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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It would be insufficient just to say aword of thanks for all

those people who have been so instrumental in the success of this

project. However, as a small token of our appreciation we have

named here of all those wonderful people, without whom all this

would not have been possible.

At the very outset, we would like to express our deep sense

of gratitude to our mentors at the college, Principle Mr. S.P.Gupta

who have been so kind to give us the necessary infrastructure.

They have also been a constant source of inspiration.

I am deeply indebted to my guide at STPI, Mr. Shekhar

Saklani for allowing us to gain the benefits of STPI way of life. It

is due to his efforts that my training has gained its present stature

and I can never thank him enough for all he has done.

\ Ankit Vyas


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PREFACE

A very important in curriculum of an engineering student is

practical training.

I under went practical training training at STPI Dehradun.

This is a part of total 45 days training program incorporated in the

curriculum of G.I.T. for B.E. course.

During my practical training I learned about the networking. Why

networking is essential in our life. What are the advantages of

networking? How we can share our data. How a data transfer from

one source to another source. The main devices for networking are

Hub, Switch, and Router. How these devices work. How we give

ip address to computer. I also learned how we configure the router

how we can set the password such as enable, secret, vty password.

How we can telnet the router. How we can access another Routerwhile sitting on our router. So by this training report I have tried to

give an overview of the networking.

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CONTENT TABLE

1. COMPANY PROFILE 4-5

2. INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING 6

3. HANDS ON EXPERIENCE 7

4. PRODUCT AND DEVICES 8

5. SUMMARY 9-10

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY 11-37

7. GLOSSARY 38-40

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COMPANY PROFILE

STPI - A Profile

Software Technology Parks of India (STPI), is a society set up by the

Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, Government of

India in 1991, with the objective of encouraging, promoting and boosting the

Software Exports from India.

STPI - A Boon to the Software Industry

STPI scheme is a 100% Export Oriented Unit scheme for the development

and export of software using Data Communication links or by physical

media or by On site Consultancy. STPI acts as the front end on behalf of the

Government of India to take care of all the statutory needs, like project

approval, import approval, bonding, Software Export Certification, etc.

The scheme tailor made for Software Exports has benefits, viz.,

Duty free imports of hardware and software

Exemption from Corporate Income Tax till 2010

100% Foreign equity participation

Exemption of excise duty for domestic purchase of capital goods

Reimbursement of CST

Domestic Tariff Area (DTA) shall be permissible up to 50% of export

value terms

CG Goods eligible for Depreciation subject maximum of 90%

Issue of Green Card

Certification of Software Export made through Data communication

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To avail STPI scheme benefits, the simplified minimum export obligation is

USD 0.25 million or 3 times of CIF value of imported capital goods,

whichever is higher and Net Foreign Exchange Earning 10% (NFEP).

STPI supports new companies by providing Incubation infrastructure with

all facilities, viz. Internet, Telephone, Fax, Back-up power, etc.,

Today, there are more than 6000 software exporting companies operating

under the umbrella of the STPI. The share of the software exports from STP

units is more than 73% of the total software exports from the country.

The Statutory services are supported on robust Intranet Platforms to

ensure instantaneous responses to customer requirements. The service

delivery is bound with definitive timelines and toned with understanding of

the best practices in the industry.

Quality Policy

The policy of STPI is to continuously strive and delight customer through

total quality performance of all its services in terms of quality culture,

quality cost and quality delivery schedule.

Quality Objectives

To strive for the upgradation of the technology to meet

customer requirements in ever changing market

To upgrade the technology knowledge of all STPI personnel

through continuous improvement training

To provide state-of-art data communication services as per

acceptable international standards

To provide comprehensive service including projectapprovals, import attestation, software export certification

etc., in a time bound manner

Achieving customer satisfaction through the combined

efforts of planning the infrastructure and executing the

projects through dedicated workforce

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National Goal

Make India a global Information Technology Power and one of thelargest generators and exporters of software in the world within the

next 10 years.

Former Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee

Among the statutory services being offered by STPI are, single window

clearances of approval, 90% exemption from corporate income tax, complete

duty free import of software and hardware, reimbursement of CST,

simplified export performance norms, etc,.

STPI committed to take the nation forward to make it an IT superpower.

STPI is a proud for having introduced commercial Internet in India during

1993 and first videoconference from the country.

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INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING

What Is a Network?

A network is basically all of the components (hardware and software)

involved in connecting computers across small and large distances.

Networks are used to provide easy access to information, thus increasing

productivity for users.

Types of Networks

Local Area Network (LAN)

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Intranets, Extranets, and the Internet

Peer-to-Peer Networks

Client-Server Networks

Media

Twisted-Pair Copper Wire (POTS)

Coaxial Cable (CoAx)

Fiber Optics (Fiber)

Network Topologies

Linear Bus Network Star Network

Ring Network

Token-Ring Network

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Protocols

Simplex Transmission

Full-Duplex / Half-Duplex Transmission

Synchronous / Asynchronous Transmission

Ethernet

Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

Networking Hardware

Hubs

Bridges and Switches

Gateways

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HANDS ON EXPERIENCE

OSI Reference Model

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The OSI Model and Protocols

The OSI model is used to specify how computer devices communicate

with each other.

What is OSI?

The Open Systems Interchange (OSI) model is a set of guidelines that

describes all the aspects of the communication process.

The main objective is to allow computers and networks to worktogether efficiently. The International Standardization Organization

(ISO) develops product standards for the computer industry.

THE OSI Model

There are seven layers, or sections in the OSI model.

Each layer is responsible for one particular aspect of communication.

Data Transfer

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When data is transferred over a network it must pass through each

layer of the OSI model. Information is added at each layer

When the data reaches the destination, the data must again pass

through each layer. The additional information is then removed.

Application and Presentation Layer

The application layer is responsible for the exchanging information

between the programs running on a computer and other services on a

network.

The presentation layer formats the information so that a software

application can read the information

Session and Transport Layer

The session layer determines how two devices communicate as well

as establishes and monitors connections between computers.

The transport layer corrects transmission errors and ensures that

information is delivered reliably.

Network and Data Link Layer

The network Layer identifies computers on a network and determines

how to direct information transferring over a network.

The Data Link layer groups data into sets to prepare the data for

transport over a network.

Physical Layer

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The Physical layer defines how a transmission medium such as cable,

connects to a computer. This layer also specifies how electrical information

transfers on the transmission medium

The OSI model has seven layers. These seven layers can be summarizedas follow:

Seven layers are defined:

7) Application : Provides different services to the applications

6) Presentation : Converts the information

5) Session : Handles problems which are not communication issues

4) Transport : Provides end to end communication control

3) Network: Routes the information in the network

2) Data Link: Provides error control between adjacent nodes

1) Physical : Connects the entity to the transmission media

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TCP/IP Model

What Is TCP/IP?

TCP/IP is a universal standard suite of protocols used to provide

connectivity between networked devices. It is part of the larger OSI modelupon which most data communications is based.

One component of TCP/IP is the Internet Protocol (IP) which is responsible

for ensuring that data is transferred between two addresses without being

corrupted.

TCP/IP Protocol

TCP/IP Protocol is a collection, or stack of protocols used to allow

communication between networks with different types of computer

systems. It is also the protocol used on the internet.

What is TCP?

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Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is used to transfer information

between two devices on a TCP/IP Network.TCP uses Virtual ports to

make connections and also monitors the transmission of information.

What is IP?

Internet Protocol (IP) is responsible for addressing information and is

used to direct information to its proper destination on a TCP/IP

network.

IP address

Ip address is a logical address or a software which is used to identify a node

in a network ip(internet protocol)

What Do IP Addresses Look Like?

All devices connected to the Internet have an Internet Protocol (IP)

address. Just like a telephone number, it helps to uniquely identify a

user of the system.

IP addresses are in reality a string of binary digits or "bits". Each bit

is either a 1 or a 0. IP addresses have 32 bits in total.

For ease of use, IP addresses are written in what is called a "dotted

decimal" format, four numbers with dots in between. None of the

numbers between the dots may be greater than 255. An example of

an IP address would be 97.65.25.12.

The numbers between the dots are frequently referred to as "octets"

Some groups of IP addresses are reserved for use only in private

networks and are not routed over the Internet. These are:

Private IP Addresses

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10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255

172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255

192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255

Home networking equipment / devices usually are configured in thefactory with an IP address in the range 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.255.

What Is Local host?

Whether or not your computer has a network interface card it will have a

built in IP address with which network aware applications cancommunicate with one another. This IP address is defined as 127.0.0.1

and is frequently referred to as local host

Network Topology

There are three types of Topology.

1) Bus topology

2) Star topology

3) Ring topology

Bus Topology

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Features:

The cable runs from one pc to another.

One pc sends data;All the host receive it and accepts only whose

network address matches.

Only one pc can send data at a time.

The network does not fail if one pc fails.

Break cable or loose connector can make whole network failed.

It needs termination at either end. For 10base2 cable it is 50W and

for 10Base5 it is 75W. It is very difficult to troubleshoot in Bus Topology.

Easy to extend the network; means new comp. Can be easily

connected.

The network speed decrease as the no of computers increases so

this topology is suitable for very small network.

It generally uses co-axial cable and T-connector.

Star Topology

Features:

The cable runs from each

pc to the central device. The central device may be hub or switch.

Thus, star topology needs more cable requirement than any other

topologies.

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Easy to add new pc and thus easy to extend network.

No termination is required.

Whole network does not fail if single pc or cable or connector

fails.

Very easy to troubleshoot as compared to any other topology. Mostly uses UTP CAT5 cables and RJ-45 connectors now a days.

The only major disadvantage is if the central device fails whole

network goes down.

Ring Topology

Features:

In Ring Topology each

pc is connected to the next pc and finally last pc is connected to the

first pc .so in Ring Topology doe snot required termination. It is

considered improved version of Bus Topology.

Each pc sends what it receives until the final destination arrives.

Whole network fails if one pc fails.

It is the most efficient and speedy because it uses token passingmedia access scheme because of this each pc sends source address

and destination address along with data and thus no need to match

address.

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Types of Cable

Twisted Pair

Twisted pairs consist of two insulated wires twisted together.

They are specifically intended for carrying signals and were invented in

the 1880s for wiring up the early telephone systems. Twisted pairs offer

low noise pick-up and low noise emission from a cable because it is a

balanced line and because a balanced line offers "common-mode noise

rejection".

Coaxial CableCoaxial cable, or coax, for short, is the other most popular cable

configuration. The signal on the cable is not the same on the twoconductors since the shield carries both ground and signal. The two

conductors are not the same size, same resistance. Therefore, coax is

not a balanced line. It is an unbalanced line.

Fiber-optic

Consists of a small core of glass or plastic surrounded by a cladding

layer and jacket.

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Fibers are unidirectional (light only travels in one direction) so two

fibers are used, one for sending and one for receiving. Kevlar fibers

are placed between the two fibers for strength.

Good for very high speed, long distance data transmission.

NOT subject to electrical interference.

Cable can't be tapped and data stolen => high security

Most expensive and difficult to work with.

Immune to tapping.

can transmit at 100 Mbps and way up to 2 Gbps

Up to 2000 meters without a repeater.

Supports data, voice and video.

Needs specialized knowledge to install => expensive all round.

Products & Divisions

What are internetworking devices?

Internetworking devices are products used to connect networks. As

computer networks grow in size and complexity, so do the

internetworking devices used to connect them.

The purposes of having devices:

First, they allow a greater number of nodes to be connected to the

network.

Second, they extend the distance over which a network can extend.

Third, they localize traffic on the network.

Fourth, they can merge existing networks.

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Fifth, they isolate network problems so that they can be diagnosed more

easily.

Networking Hardware

Hubs

Bridges and Switches

Gateways

Routers

Connectivity Hardware

Network Interface Card (NIC)

Modem

Fax Modem

Cable Modem

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LOCAL AREA NETWORKS AND DEVICES

LAN Devices

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Host

Provides users with connection to network

computers (both clients and servers)

printers scanners

other user devices

Connects directly to a network segment

Operates at all 7 layers of the OSI model

NIC

Network interface card

Printed circuit board usually installed inside a computer case

Also called network adapter

Adapts host device to the network

Layer 2 device

Carries a unique code called a MAC address

Media

Carries a flow of information, in the form of bits and

bytes, through a LAN

Considered layer 1 component

Includes

Cat 5 UTP

optical fiber free space

coaxial cable

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Repeater

Regenerates and retimes network signals

Allows signal to travel a longer distance on the media

Single-port in and single-port out device

Classified as layer 1 device

Bridge

Connects two LAN segments to make one larger continuous LAN

Filters LAN traffic to keep local traffic local

Allows connectivity to other parts of the LAN

Simple to install and managecosts less than router

Checks MAC address to make forwarding decisions

Considered layer 2 device

ROUTER & ROUTING ALGO

What is a Router?

As stated before, switches and hubs usually only have servers

connected to them that have been configured as being part of the

same network.

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Routers will connect into multiple switches to allow these networks

to communicate with one another.

Routers can also be configured to deny communication between

specific servers on different networks. They can also filter traffic

based on the TCP port section of each packet. For example, it ispossible to deny communication between two servers on different

networks that intend to communicate on TCP port 80, and allow all

other traffic between them. Routers therefore direct and regulate

traffic between separate networks, much like a traffic policeman.

If you intend to route between networks, then for each network, you

must reserve an IP address for a router and make sure that the

router is directly connected to the LAN associated with that

network.

Routers Work at the Network Layer

Use the Protocols to carry Data over Network

Link Networks used for different purposes

Apply rules or filters to let certain data in

Route data Over Specific Set of Network Connections

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What is a Gateway?

Another name for a router.

What is a Default Gateway?

A default gateway is really a gateway of last resort. Say for example:

You have two routers R1 and R2

R1 is connected to both your SOHO home network (192.168.1.0) and

the internet

R2 is connected to both your SOHO home network (192.168.1.0) and

your credit card transaction payment the network (10.46.123.0) which

is also connected to other corporate networks with addresses starting

with 10.X.X.X

You could put a route on your SOHO servers that states:

Go to network 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 via router R2

Go to everything else via router R1. R1 therefore would be considered

your default gateway

For most home networks, your default gateway would be the router /

firewall connected to the Internet.

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What is a NIC?

Your network interface card is frequently called a NIC. Currently, the mostcommon types of NIC used in the home are Ethernet and wireless Ethernet

cards.

What is a DTE?

DTE stands for Digital Terminal Equipment, a terminology originally

intended for computer terminals located at remote offices or departments

that were directly connected modems. The terminals would have no

computing power and only functioned as a screen / keyboard combination

for data processing.

Nowadays most PCs have their COM and Ethernet ports configured as if

they were going to be connected to a modem or other type of purely

networking oriented equipment.

What is a DCE?

DCE is the acronym for Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment. Modems

and other purely networking oriented equipment.

ROUTING

Routing is a protocol that is designed to defined path for packet delivery to

the destination

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LAB DESIGNING:

1) Set our hostname and get our interfaces up.

2) Ping our directly connected interfaces

3) Configure routing for our topology

4) View our routing table

5) Verify that we can ping all routers

Hub & Switch

Whats a Smart Hub?

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A smart hub can be configured and remotely managed. For example,

ports can be shut off.

However, this doesnt mean that it does anything smart with network

traffic. It has no switching capabilities. Traffic is always forwarded to

all ports.

Our most common smart hub on campus is the Asant NetStacker.

Networking no longer recommends hubs for wiring closets. It may be

OK to use small unmanaged hubs to give selected offices additional

ports. Use hubs with care!

Hubs

Operate at layer 2 of the network

Data link layer

Ethernet

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Main purposes

Repeat traffic out all ports

Media conversion inside a LAN

Advantages of Hubs

Easy to Understand

Easy to Implement

so theyre cheap

Disadvantages of Hubs

Wasteful of bandwidth Poor security

HUB broadcasts packets on all other ports

Switches

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Also operate at layer 2 of the network

Data link layer

Ethernet

Main purposes

Repeat traffic outsome ports

Media conversion within a LAN

Often called a bridge

Difference between Hub and Switch

A bridge with more than two interfaces (ports) is also known as a

switch. There are important differences between switches and hubs. In

particular, the way in which they forward frames.

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A Hub sending a packet form F to C.

A hub (or repeater) forwards a received frame out of all the interfaces

(ports), resulting in the frame reaching all connected equipment, even

though the frame may be only destined for a system connected to one

particular interface (C, in the above diagram).

A switch, on the other hand, forwards the frame to only the required

interface. The switch learns the association between the systems MACaddresses and the interface ports in the same way as a bridge (see

above).

By sending the packet only where it need to go, the switch reduces

the number of packets on the other LAN segments , increasing the

overall performance of the connected LANs. The switch also

improves security.

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A Switch sending a packet from F to C

Switches (like bridges) normally forward all multicast and broadcast

packets to all receivers (some switches have extra processing to help

improve performance of multicast forwarding). More details about

this and the operation of switches may be found in a related page (see

below).

A Switch sending a frame from F to a multicast / broadcast addres

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SUMMARY

In this training report I have tried to give an overview of the networking . by

this report we can know about the networking. how a data transfer from one

source to another source, type of topologies such as bus, star, ring type of

network LAN, WAN etc. networking devices such as router, hub bridge,

switches, etc. networking protocols such as Tcp/ip, rip, igrp, eigrp, pap,

chap, hdlc etc. by this report we can also know how a router work & what

are the essential commands for routing. How we make excess list.

Now a days networking is very essential to share our data &

transfer our data from source to destination. By the networking we can be

connected in all over the world. Without networking human life is notpossible. Networking is used every where such as in offices, in companies,

in colleges etc. The best example of networking is internet.

Lastly I would like to thank all the Staff members of STPI for

cooperating me during this training.

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