin– Antagonist of acetylcholine– Prevents acetylcholine from being released– Therefore, effects of these neurotransmitters
are decreased– Small amounts used to paralyze certain
muscles