Nepal Architecture

7/23/2019 Nepal Architecture

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Table of Contents

GEOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATOLOGICAL PROFILE IN NEPAL..........................2RELIGION IN NEPAL......................................................................................3

HINDU BUDDHIST HARMONY....................................................................3

EARLY REFERENCES TO NEPAL.................................................................... 6

PRE-HISTORIC NEPAL...................................................................................7

LICHCHAVI ANCIENT SETTLEMENTS AND ARCHITECTURE.........................7

DAKSHINRAJAKULA................................................................................9

MANAGRIHA.......................................................................................... 9

KAILASHKUTA BHAVANA......................................................................1

BHADRADHIVASA BHAVANA................................................................11

VIHARAS AND CHAITYAS......................................................................11

TEMPLES..............................................................................................12

MALLA SETTLEMENTS AND ARCHITECTURE............................................13

MALLA PALACES.....................................................................................16

CAUKOT DURBAR! PATAN PALACE........................................................17

TRIPURA LAYKU! BHAKTAPUR PALACE..................................................19

MALLA PERIOD BASIC HOUSE.................................................................21

BUDDHIST RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE......................................................2"

BAHAS.................................................................................................... 2#

BAHIS..................................................................................................... 27

MATHAS..................................................................................................2$

THE TIERED TEMPLES.............................................................................29

SHIKHARA AND DOME TEMPLES.............................................................33

DHARAMSALAS..........................................................................................3"

STUPAS......................................................................................................3"

UTILITIES................................................................................................ 36

SHAH AND RANA PERIOD ARCHITECTURE..................................................36

SYMBOLISM AND PROPORTION IN NEPALESE ARCHITECTURE...................."

SYMBOLISM............................................................................................ "

PROPORTIONS........................................................................................ "2

R%&%'%()%*................................................................................................. "3

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GEOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATOLOGICAL PROFILE IN NEPAL

Nepal is a small, landlocked country, situated between Tibet (China) to its north, and

India to its east, west and south. At latitudes between 2 and !" de#rees north and

lon#itudes between $" and $$ de#rees east, the country co%ers an area of

&',&$&s.km and stretches appro*imately &'+2'& km. north to south and $+" km.west to east. It has been said that, e%en thou#h Nepal +s area is actually much the same

as that of the state of -lorida in /A, if Nepal could be taken off the face of the earth

and laid flat, its area would eual that of the whole of the nited /tates of America.

0owe%er, in fact, althou#h occupyin# 1ust ".& of the earth+s surface, Nepal is one of

the richest countries in the world in terms of biodi%ersity due to its uniue

#eo#raphical position and altitudinal %ariation. The ele%ation of the country ran#es

from less than &"" meters abo%e sea le%el in the Terai, to the hi#hest point on earth,

the summit of 3t. 4%erest, at $,$'$ meters, all within a distance of about &+"km,

resultin# in climatic conditions ran#in# from subtropical to Arctic.

Nepal is topo#raphically di%ided into three re#ions5 the 0imalaya to the north, the

middle hills consistin# of the 3ahabharat ran#e and the Churia 0ills, and the Terai to

the south. The 0imalaya and its foothills make up the northern border of the country

and represent & of the total land area. This is the least inhabited re#ion of Nepal,

with less than $ of the population li%in# there. 3ost permanent settlements are at

less than '"""m altitude, althou#h there are summer settlements as hi#h as +"""m.

The middle hills co%er about + of the total land area and are home to around '+

of the population of the country. This area is the home of the ancient ethnic people of

Nepal. The climate is %ery #ood and most of Nepal+s lakes and beautiful %alleys are

located in the middle hills. Areas in the eastern hills recei%e most rainfall because of

the monsoon clouds, which come from the 6ay of 6en#al. The middle hills pro%ide a

%ery #ood habitat for wild life, such as leopard, deer, bear, monkeys, butterflies and

o%er four hundred indi#enous species of birds.

The Terai is the southern part of Nepal and is an e*tension of the 7an#etic plains of

India. It co%ers & of the total land area, pro%idin# e*cellent farmin# land as well as

space for lar#e industrial areas. ntil &8+", the Terai was predominantly an area of

hea%ily malarial subtropical forest, inhabited only by the 9oyal 6en#al ti#er, leopard,

wild boar, se%eral species of deer, onehorned rhino, wild elephant and #harial and

mu##er crocodiles. 6ut after the eradication of malaria in the &8"s, many peoplefrom the middle hills mi#rated to the Terai in search of farmin# land. Today, about

'$ of the population occupies this re#ion.

/o Nepal has a %ery interestin# and e*citin# biodi%ersity due to its uniue

#eo#raphical position and altitudinal %ariation. :robably, Nepal is only country in the

world, which could pro%ide such opportunity5 in a period of 1ust two weeks it is

possible to tra%el from subtropical lowlands to alpine #laciers, to e*perience altitudes

from as low as "m to the base of the hi#hest mountain on the earth, temperatures

from ;'" de#rees celsius to '" de#rees celsius and a climate ran#in# from monsoon

and humid to dry rain shadow and fro


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In Nepal, 0induism and 6uddhism are the two main reli#ions. The two ha%e co

e*isted down the a#es and many 0indu temples share the same comple* as, 6uddhist

shrines. 0indu and 6uddhist worshippers may re#ard the same #od with different

names while performin# reli#ious rites.

Nepal has been declared as a secular country by the :arliament on 3ay &$, 2"".

9eli#ions like 0indusim 6uddhism, Islam, Christianity, and 6on are practiced here.

/ome of the earliest inhabitants like the =irats practice their own kind of reli#ion

based on ancestor worship and the Tharus practice animism. >%er the years,

0induism and 6uddhism ha%e been influenced by these practices which ha%e been

modified to form a synthesis of newer beliefs.

6uddhism was introduced in =athmandu %alley by 4mperor Ashoka of India around

2+" 6C. ?ater, around $th century A@, the ancestors of the /herpas emi#rated from

Tibet brin#in# with them a from of 6uddhism. =nown as Nin#mapa 7urun#s,

Taman#s, /erpas and Newars in kathmandu %alley also follow 3ahayaa 6uddhismand the famous temple of /wayambhu in =athmandu and the B7olden Temple or the

0iranya Darna 3ahabihar in :atan are %isited mainly by 6uddhist Newars.

A few people ha%e adopted a comple* blend of both 0induism and 6uddhism known

as 6a1rayana, which is mainly practiced in =athmandu %alley. A remarkable feature of

Nepal is thus the reli#ious homo#eneity that e*ists, particularly between the 0indu

and 6uddhist communities. Apart from the 0indus and 6uddhists, 3uslim (!.+)

forms the third lar#est reli#ious #roup. There has also been an increase in the number

of Christian in Nepal in recent years, which number around '"""" althou#h their

proportion in the population is less than & percent and &.2 percent of other reli#ion.

HINDU BUDDHIST HARMONY

Nepal is probably the only country where 0induism and 6uddhism ha%e coe*isted

continuously since %ery early times. In India, 6uddhism died out in the &2 thcentury

with the rise of the 3uslims whereas, in the e*tended countries such as 6urma,

Thailand and Indochina, only 6uddhism has sur%i%ed. Celibacy in 6uddhist monks is

normal in all the other countries, whereas, in Nepal the practice of celibacy amon#

monks #radually disappeared with the ascendancy of Tantric 6uddhism.

Althou#h lookin# at the worship of common deities, the similar pantheon of #ods,

similar rituals and identical temple architecture it would appear the two reli#ions

remained in harmony since early times, in reality there was tension between the two

reli#ions at %arious periods of history. Drisade%a, the early ?ichcha%i kin# is belie%ed

to ha%e committed self sacrifice and his #randson @harmade%a was killed by his son

3anade%a because of their 6uddhist leanin#s. >nly their deaths could pacify the

opposin# #roups. Also the mass translocation of the 6uddhist %iharas from Chabahil

7okarna area to :atan durin# the ?ichcha%i period su##ests such a mo%ement was

made probably for security reasons as :atan was mainly a 6uddhists town. Conflicts

can also be deduced from the fact that reli#ious te*ts of the two reli#ions tried to

belittle each otherEs #ods and their deeds. ?e#ends tell about /ankaracharyaEs

persecution of 6uddhists and the merciless re%en#e of the 6uddhamar#is. The later

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?ichcha%i kin#s, the Thakuris and the 3allas all fa%ored 0induism, althou#h they

continued to contribute to 6uddhist %iharas and temples as well. -or e*ample

Amsu%arman, a /i%ite, e*tended patrona#e to 6uddhists and also built a %ihara. ?ater

3alla kin#s also repaired both 0indu temples and 6uddhist %iharas. 6uddhism saw a

brief re%i%al in the &2thcentury when the 6uddhist teachers fled India and brou#ht

alon# their te*ts and made Nepal a centre for 6uddhist learnin#. Thereafter, with the

rise of Fayasthitimalla and the 7orkhalis 6uddhism saw a continuous decline in

Nepal, further e*acerbated by the caste system amon# the 6uddhists and the #rowin#

popularity of Da1rayana. 0owe%er, in spite of the marked bias at the le%el of the rulin#

elite, there was much more tolerance and harmony amon# the common people of the

two reli#ions.

6oth reli#ions belie%e in Bkarma and rebirth of the soul. 6oth seek release from the

endless chain of rebirths by achie%in# Bnir%ana or Bmoksa. @espite 6uddhas

teachin# to the contrary, Nepali 6uddhists ha%e a caste system similar to the 0indus.

After the ad%ent of 3ahayana 6uddhism both share a similar pantheon of #ods and#oddesses who ha%e the same conceptual basis, ha%e similar iconic forms and are

worshiped in much the same manner e.#. /i%aA%alokiteshwara, :ar%atiTara, Indra

6odhisatt%a Da1rapani, 6rahma6odhisatt%a 3aitreya, 6haira%3ahankal etc.

6rahmanical #ods which were lon# established and popular were incorporated in the

3ahayana pantheon, their duties similar to the #ods they were deri%ed from (/lusser,

&8$2). As a result the two reli#ions ha%e similar cultural practices and rituals.

6oth the reli#ions were influenced by Tantrism, which did not introduce any

fundamental philosophical principles but it radically chan#ed the rituals. 6uddhist

schools that incorporated tantric ideas and principles were known as Da1rayana. Da1ra

denotes thunderbolt and diamond. The thunderbolt si#nifies the flash of intuiti%e li#ht

of perfection (siddhi) and the diamond symboli


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7anesa, 0anuman, Indra and many other minor deities. Na%adur#as (nine dur#as) and

Astamatrikas (ei#ht mothers) are uni%ersally worshiped. /imilarly, Da1rayo#inis or

Didhyas%aris are eually re%ered as mothers (mais) or #randmothers (a1ima). 6y the

thcentury A@ 6uddha was inducted into the 0indu pantheon as one of the &"

incarnations of Dishnu. The two reli#ions also worshiped the same #ods but as

different deities. Falasayana Narayan at 6udhanilkantha is worshiped as Dishnu by the

0indus but as a form of 6uddha by the 6uddhists. 7uhyeswori is worshiped by the

0indus as a form of @ur#a while the 6uddhists belie%e her to be :ra1naparamita,

A#niyo#ini or Nairatma. The tantric 6uddhist deity of 3ahankal is considered by the

0indus to be a form of /i%a. >nce a year on kartik sukla astami :asupati is adorned

with a 6odhisatt%a crown and worshiped as A%alokiteshwara. Chan#u Narayan is

worshiped by the 6uddhists as 6odhisatt%a A%alokiteshwara. 0indus worship

3achendranath while the 6uddhists worship him as A%alokiteshwara. The 6uddhist

#oddess 0ariti, #oddess of smallpo*, is worshiped by the 0indus as /itala 3ai.

A %ery peculiar syncretism of the reli#ions is seen in the worship of the =umari.=umari, the %ir#in manifestation of @ur#a, is worshiped in the body of a 6uddhist

(/akya) #irl and her shrine is a %ihara. =umari 7har has =umariEs personal shrine on

the top floor, principle deities of the -i%e Tatha#atas on the #round floor and an

a#ama on the first floor. 0indu priests (=armacharya, Acha1u) are in char#e of her

installation, @asain acti%ities and nitya pu1a while Da1racharyas worship her daily and

play a leadin# role in her chariot festi%al. The =umari festi%al is participated in by

people of both reli#ions. 4%eryone also participates in the festi%als of Indra Fatra and

3achindranatha Fatra. @urin# the festi%al of Indra Fatra 6ares officiate as priests and

6uddhist Newars assist in celebration.

6a#h 6haira% of =irtipur is worshiped by both 0indus and 6uddhists. The main icon

is of clay and co%ered by a sil%er mask. Ghen the icon is dama#ed, it is repaired or

replaced by a Da1racharya priest who collects clay from se%en places around the

shrine of 3haipi, between :akna1ol and 6ala1u.

The shared reli#ious philosophy of the two reli#ions has led to common temple forms.

0owe%er, the ma1ority of 6uddhist reli#ious buildin#s comprise of %iharas and

chaityas while 0indu reli#ious buildin#s primarily comprise of free standin# temples

with %arious types of roofs. Ghile all the ma1or 0indu temples are tiered temples,

some of the prominent tiered 6uddhist temples are the two tiered 3achindra temples

at =athmandu and :atan, the three tiered Da1rayo#ini temples at :harpin# and /ankhu,temple of 3ahankal and Taradeo at Itumbahal. Temples built into the sides of

6uddhist %iharas display the same features as that of the 0indu tiered temples.

There are many shikhara type 0indu temples but few 6uddhist ones. >ne of the most

prominent and beautiful shikahara 6uddhist structure is the 3ahabouddha temple at

:atan. Two shikhara temples dedicated to Da1rayana deities e*ist at /wayambhu. The

free standin# shikhara housin# 3achindranath (:admapani ?okeswara) the kwapa

dya of 6un#a 6aha at 6un#amati is another rare e*ample. The ?on @e#ah (stone

temple) built in &' and the /akyamuni 6uddha 3andir (&'8) at =irtipur are other

#ood e*amples of 6uddhist shikhara temples. nlike the 0indu temples, no lar#e

domed 6uddhist temples e*ist, but the number of small 6uddhist shrines with dome

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roofs are innumerable. 6oth reli#ions also ha%e open shrines of deities but this

practice is more common for 0indu #ods.

EARLY REFERENCES TO NEPAL

The earliest epi#raphic records of Nepal are the pillars erected at ?umbini and Ni#ali

/a#ar in 2+ 6C by the 3auryan emperor Ashoka (282!2 6C). The ?umbini pillar

inscriptions record that Ashoka came to pray at the spot because ?ord 6uddha was

born there. The inscription on the other pillar at Ni#ali /a#ar refers to the repair and

e*pansion in si


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the time of =autilya, conclusions can be drawn that settlement of distinct urban

pattern e*isted to accommodate such hei#htened economic acti%ities. The history of

settlements in the %alley can thus be pushed back more than "" years from

established date of historical be#innin#. (Tiwari, 2""&)

0suantsan#, Chinese pil#rim to India in mid th

century heard in Daisali about redcopper, yak, 3in#min# bird and use of copper coins in Nepal. Gan# 0suantse,

Chinese en%oy on his way from the TEan# court to meet 0arsha%ardhana at =anau1,

%isited =athmandu %alley in the mid thcentury durin# the rei#n of Narendrade%a and

noted that Bmerchants, fi*ed and itinerant, were numerous and culti%ators rare.

(/lusser, &8$2)

The 'T0century A@ pillar inscription of /amudra#upta at Allahabad lists BNepala as

a frontier state. TEan# dynasty, contemporaries of ?ichcha%is, referred to Nepal as Ni

polo

PRE-HISTORIC NEPAL

LICHCHAVI ANCIENT SETTLEMENTS AND ARCHITECTURE

6y early ?ichcha%i period, settlements e*isted at /an#a (/an#a#rama), 6anepa, Nala,

:anauti, =hopasi, :alanchowk, @um1a and probably @olakha, ?ele (?embatidran##a),

Chitlan# %alley and e%en upto 7orkha. Githin the Dalley settlements occurred at

@a*inakoli#ram, @eopatan, 0adi#aon, 6udhanilkantha, Thankot, Na*al

(Fon1ondin#rama), Famal (Famayambi), =isipidi (=ichprin##rama) etc. (/lusser,&8$2).

@urin# ?ichcha%i period, #rama meant settlement of ?ichcha%i creation or e*pansion

and are not indicati%e of %illa#es. @ran##a was not a physical classification but a type

of administrati%e power #i%en by the state (Tiwari, &8$2). :rin##a #enerally referred

to settlements on the crests of hillocks and the suffi* was ne%er used for places with

/anskrit names. This su##ests prin##as refer to settlements from =irata period whose

names had remained popular for a lon# time e#. =hoprin##rama pradesha (eastern

part of 6haktapur), Folprin##rama (NG of Thankot), ?ohprin# and 3uhprin# (4 and

N4 of :asupati). /ettlements on slopes of hillocks usually carried the suffi* Bdula

such as =adula#rama, 3ekandidula, todays =upandole etc.

?ichcha%i towns were situated alon# a number of trade routes crisscrossin# the %alley.

The towns were fairly compact with distinct urban character. Apart from a#riculture

includin# production of cash crops, other acti%ities were pursued such as animal and

fish farmin#, minin# and metal processin#, cotton wea%in#, forestry, tradin# etc.

Gea%in# of cloth was practiced at Thankot which is still continued. There was

e*tensi%e tradin# with the southern nei#hborin# states and hi#h le%els of commercial

acti%ities e*isted as e%idenced by minted coins and measurin# units and scales. /uch

nona#riculture acti%ities indicate certain de#ree of urbani


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e.#. on land, orchard produce such as #arlic and onions, e*ports, cloth, oil, shops,

a#riculture implements, animal farmin#, entertainment etc. Ta* collection centres

were located close to temples and at the palace #ates. /ettlements do not appear to be

walled as in the later 3alla period. :edestrian and wheeled traffic routes linked the

different settlements and the roads had %arious classifications such as mar#a,

mahapath, brihatpath, hastimar#a etc.

nlike durin# the earlier times when settlements were laid on the lower slopes of the

hills and drinkin# water sources were close by, many ?ichcha%i settlements were

located on the hi#h lands (tar) of the %alley, far away from hill water sources and in

areas with relati%ely low water tables. To pro%ide them with adeuate water, the

?ichcha%is de%eloped ponds with deep wells or which were fed by canals brin#in#

water o%er #reat distances. /ometimes naturally a%ailable water %eins or reser%oirs

were used to supply water to depressed pit conduits (dhun#e dharas). The distance

from the source or reser%oir determined the depth of the pit conduits. /ome of the

dhun#e dharas are still workin# today.

The towns were either palace centric or temple centric. :alace centric towns were the

capital city with the palace as the central focus. 3aneswar (0adi#aon) where

3ana#riha was built was the first palace centric town. Temple centric towns were

built around important temples. /ome of the early temple centric towns were

6hrin#a#rama (/unakothi), ?embati#rama (?ele), 6un#amati, @eopatan and

Narasimha#rama (near 6udhanilkantha). /ettlements also #rew up around the ta*

offices which formed the central urban space such as at /tharudran##a (Chapa#aon)

and =ichprin##rama (=isipidi). 6y late ?ichchi%i or early 3alla period towns came to

polari


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This le#end was probably a way of le#itimi


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palace to the area #enerally north of 6al 3andir and to the /4 of the current

3anamaneswori temple (Tiwari, 2""&). Coins were minted durin# the ?ichcha%i

period and there was a place referred to as Tamrakuttasala close to 3ana#riha. The

=ampoambi hi#hway was supposed to ha%e passed at some distance from the

palace to the west.

KAILASHKUTA BHAVANA

=ailashkutabha%ana was built by Amshu%arman ("+2& A@). Construction may

ha%e be#un durin# the time of /i%ade%a I, predecessor of Amshu%arman when

citi


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?ichch%i kin# to set up his capital in Andiprin##a. As no security barriers appear to

ha%e been set up in the 3an#riha #ate, 3adhyamara1kula #ate and the north #ate,

there probably was free passa#e between the palaces which would su##est that they

were conti#uous (Tiwari, 2""&).

Classical te*ts reuired #ates to the east so its absence probably meant that access wasnot possible because of a stream or a lake to the /4. The Chinese ambassador also

mentioned a lake was %isible from the terrace (Tiwari, 2""&). Impressi%e waterworks

leads one to belie%e that the water mechanic held an important position and this is

substantiated by the hi#her salary allocated to him.

The palace structure was probably constructed mainly of wood and bricks as indicated

by the bricks with Amsu%armanEs name unearthed in 0adi#aon. (/lusser, &8$2)

=ailashkuta bha%ana had more than four temples and fi%e #ates. 0owe%er, there is no

mention of the temples in the Chinese annals which should not ha%e missed these

when such a detailed description of the palace had been pro%ided. This would

probably indicate that the temples were either not #rand structures or did not form

focal points in the suares or were confined to the pri%ate uarters of the palace. It

appears palace temples were #i%en prominence only later durin# the 3alla period

(Tiwari, 2""&).

/lusser ar#ues that =ailashkutabha%ana was probably located in =athmandu in the

%icinity of Faiside%al because of the presence of the statue of =artikkaya in the

%icinity whereas Tiwari firmly belie%es the palace was located in 0adi#aon, to the /4

of 3ana#riha and 3anamaneshwari, to the south of 7ahana :okhari which was the

source of the water for the palace waterworks (Tiwari, 2""&).

BHADRADHIVASA BHAVANA

Narendrade%a issued three edicts between &8 A@ from 6hadradhi%asa bha%ana.

/lusser su##ests it refers to =ailashkutabha%ana, not another palace, used while it was

bein# repaired (/lusser, &8$2). Tiwari disa#rees and su##ests 6hadradhi%asabha%ana

could be a palace located in :atan where Narendrade%a took up residence after he was

ousted from =ailashkutabha%ana due to palace intri#ue as a result of his attraction to

6uddhism (Tiwari, 2""&).

VIHARAS AND CHAITYAS

?ichcha%i inscriptions indicate e*istence of &' %iharas. /rimanade%a %ihara,Abhayaruchi %ihara, Chaturbhalatanasana %ihara, =har1urika %ihara, 3adhyama

%ihara, /i%ade%a %ihara and Darta =alyana#upta %ihara were thou#ht to lie in the same

#eneral area. /rira1a %ihara which was also close to them was thou#ht to lie N4 of

7okarna. Thus all the abo%e %iharas were probably located between Chabahil and

7okarna. /i%ade%a %ihara is probably the same as 6ouddhanath and 7um %ihara lies

at its current location at Da1rayo#ini (Tiwari, 2""&).

There seems to be an absence of %iharas in :atan durin# the ?ichcha%i period

althou#h there was a concentration of %iharas durin# the medie%al period. @urin# the

period followin# ?ichcha%i, a stron# conflict appears to ha%e de%eloped between

6rahmanism and 6uddhism. 3anade%as father probably was a %ictim of such

conflict. As a result there appears to be a total relocation of the 6uddhist population of

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the area between Chabahil and 7okarna to :atan (Tiwari, 2""&). The ?ichcha%i

%iharas probably housed celibate monks and nuns practicin# 3ahayana 6uddhism and

were #enerally located away from settlements. 6y the time of the transitional period,

6a1rayana had fully flourished and celibate monks and nuns had #i%en way to married

bhikshus. The desi#n and location of the %iharas were chan#ed to accommodate their

married status. They came to be located within dense settlements (Tiwari, 2""&).

?ocke, howe%er, belie%es the two schools of 6uddhism e*isted alon#side since early

?ichcha%i times and 6a1rayana slowly #ained ascendancy until celibacy in monks

died out alto#ether (?ocke, &8$+).

Gopalarajavamsavaliinforms that Drisade%a built /wayambhu chaitya, @harmade%a

built @harmode chaitya, 3anade%a built 7um Dihara and /i%ade%a I built

6ouddhanath. The e*act form of the earlier chaityas is difficult to determine as they

are hidden within later enlar#ed structures. It was a common practice in India and

Nepal to enlar#e e*istin# stupas while carefully preser%in# the ori#inal sacred

structures within. It is therefore not uncommon to find ori#inal ima#es within deepniches.

@harmade%a stupa and 3ahamayuri stupa (7um %ihara) are probably most

appro*imate to their ori#inal sither important

temples were =ailashwara, Narasimhade%a, 9ameshwara, 0ansa#rihade%a etc.

The ?ichcha%is used specific suffi*es to denote the dedicated #od. /wami was used to

denote Dishnu, Iswara to denote /hi%a, @e%a to denote Dishnu a%atars and @e%akula

to denote =irata temples or temples housin# more than one ima#e Temples were notthe ma1or elements of central urban spaces such as palace suares. This form was

de%eloped much later by the 3allas (Tiwari, 2""&).

3ultitiered temples of brick and timber probably e*isted durin# ?ichcha%i time. This

can be determined partly by Gan# 0suan tseEs description of ?ichcha%i structures but

mainly from Amshu%armanEs &" A@ edict where he had donated funds for the

restoration of a temple in 3atin#rama (/undhara tol, :atan) because Bthe bricks had

been disturbed and the timber of the doors and windows had become old and broken

(/lusser, &8$2). This brick and timber temple 3atinde%akula, which housed mother

#oddesses, was ob%iously non?ichcha%i and of =irata ori#in.

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Italian e*ca%ation at 0adi#aon disco%ered the foundations of a temple datin# to the

2nd century 6C. The foundation was of a typical Na%a#raha plan (nine holes in

foundation) based on Dastupurushamandala (Tiwari, 2""&). This is an e*ample of a

brick and timber temple, suare in plan, probably with slopin# roofs. The temple is

credited to the =irata period but such structures must definitely ha%e influenced

?ichcha%i construction. ?ichcha%i period small temples were built of timber posts

with bricks as infill. /uch temples were common in India in the early 7upta period. It

was only durin# the 3alla period when the structural materials were re%ersed, with

bricks ser%in# as the structural element and timber as the filler material.

Accordin# to chronicles, 0aridatta%arman, an undocumented ?ichcha%i kin# is

credited with the construction of four hilltop temples dedicated to Narayana5 Chan#u

Narayan, Ichan#u Narayan, /ikhara Narayan and ?okapalas%amin. The last temple

alon# with the town of 0amsa#rihadran#a where it was located e*ists no more.

Currently 6ishankhu Narayan is referred to as the lost temple.

7unakamade%a is credited with the repair of the + storied :ashupati temple and

remodelin# it into a ! storied temple. /ince the technolo#y of constructin# more than

two tiers was de%eloped much later, this does not seem plausible. 6oth types of

ambulatory temples, the chariot and palanuin (ratha and khata) were familiar in

?ichcha%i times. The 1atra of 3achchindranatha was re#ulated by Narendrade%a.

/tone and brick shikara type of temples, familiar in India, were also probably known

in ?ichcha%i period. Nepali worship is fundamentally an indi%idual matter so Nepali

temples ha%e no pro%ision for con#re#ation as in the Indian temples.

MALLA SETTLEMENTS AND ARCHITECTURE

3uch of the 3alla architecture that can be obser%ed today be#an with the comin# to

power of Fayasthitimalla in &!$2. The time of the 3allas, especially after the breakup

of the kin#dom, is often referred to as the #olden period of art and architecture in

Nepal. The relati%e political stability and wealth from a#riculture and trade as well as

the ri%alry amon# the three cities to outdo each other led to hi#hly de%eloped urban

spaces and architectural forms.

After the establishment of Tripura palace at the western end of 6haktapur in &&' by

Anandade%a, efforts were made to reshape the city alon# the Astamatrika plan,whereby the matrikas were placed around the periphery of the town with the temple of

Tripura /undari at the centre. The theoretical pattern could not be strictly followed

because of the elon#ated shape of the town. In =athmandu the perimeter #oddesses

were belie%ed to be placed on the periphery of a sword shaped plan durin# the rei#n

of 7unakamade%a (c. &"thcentury). 6y encirclin# the city with the statues of

Astamatrikas, the kin# achie%ed the twin ob1ecti%es of sanctifyin# the city as well as

demarcatin# its territorial limits. The shrines also acted as a barrier to check

unplanned urban sprawl and in effect the city #rew throu#h infill de%elopment.

In Nepal the passa#e from rural to urban did not imply an abrupt chan#e in

construction patterns or difference in economic acti%ities as in the west. The ma1ority

of the city dwellers were en#a#ed in a#riculture and the buildin#s and settlement

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14/43

patterns of the rural areas resembled those of the cities and towns. Tar land was not

#ood for a#riculture so all settlements were built on the uplands. The fertile low lands

were reser%ed for a#ricultural purposes. This practice was continued until recent times

and was disre#arded durin# the rapid urbani


15/43

ha%e public reli#ious edifices such as temples or a lar#e water spout. 6ein# basically

residential suares, the temples are not of dominatin# %olume.

The market suare is remarkable for its hei#htened sense of urban space. It is the

typical nodal suare located at street intersections and often has more than one

element of %isual focus. The element of surprise is hei#htened by the fact that themain focus is often the last to be seen e.#. Nyatapola suare. The tiered temples are

%isually dominant bounded by the uniform faKade of commercial residential

buildin#s. The a*es of mo%ement is chan#ed leadin# to a different focus. :latforms

are located for the transaction of produces but the suares are most acti%e durin#

times of cultural e%ents.

The @urbar suare is the ape* in the hierarchy of urban open spaces. All the streets

lead to it and it is flanked by the palace on one side and a whole phalan* of temples

on the other side. 3a1or temples or their replicas are located there. 6y royal decree all

ma1or festi%ities either be#an, passed throu#h or ended in these suares and they came

ali%e durin# the continuous cycle of festi%ities.

Temples became the dominant feature of the @urbar suares durin# the 3alla period.

It be#an with the construction of the linea#e #oddess Tale1u 6hawani in the palace

precincts of Tripura (c. &!"" A@) followed by the construction of temples in the

palace fore#rounds, ultimately ri%alin# the palaces for dominance of the suares. The

temple buildin# acti%ity was so e*tensi%e that temples be#an to be erected e%en in the

secondary and e%en smaller suares of the city, e.#. =umbeshwara temple area (c.

&!8" A@), @atratraya 3atha area (c. &'+" A@), Nyatapola suare (c. &"'),

Faiside%al area and Indrachowk. 4%en street ends and corners be#an to look imposin#

with the introduction of the temples (Tiwari, &8$8).

The main streets were pa%ed with stones while side streets were pa%ed with bricks.

Gater supply was based on a system of sprin#s, wells and ponds. Natural under#round

water flows were connected to hitis. Gater was also brou#ht from distant sources to

feed the hitis. Gater for household and reli#ious purposes was often drawn from

wells. Gater from the hitisand sprin#s were collected in open tanks (pokharis) which

were used for commercial and household purposes.

Fayasthitimalla had desi#nated ! karor occupational #roups such as Tamrakar,

/ilpakar, Chitrakar etc. and population was settled accordin# to their occupation. The

central palace was immediately rin#ed by the :radhans, Amatyas etc. and other casteswere settled in concentric patterns on a decreasin# hierarchical order with the

untouchables occupyin# the outermost outskirts of the city.

>ccupational #roups also tended to be loosely #rouped in specified areas of the city.

-or e*ample, in :atan, Fyapus were concentrated in the N4 uarter of the town,

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durin# the ?ichcha%i period, the richly car%ed windows were a contribution of the

3allas. The ?ichcha%is were familiar with bricks but brick makin# was much more

ad%anced durin# the 3alla period. They introduced the polished telia bricks and the

hi#hly decorati%e brick moldin#s, which was not known to the ?ichcha%is.

4*pansion of palaces was done throu#h addition of uadran#les to an e*istin#structure as it would reuire only two to three sides to complete the enclosure.

4*pansion took place normally in a #eometric fashion, howe%er, suares were often

added in an informal pattern dependin# on the need or siteLstreet layout.

6ecause of the reli#ious do#ma that dwellin#s should not be hi#her than the house of

7ods, the settlements upto the &'thcentury probably did not e*ceed two storeys.

3ahendra 3alla is belie%ed to ha%e recei%ed di%ine inspiration to construct a three

tiered temple dedicated to Tale1u in =athmandu. The architects were at a loss as to

how to construct it and they built it in &+' only after they had been enli#htened by

asanyasi(/lusser, &8$2). Thus it is apparent that temples with three or more tiers

appeared only from the mid &thcentury. This allowed the secular buildin#s also to be

raised in hei#ht be#innin# from the late &thcentury. The rationale for buildin#

%ertically was necessitated by the #rowin# population and the scarcity of inner urban

land (:ara1uli, &8$).

-or the 3alla period structures, foundations were #enerally built of bricks with or

without footin#s as sometimes the width of the wall was considered adeuate enou#h

to ser%e as foundation. -loors consisted of wooden 1oists placed 'H apart laid o%er

with wooden planks, clay and tiles. The roofs had rid#es. The central post supportin#

the rid#e beam was raised like a kin# post but without the supportin# struts.

The roofin# rafters were closely spaced, co%ered with planks and laid o%er with a

thick layer of clay and tile on top. The hea%y roof o%erhan#s were supported on struts.

The doors and windows were nonload bearin# and were richly car%ed.

MALLA PALACES

9esidence of kin#s was similar to wealthy homes e*cept that it was more elaborate

and had more space and uadran#les. Goodworks were more intricately car%ed,

double columns and brackets were used and floor 1oists were e*tended beyond the

walls and car%ed at the ends. These were meshed with elaborate courses of decorati%etiles and car%ed wood.

Sajhyaswere e*panded to form continuous #alleries and pro1ected as short brackets.

Car%ed nonfunctional panels were attached on either side of doors with toranaso%er

the doorways. -acin# bricks of deep red lustrous #la


17/43

4*pansion was made by attachin# uadran#les instead of win#s. 6haktapur was once

belie%ed to ha%e 88 uadran#les, =athmandu ++ but :atan had less than a do


18/43

The current palace structures are credited mainly to the fatherson pair of

/iddhinarsimha and /rini%asa who to#ether rei#ned between &&8&$').

/iddhinarasimha built the @e#utale o%er a four storied structure in &'& and #a%e it

fi%e roofs, howe%er, the temple was destroyed by fire durin# the early rei#n of

/rini%asa. In &'L' /iddhinarsimha built /undari Chowk and a tank and fountain of

6handarkhal to please his tutelary Tale1u. The /undari Chowk was a totally new

construction which e*panded the e*istin# palace southward and was built at the site of

0atko bahal which was dismantled and translocated to another site west of the suare

at the present site of 0akabahal (9atnakara 3aha%ihara) (/lusser, &8$2). 0e also

built Dis%es%ara in &2 and the stone shikhara =rishna temple in &!. The =rishna

temple is a suare threestoried stone structure with a shikhara roof, topped by a

#ilded amalakaandgajur.It is built on a raised plinth and has important scenes from

the 3ahabharat and 9amayana car%ed in basrelief. Three miniature pa%ilions with

in%erted lotus domes, #ilded amalakas and #a1urs occur on each side of the first and

second floors. The #round floor has a colonnaded circumambulatory passa#eway.

/rini%asan undertook to rebuild the palace structure from one end to the other. 0e

rebuilt @e#utale which was destroyed by fire, but with only three roofs o%er a fi%e

storey structure. This desi#n was copied by :ratapmalla durin# the construction of the

=athmandu @e#utale. The temple was destroyed in the &8!' earthuake and was

reconstructed. It was a#ain restored in &88. In & he totally restored 3ulchowk

and introduced the practice of celebratin# @asain in the chowk by buildin# a Tale1u

temple in the southern win# of the court. The ima#es of 7an#a and Famuna flank the

temple doorway as in the 3ulchowk temples of =athmandu and 6haktapur. 0e built

the chief roof top temple of Tale1u with odd octa#onal shaped roofs, probably o%er a

pre%ious temple, at the north east corner of 3ulchowk. 0e built a new a#amchem inthe NG corner of 3ulchowk with three different shaped roofs5 rectan#ular, octa#onal

and circular. This temple was destroyed in the &8!' earthuake and was not restored

in its ori#inal structure. In the two storied win#s of the courtyard li%ed the palace

priests. The courtyard was used to perform %arious dances and ceremonies to which

the people of :atan were in%ited. In &$" he restored or enlar#ed the northernmost

Caukot uadran#le also currently known as 3ani =eshar Narayan Chowk after the

small Dishnu temple in the courtyard. The southern side fell down a half century later

and was ra


19/43

statues of 7anesh and Narasimha. A one metre wide walkway runs around the

courtyard which is at a lower le%el than the street. The floor of the courtyard is pa%ed

with suare stone slabs. The courtyard has a bathin# tap (hiti) at the centre, Tusa 0iti,

which is e*uisitely desi#ned and apparently was copied by :ratap 3alla in his

=athmandu palace. The water fountain is #ilded and the walls are adorned with

e*uisite stone car%in#s of deities. 3ost of the doors and windows face the courtyard

for pri%acy. The open dalanson the #round floor ser%ed as rest areas and stables while

the rooms housed arsenals and palace #uards. -our stairs at the ends pro%ide access to

lon# narrow li%in# uarters on the first floor, apparently with no interconnection

amon# them. These were ob%iously four separate and distinct li%in# uarters.

The second floor probably was added later. The plan of the buildin# appears to

resemble the desi#n of the %iharas and %ery well could ha%e been influenced by them.

?ike the bahals the palace also probably had two storeys initially. The second floor

had a pro1ectin# lattice co%ered walkway facin# the courtyard which pro%ided

connection to the rooms alon# the different win#s as well as to the lower floor.Ghereas the rooms on the first floor ser%ed mainly as the li%in# and sleepin# areas,

the rooms on the second floor ser%ed as kitchen and eatin# halls. The space below the

roof ser%ed no useful purpose.

TRIPURA LAYKU! BHAKTAPUR PALACE

The 6haktapur palace, unlike the palaces of =athmandu and :atan, is located at the

western end of the city, away from the main tradin# route. It was built in the mid

twelfth century by Anandade%a as Tripura (three cities) with three courtyards.

Muadran#les were continuously added until it #rew to 88 courtyards and e*tended up

to /ukul @hoka in the east. @urin# >ldfieldEs %isit when the capital had already

shifted to =athmandu, he noted that the 6haktapur palace was the Blar#est and most

costly of any in Nipal (/lusser, &8$2). 3uch of the palace was destroyed in the &8!'

earthuake and %ery little of its ori#inal structure remains. ntil &'2 A@ &2

courtyards e*isted which has been reduced today to only courtyards.

>nly three chowks display the suare form and could su##est that they are of the

ori#inal desi#n5 the 3ulchowk, =umari Chowk and 6haira% Chowk. nlike the

other two palaces of the Dalley, the 6haktapur palace is uniue in that it has no tower

temples built abo%e the palace structure. The 3ulchowk is dedicated to the worship ofTale1u and her chief shrine is built into and occupies the southern win#. This court is

belie%ed to be one of the oldest structures and could probably be one of the three

ori#inal puras of Tripura. /ince other buildin#s of the same period still e*ist today

such as the =asthmandap (&&'!) and Indreswara 3ahade% (&28'), the 3ulchowk

could well date from the time of the Tripuras (/lusser, &8$2).

The 6haira% Chowk had already been built in &+$". It was also known as the

/adashi%a 3alla Chowk after the =athmandu ruler (&+'&+$") who was once held

prisoner there. Fa#a11yotir 3alla (&&'&!) built the pleasure pa%ilion of Dasantpur

@urbar (sprin# palace) for his ueens to the west of the e*istin# palace structures.

These were later restored and rebuilt by 6hupatindra 3alla. Nothin# of the durbar

remains e*cept the stone #uardian lions at the #ateway.

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The temples in the palace suare form three temple #roups5 in front of the palace to

the south, in the east and in the southwest, earlier separated from the south #roupin#

by a dharamshala. The southern #roup was dominated by akseswara which was built

by akshamalla and was supposed to be a replica of :asupati. The eastern #roup was

dominated by a three tiered /hi%a temple on a fi%e stepped plinth. The temple is

noticed in the sketch by 7usta%e ?e6on in &$$+ but was destroyed in the &8!'

earthuake. >nly the #uardian lions of the temple remain today. The lar#est temple in

the western #roup was the Narayan temple of 6adrinath.

3uch of the constructions of the 6haktapur palace can be attributed to Fitamitramalla,

his son 6hupatindra and his #randson 9ana1it. In &, Fitamitramalla made e*tensi%e

reno%ation of =umari Chowk, also known earlier as the Ita Chowk, which is possibly

as old as 3ulchowk. 0e constructed a stone water spout in the courtyard with

instructions not to contaminate the water or desecrate the area. 0e also built the

palace win# of Thanthu @urbar to the northeast of 3ulchowk and the /iddhi Chowk

which does not e*ist anymore. 0e also constructed the #ardens and the sikhara templededicated to Datsalade%i. 0e repaired the Na# :okhari to the northeast corner of the

e*istin# palace comple* which was built by Fa#a11yotir 3alla (&&'&! A@). The

sunken pond had a #ilded water spout and was decorated with stone sculptures. A

wooden post with the #ilt head of Dasuki (snake #od) was erected in the centre of the

pond. If the tank ser%ed as the bathin# area of the kin#s as is commonly belie%ed, then

it would ha%e to be assumed that it was enclosed by a uandran#le (=orn, &8).

0is son 6hupatindramalla continued to repair and reno%ate the palace. 0e

reconstructed the 3alati Chowk and installed hu#e stone lions and idols of 0anuman

and Narasimha #uardin# the entrance. This chowk was later rebuilt in the &8thcentury

and has preser%ed little of the ori#inal character. The reconstructed buildin# is of

colonial desi#n with plastered and whitewashed surface. The ++ window #allery is

also attributable to him althou#h it was reconstructed after the &8!' destruction.

Accordin# to the sketch of 7usta%e ?e6on (&$$+) the #allery ori#inally pro1ected out

from the buildin# and was supported on struts. The reconstructed new #allery of

windows follows the ori#inal desi#n but now no lon#er leans outwards as before but

remains flush with the %ertical surface.

The most outstandin# works of 6hupatindramalla are the two temples in Taumadi Tol.

In &"2, he built the Nyatapola, one of two + tiered temples of Nepal. In && he

enlar#ed and restored the 6haira%a temple which had earlier been built as a sin#lestoried buildin# by Fa#a11yotir 3alla. Githin the durbar suare proper he is credited

with the construction of three %ery modest shrines in the western cluster. The lar#est

temple of 6adrinath was already in e*istence durin# his time when he restored it. The

smaller shrines he built formed the rest of the Char @ham, namely Fa#annath,

=edarnath and 9ameswaram.

The main #ate was #ilded by 9ana1it 3alla in &+' and was called the /un @hoka

(#olden #ate). The #ate was an offerin# to Tale1u and led to her temple compound. It

also was an indication of the wealth amassed by the kin#doms from the northsouth

trade.

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MALLA PERIOD BASIC HOUSE

A typical 3alla period Newar house consisted of a narrow brickwalled rectan#le,

usually metres wide and of %ariable len#th di%ided by a central bearin# wall.

Typically it was of ! stories topped by a O storey attic with tiled doublepitched

saddle roof, howe%er, inner city houses close to the center had ' or + storeys whilepoorer sections at the outskirts had only two storeys. The %ertical floor addition was

necessitated by the need to conser%e limited irri#ated a#ricultural land. Alon# with

bricks, timber formed the structural elements and was used for doors and windows.

0ouses were 1oined end to end and built around a courtyard. 3onotony was a%oided

by %ariations in hei#ht, len#th and treatment of facades. This form of compact

settlement was followed e%en in the rural houses, #i%in# credence to the belief that

Newars were more inclined towards tradin# and considered a#riculture a necessary

but secondary occupation (=orn, &8).

The courtyards around which housin# units were built had a multipurpose function,

pro%idin# both utilitarian as well as social communal space. It was used as a

childrenEs play#round, area for washin#, #rindin# #rains, sittin# in the sun, feasts etc.

Access to the courtyard from the street was throu#h a narrow door. /taircases at the

corners pro%ided access to the indi%idual housin# units. They were narrow with trap

door shutters, probably a relic of the earlier days when it was necessitated by defense

reuirements.

-oundations were shallow and constructed of crushed rocks or ri%er stones. :linths of

finished bricks or dressed stones were common but these were not bonded to the

foundations. Galls rose from the foundation and were of handmade bricks, kiln burnt

for e*terior walls, often sundried bricks for interior walls, laid with clay mortar.Ghen facin# bricks were used, they were not well bonded nor tied at the corners.

Thus lower le%el bricks tended to erode, fall out or bul#e out and de%elop cracks

under hea%y stress or tremors. 6ecause walls were poorly bonded, they were at least

&+ P2' inches thick.

The houses were normally set on a raised podium, #enerally of stone or brick. The

podium acted as an intermediary therwise openin#s

were kept at a minimum in the lower walls for structural purposes as well as pri%acy.

The #round floor was otherwise rarely used as li%in# areas because of dampness. >nly

the shops had well %entilated wooden floors, otherwise they were either co%ered with

clay or brick tiles.

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@oors were narrow and low (+ ft hei#ht) but had corbelled lintels and di%er#ent walls.

@ouble hin#ed swin# doors were bolted by wooden bars. @oors sometimes had

framin# bands. There were few windows in the #round floor. /ometime there were

blind windows or tikijhyas. Tikijhyaswere common on the ne*t floor for reasons of

pri%acy and structural stren#th in walls. Corbelled lintels and di%er#ent walls helped

to spread li#ht to the interior. The number of windows on each floor were #enerally

kept as odd numbers for reasons of symmetry.

A sli#htly protrudin# brick course demarcated floors and the top row often ser%ed as

bracin# cornice for tunalas. >utside walls were decorated throu#h symmetry of

ele%ation and car%ed doors and windows. Interior walls were left unfinished or were

plastered and whitewashed.

Normally the top floor (traditionally the third but could be the fourth or fifth floor)

had lar#e windows, thesajhyas(windows to be opened). Sajhyaswere lar#e windows

with mo%eable %ertical swin#in# latticed shutters and wide interior window seats.

Thesajhyaswere intricately car%ed and formed the primary desi#n element of the

faKade. It was either set flush with the walls, sli#htly pro1ected (Gajhya)or supported

on short brackets and leanin# forward as an an#ular bay window

(Vimanjhya). Vimanjhyas were especially desi#ned to %iew the many processions

takin# place in the streets below.

The interior of the house was di%ided len#thwise by the load bearin# walls to form

lon# narrow rooms which were further partitioned breadthwise to form smaller

rooms. In the third or topmost room the middle wall was replaced by wooden column

to form a lar#e hall. 6ecause of thesajhyasthe room was bri#ht, lar#e and airy and

was used for workin# or li%in# purposes.

4ach floor was supported on closely spaced wooden 1oists o%erlaid with wooden

planks or later with brick and co%ered with a thick layer of clay which was kept

smooth and hard by daily scrubbin# with a mi*ture of water, clay and cowdun#.

/ometimes small un#lane or two small openin#s were

made in the roof for li#ht and %entilation, known as cat windows (bhauvajhya),

protected by specially shaped tiles. /ometimes small dormer windows were also used

to li#ht the attic. 9oofs were normally sloped at !"'" de#rees but more recent

constructions ha%e reduced slopes of about 2" de#rees. 9oofs with wide pro1ectin#

ea%es tended to be hea%y so wooden brackets (tunalas) were used to support the

pro1ectin# roofs. They were set at '+ de#rees and were supported on brick cornices or

sli#htly pro1ected beam ends.

Dertical di%ision of floors were as follows5

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Chelli or #round floor

farmers used it for barn, stable, tool shed, stora#e of wood and manure

craftsmen used it as a workshop

merchants used it as a store

street facin# columned porches ser%ed as a shop

in well to do families, a se#ment was used as #uardroom or reception (phalaca)

Mataor middle floor

sleepin# uarters in smaller cubicles

Chota or top floor

all purpose room de%oted to work, recreation, stora#e, entertainin#, dryin# space for

farm products

Baiga or attic (half storey)

kitchen and dinin# area

family chapel (agama) usually housed in a small separate attic room kept closed and

locked. Gealthy families may build a fullscale temple calledagamachem./tran#ers

or low caste people were not allowed access to the top floor because of the family

shrine.

storeroom for precious thin#s

/ymmetry was maintained in the faKade around a central a*is. As far as possible odd

number of windows were placed on each floor. 4ach floor was arran#ed

independently in symmetric fashion and if any asymmetrical element e*isted on the

#round floor, it was not repeated in the upper floors. 4arlier, the typical windows were

suare latticed tikijhyasandsajhyaswere hea%ily car%ed. About 2"" years a#o the

latticed windows were elon#ated %ertically, probably for more li#ht and %entilation,

and thesajhyas were simpler and less ornate. 6y the turn of the century, to introduce

more li#ht, the lattice windows andsajhyaswere replaced by narrow almost full

len#th windows with railin# and shutters ( =orn, &8).

Gater was collected from pri%ate wells or from public wells or recessed fountainsnearby. Gashin# and bathin# was done around the wells and fountains, in courtyards,

roof terraces or e%en in the street.

?atrines were considered unclean and so were not attached to the house. Children

used the streets or open spaces while adults sou#ht se#re#ated public toilets hidden

behind alley walls or used the ri%erside. ?atrines were later constructed in the #round

floors.

BUDDHIST RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

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V!"#"S $ B"!"S "%& B"!S

@urin# the time of 6uddha, monks had no permanent residence, leadin# nomadic

li%es, stayin# under trees and ca%es. @urin# the monsoon, because of the incessant

rain and the dilemma about tramplin# and killin# newly sprouted plants, they were

reuired to stay within a prescribed area. 9estin# places called aramas were built allo%er to ser%e the monks and the period of the rainy season became for them a time of

retreat and introspection. In course of time, these restin# places came to be called

%iharas or residences (9a1esh Q =elly, &88$). The modern Indian state of 6ihar was

so named because of its %ast number of %iharas. Gith the spread of 6uddhism amon#

the laity and with their support, %iharas became permanent institutions. Gith plenty of

time at their disposal, the monks and nuns en#a#ed in creati%e acti%ities such as

philosophy, literature, medicinal te*ts, #rammatolo#y etc.

Dihara thus became a 6uddhist monastery where presumably celibate monks

(bhikshus) and nuns (bhikshunis) li%ed. The community of the monks or nuns was

known as thesangha. Initially, in India, %iharas were purely residential units and

chaitya#rihas were the prayer halls. Gith the ad%ent of 3ahayana, the %iharas were

transformed into both a place of residence as well as a place of worship. This is

e%ident in the rock architecture of A1anta and 4llora. This transformation of the

%iharas led to the e*tinction of chaitya#rihas (-lon, &88').

In India, with the passa#e of time, %iharas became maha%iharas. The prefi* Bmaha is

used to imply #randeur. Apart from bein# lar#er, consistin# of a cluster of %iharas or a

lar#e %ihara which had many branches, a ualitati%e chan#e had occurred. The

maha%iharas became primarily focussed on education and ad%anced learnin# and

came to be reco#nir#yan

to as far east as 3a#adha and 6en#al. 7reat monastic uni%ersities of Nalanda,

Dikramashila and >dantapuri were filled with scholars and students from many Asian

countries.

In Nepal the term is loosely used for all types of %iharas, e%en small ones. The basic

desi#n of the Nepali %iharas is uite similar and can be broadly cate#ori


25/43

The basic plan of the %iharas ha%e remained unchan#ed for o%er 2""" years as the

layouts are %ery similar to the ca%e monasteries of earlier times which in turn were

probably based on the sin#le storey house of the Indus Dalley ci%ili


26/43

side of the entrance facin# the entry. The 6uddhist ima#e on the #round floor was a

nontantric deity known as k(apa'dya(#uardian deity). The agamadeity on the upper

floor comprised of a pair of tantric deities where access was restricted. The k(apa'

dyawas mainly the ima#e of /akya 3uni 6uddha and sometimes of Akshobya.

The k(apa'dyawas open to the public but only the initiated members of

thesanghawere permitted to enter the shrine. The shrine was desi#ned to be taller

than the rest of the structure, either throu#h the addition of a roof or placement

ofgajurs.

The win#s were di%ided by masonry walls to pro%ide rooms for stora#e and uarters

for married monks. /taircases were pro%ided at each end of the win#s which led to

three roomed apartments which were not interconnected. These apartments were

occupied by the families of theBare. Colonnaded bays were pro%ided on the #round

floors at the center of the side win#s. ?i#ht and %entilation to the upper rooms was

pro%ided by tikijhyas. The space abo%e thephalcausually had asajhyaand ser%ed as a

common room. The space below the roof was #enerally unused.

The desi#n of the e*ternal faKade was symmetrical and sections of the walls were

pro1ected and recessed in relation to the width of the win#s. The e*terior bricks were

of better uality and the entrance and the shrine doors were decorated. Interior walls

were plastered and white washed.

Today many of the bahasha%e not maintained the earlier traditional architecture and

ha%e under#one many chan#es at different times. The shrines ha%e become much

more elaborate and modified into multiroofed temples built into the comple* of

buildin#s around the courtyard. 6ecause %iharas were houses of #ods, the decorations

sometimes surpassed e%en that of the palace, with car%ed wooden members,decorati%e moldin#s, car%ed brackets etc. 4*uisite toranaswere placed abo%e the

entrance of the bahasand baha'bahis. 7ild metal was e*tensi%ely used particularly in

the roof and faKade, includin# doors. =wabaha is a #ood e*ample of such a shrine.

The sunken courtyard was considered a sacred area and was filled with

lotus, agnishala, chaityas, shrines, ima#es of #ods and donors, pillars, bells,

inscriptions, mandalasetc., often ali#ned alon# the central a*is.Mandalasusually

faced the entrance door and were raised on a pedestal with the symbolic thunderbolt,

the bajra.

BAHIS

=orn (=orn, &8) has su##ested thatbahis were #enerally built outside the

settlements and were founded by a sin#le patron such as a kin# or a celebrated monk.

It was desi#ned as a place for trainin#, teachin#, preachin# epics and to #i%e shelter

and food to %isitin# monks. Gith the #rowin# popularity of Da1rayana in which

marria#e was allowed, the monks desirous of marria#e had to lea%e the bahiand had

to found or 1oin a baha where family accommodations were possible and monks li%ed

asgrihastha bhikshus. 6ecause of the families, the bahaswere located within the

cities. There seems to be an underlyin# presumption that bahispreceded thebahasandwere inhabited by celibate monks and nuns. 9ecords ha%e shown that members

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of bahiswho referred to themsel%es as brahmacharya bhikshuswere actually married

and that many bahiswere established durin# 3alla period (?ocke, &8$+). Thus as

-ather ?ocke has su##ested, the two probably coe*isted since early times and

celibacy in bahis#radually disappeared as tantric 6uddhism #ained popularity.

Initially the bahistried to preser%e their tradition, which was uite different from that

of the bahas. Their efforts were doomed, howe%er, as they were tryin# to maintain the

tradition of celibate monks whereas they were not celibate themsel%es. Da1racharya

priests had to be arran#ed to perform many of their family rituals since their studies

did not co%er family rituals.

It has also been su##ested that bahishoused celibate monks and ser%ed as schools

of dharma where 6uddhists from bahascame to learn the basics of dharma. After

learnin# the basics the students went back to the bahafor further study and trainin# to

become a Da1racharya. 3embers of bahiswere considered to be of sli#htly lower

status than those of thebahas)thereby su##estin# that bahiswere a lower form of

6uddhist institution than the bahas. Althou#h there were tantric agama#ods, therewere no consecrated tantric priests who usually had to be called in for family or

occasional rituals. -amilies of the bahiswere usually poorer and #ettin# smaller. As a

conseuence bahiswere usually in a state of disrepair and more closely retained their

traditional architectural features. As bahaswere more prosperous they ha%e made

continuous impro%ements and markedly chan#ed the ori#inal physical appearance. >n

the other hand once the bahibuildin# collapsed, it was not rebuilt and disappeared

alto#ether.

The bahis were situated on a knoll (:ulchowk) or were raised on stepped plinth so

that entry was #ained throu#h stairway. Another distin#uishin# feature was that there

was often an imposin# balcony o%er the entrance so there was no space for settin# up

the toranas. The #uardian lions were not installed at the entrance. This, howe%er, was

not always the case as somebahisdid ha%e stone lions and toranas, e.#. Ibabahi and

Ibahi. Another feature was the small suare shrine with a narrow circumambulatory,

set in the win# facin# the entrance. The shrine normally contained the ima#e of

/akyamuni 6uddha. It had a dark room on the first floor for the agamadeity abo%e the

shrine and had a temple structure protrudin# beyond the roof.

In the bahis, e*cept for the outer wall and the shrine which were constructed of brick,

the rest of the buildin# was #enerally of timber construction. The e*ternal wall in the

#round floor had no openin# e*cept for the entry door with its flankin# blindwindows. 3uch of both the #round and the first floor were open colonnade. This type

of open construction did not lend itself easily as family uarters, which probably was

the intention durin# the time of occupancy by celibate monks. In the upper storey the

floor 1oists were e*tended o%er the courtyard, passin# e%en in front of the agamaand

were screened with lattice. nlike the bahaswhich had staircases at each corner

leadin# to family uarters, the bahishad a sin#le fli#ht of broad masonry stairs.

The faKade was symmetrical and left plain and without any decorati%e brickwork or

pro1ectin# sections. The upper floor normally had ! or + lattice windows e*cept for

the rear faKade which had 2 or ' as the section behind the shrine was left blank. The

windows were too small to pro%ide adeuate li#ht and %entilation. This was obtainedfrom the courtyard side which was banked with lattice screen.

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There is no clear indication of when the style be#an but it seems to ha%e been e*istent

durin# the time of the ?ichcha%is as indicated by their inscriptions. That the style was

a no%elty to the Chinese can be ascertained from their description of the Nepali tiered

system. The temple desi#ns seem to ha%e e%ol%ed o%er the different periodsJ the

e*istin# temples ha%e been reno%ated or reconstructed at %arious times and so do not

mirror the actual ori#inal desi#ns.

The ori#in of many of the oldest temples are surrounded in le#ends and because of the

continuous reno%ations, it is difficult to confirm their ori#inal dates. Accordin# to

le#ends, one of the oldest temples the :asupati is belie%ed to ha%e been built by the

first ?ichcha%i kin# /upuspade%a while another ?ichcha%i kin# 0aridatta%armen is

said to ha%e built the four Narayan temples. The kin#s cannot be historically

confirmed but the temples e*ist, albeit the structures of today are a result of se%eral

reno%ations and reconstructions. The respect for the tradition and practice of

reconstructin# temples accordin# to the ori#inal #uidelines probably pre%ented

inno%ations in construction and style and despite many reno%ations andreconstruction, it is belie%ed the temples ha%e faithfully retained as much of the

ori#inal character as possible.

@espite its mass and wei#ht the Nepali temple is not an aesthetically hea%y buildin#.

The decreasin# sirnamental molded bricks are set below the stone

slabs. /econdary shrines are sometimes built at the corners of the raised plinths. The

stairways are #uarded by stone lions, #uardian beasts, minor deities etc. and each

successi%e #uardian is supposed multifold powers.

The number of steps of the platform often correspond to the number of roofs,

howe%er, the steps sometimes are completely different as in the case of 3a1ude%al.

Nyatapola is 2 suare in plan and has a platform hei#ht of 2! ft. The Tale1u

temple of =athmandu is raised on a platform of 2" ft. Temples, primarily of Tale1u,

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were sometimes positioned on top of a storied buildin# as was normal in the %alley

palaces.

6ricks were e*tensi%ely used in the main supportin# structures. As brick does not lend

itself easily to decoration, wood was used as a complementary material and was

hea%ily car%ed. 6ands of timber at %arious le%els such as at cornice le%el, roof supportle%el and cross ties pro%ided additional structural stren#th to the walls.

The most common plan is the suare, the perfect absolute fi#ure full of cosmic

symbolism. 9ectan#les are also common, howe%er, a few octa#onal or circular plans

e*ist, more as e*otic structures. =athmandu temples were based on an odd number of

suares5 &,8,2+,'8,$&,&2&,..8$&. The most commonly used was the suare of $& ,i.e.

8*8 (Tiwari, &8$8).

The form of the temple is associated with the #od within5

/uare P /i%a, Dishnu, 7anesh, 3other 7oddess alone

9ectan#le P 6haira%, 6himsen, 3other 7oddess, ensemble of mother #oddesses

>cta#on P =rishna, althou#h =rishna can ha%e other plans

Another %ariation in the plan is the type of sanctum5

/anctums are e*posed for 3other 7oddesses and 7anesha althou#h comple*

superstructures may e*ist. The open sanctum is closely related to the hypaethral (open

roofless) shrines that preceded them.

/anctums can be a simple room entered by a sin#le door with the ima#e facin# the

door and set at the rear wall.

The suare temple can be a mandala where the so%erei#n of the mandalaoccupies

the centre of the sanctum. The ima#e is then placed in the centre and the sanctum is

pierced by four doors at the centre of each faKade. This form of temple is appropriate

for worship of /i%alin#a, chatur%yuha Dishnu or fourfaced 6rahma which are meant

to be %iewed from all sides. >ther manifestations of these #ods would be placed in a

different type of sanctum.

/ome #ods prefer ha%in# an upper floor, particularly 6himasena, agama#ods of

%iharas, some 6haira%s and some 3other 7oddesses. In free standin# temples, the

sanctum is a small partitioned space on the upper floor and the surroundin# hall likespace is used by theguthiars for reli#ious functions.

/ome temples ha%e second outer wall so the space between the inner walls ser%es as

a circumambulatory space. 0owe%er, this space is rarely accessible to the public and

is used primarily by the priests.

In many temples the outer wall is replaced by columns so that the space becomes

public and is used for circumambulation.

/ome temples were built on top of other buildin#s. Common amon# these are the

temples built on some of the courtyard win#s of the palaces such as Tale1u temples or@e#utale. 9ich families also often builtagamchentemples on their houses.

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The rectan#ular temples are ne%er placed on hi#h bases or on top of buildin#s.

nlike the suare temples, the rectan#ular temples attempt to ha%e an orientation with

the entrance faKade hei#htened.

The 6haira%natha temple of 6haktapur was built as a small structure of only one

storey by kin# Fa#at Fyoti 3alla (&&'&!) and was later restored and enlar#ed by

6hupatindra 3alla in &&$ with the addition of two more tiered roofs. It has an

unusual feature of three smallgajurasand metal fla#s protrudin# from the centre of

the lowest roof. This probably indicates the ori#inal pinnacle of the one storey temple.

The temple was destroyed in the &8!' earthuake but was rebuilt in its ori#inal form

alon# with the Nyatapola. The temple has a strikin# entrance facin# the suare which

is false. The actual entry to the temple is from the back throu#h a small back door and

the #od is in an upper floor cella.

@istinct feature of the temple is its tiered hipped roof which number from &+. 3ostroofs are suare or rectan#ular correspondin# to the plan but there are few e*amples

of round or octa#onal roofs o%er suare plans.

The first sta#e of a multi roof is supported by the cell wall (in case of a sin#le

enclosure) or outer enclosin# wall (in case of double enclosure) or colonnade (in case

colonnade surroundin# the main enclosure). -or the ne*t sta#e, in case of sin#le

enclosure wooden beams support the inner walls which support the upper roof. In case

of double enclosure or outer colonnade, the inner wall supports the upper roof. If there

are more roofs, timber beams support the recessed walls which support the roofs.

A thick layer of clay was laid o%er the roof to delay percolation and pre%ent leaka#e.0owe%er, the disad%anta#e was that the moisture was often absorbed by the clay

which came in contact with the wooden members, causin# their decay. This has

caused temples to reuire e*tensi%e repairs from time to time. The hea%y roofs were

supported on slanted car%ed brackets which rested on wooden or brick cornices. The

end brackets were lon#er and lar#er and supported the lar#er pro1ection of the roof.

The roof rafters were closely spaced and laid in a fan shape pattern at the corners and

on the topmost roof. 4rotic scenes were often car%ed on the brackets on the belief that

it would a%ert the e%il or shy eyes of the thunderbolt, who was concei%ed of as a

maiden and would be abashed by the car%in#s. The lowermost roof was sometimes

co%ered with wooden latticework ali#ned to the slopin# supportin# roof struts whichwere e*uisitely car%ed.

/ome temples were #ifted with a #ilded roof. The sheets were laid o%er wooden

boards and o%erlaps were placed o%er wooden beads (runners). The ends were

co%ered by car%ed metal ima#es. The ea%es were car%ed with intricate motifs and had

han#in# lea%es. 6irds on the %er#e of takin# fli#ht were placed on the four corners of

the roofs.

A special feature of the tiered temples was a band of strin#ed cornices supportin# the

struts of each roof tier. The lowermost layer of the cornice band was composed of

lotus petals followed by a band of nagapasa, a symbolic representation of snakestyin# the temple to#ether, then by a strin# with lion faces calledsimhamvahand other

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decorati%e courses. The layers of wooden cornices in fact acted as hori


33/43

wooden frame of posts and beams enclosed within the walls to #i%e it added structural

stren#th and resilience.

Nepali shikhara temples lack the additional ardhamandappaand mandappas of the

Indian temple desi#ns as worship in Nepal tends to be more personal, rather then

con#re#ational. (=orn, &8) They also lack the rich embellishment of the Indiantemples.

The octa#onal shikhara temple in :atan dedicated to =rishna is an e*ception. The

=rishna 3andir and 3ahaboudhha in :atan are e*amples of elaborately ornamented

shikhara temples. The 3ahabouddha, whose desi#n was based on the 6odh#aya

temple desi#n, was started by Abhaya 9a1 in &++ but was completed by his

#randsons and #reat#randsons only in &"&. It is co%ered with tiles bearin# the ima#e

of 6uddha and was included in the Gorld 0erita#e list. It was withdrawn from the list

after the #o%ernment failed to restrict de%elopment in the surroundin#s, despite

repeated warnin#s.

Towards the end of the 3alla period, the shikhara shrines adopted a different outline,

that of the shape of an in%erted flower bud. These became popular due to ease of

construction.

@omed temples were influenced by 3u#hal architecture and are belie%ed to be 9ana

imports. Actually, they were introduced durin# the 3alla period. @omed temples were

fa%ored by the /hah and 9ana rulers and were built around =athmandu. 6himsen

Thapa built the domed temples of 6himeswara and 9anamukteshwara. The Fa#annath

temple near the 1ail built by 9ana 6ahadur /hah and the =alomochana (Dishnu

temple) and Dishwaroop at :ashupati constructed by Fun# 6ahadur 9ana in &$' are

other e*amples of domed temples in Nepal. The temples are plastered and

whitewashed, an imitation of the white marble used in the Indian structures. 9ecessed

niches with arches flank the doors on the four sides and bands of floral motifs are

used at the base of the dome and upper part of the structure supportin# the dome,

typical of 3uslim architecture. /mall pa%ilions are also built at the four corners in

imitation of the Indian buildin#s. The encirclin# sattals are, howe%er, done in

traditional style.

DHARAMSALAS

The principal function of the dharamsalawas to pro%ide a shelter, place to rest, work

and sociali


34/43

The most basic structure was thepati. Thepatiis raised on a platform with wooden

floor and is normally a freestandin# structure or attached to an e*istin# buildin# as a

leanto. It is a post and lintel construction structure with a rear brick wall. It can be

found e%erywhere, not only in towns and %illa#es, but also alon# roads, water sources

and temples.

The mandapais probably the oldest form of public shelter. The mandapawas usually

a free standin# pa%ilion of suare or rectan#ular plan, with roof supported by &

columns. It was desi#ned for #atherin# people within or around it and was always

found within settlements. The mandapaser%ed many functions besides shelter such as

town hall, market etc. >f the two mandapassituated at the north end of :atan durbar,

the southern mandapa was used as a municipal wei#hin# house and the place to fi*

market prices while the more recent northern structure was used for coronation by

:atan kin#s and by priests and astrolo#ers to determine fa%orable dates for the festi%al

of 3achendranath.

Sattals were multistoriedpatisor mandapas. Sattalswere desi#ned for lon#er stays

by #urus andsadhusbesides transient tra%elers so it had additional floor and shrine

o%er apatitype structure. The upper floor was screened for pri%acy. Thus they were

half shelter half shrine. The most famous is the &&&2 thcentury =asthamandap which

is rou#hly &$. m. suare in plan and &.! m. in hei#ht. @espite it bein# referred to as

asattal for /i%a ascetics, it ser%ed as a meetin# place or town hall. ?e#end has it that

it was constructed from a sin#le tree. It consists of ! lar#e halls on top of each other

without any di%isions. In contrast to normal temples, it has wide stairs leadin# to the

first floor. ?oads are carried by brick walls and lar#e wooden pillars. The brickwork is

plastered and whitewashed and the roof is tiled.

The chapa is a community hall ofguthiassociation. It is not intended for lon#er stays.

It is typically a lon# rectan#ular two storey buildin# whose rear is di%ided by masonry

walls into storerooms forguthiars*affairs while the front ser%es as apati. The

colonnaded upper hall ser%es as a hall forguthiar*sfeasts and communal acti%ities.

STUPAS

/tupas were probably deri%ati%es of the practice of raisin# a circular tumulus o%er

skeletal remains and demarcated with a circle of stones. This practice of raisin# a

tumulus o%er tombs is e%ident e%en in the western world since prehistoric times.

/lusser belie%es the :atan stupas to be of similar ori#in. Accordin# to tradition therewere pre%ious 6uddhas while other traditions speak of 2! pre%ious 6uddhas. Thus

the tradition of corporeal stupas probably e*isted lon# before 6uddhaEs time.

/tupas are supposed to contain relics of 6uddhas, 6odhisatt%as or saints. Ashoka is

belie%ed to ha%e broken up the ori#inal ei#ht stupas o%er the remains of 6uddha and

distributed the remains to construct o%er $'""" stupas in India. Nepali stupas are

distin#uished as5 i) dhatu stupa(mortal remains of 6uddha) ii)paribhog stupa(thin#s

belon#in# to 6uddha such as #arments, bowl etc.) iii) dharma stupa(te*t of his

teachin#s) and i%) udeshya stupa(amulets, mantras, 1ewel etc)

The elements of the Nepali stupa are5

3"


35/43

The ori#inal mound is represented by the e## (anda), womb (garbha) and pot

(kumbha). The stupa consists of a drum pedestal (medhi), the drum and the finial. The

drum or medhiis indistin#uishable consistin# simply of a drum of %aryin# hei#ht

sli#htly lar#er in diameter than the mound it supports. The drum is set in a modest

circular platform or sometimes on a suare platform composed of a number of

superimposed terraces (:imbahal, Chilancho of =irtipur and 6ouddhanath).

The andaor dome is of %aryin# shape, hemispherical in the early times to %ertical or

flattened dome durin# the transitional and early 3alla period.

Accordin# to >ldfield the construction of stupa commenced with the construction of

suare masonry chamber of 8 eual parts in the centre of the medhi (/lusser,

&8$2)..:recious wood, #rains, ima#es and scenes from 6uddhaEs life and human

relics if so desi#ned were placed in the outer $ chambers. The central 8thchamber

ser%ed as a mortise for theyasti)a #reat central timber mast piercin# the stupa and to

which the finial is attached. The chambers were filled after the ceremony, o%er it a

mound of brick, earth and clay was constructed. The outer rounded surface was faced

with bricks, plastered and whitewashed. -our chapels facin# the four cardinal points

were then 1oined to the dome. These contained the ima#es of @hyani 6uddhas

(Akshobhya4, AmitabhaG, Amo#siddhiN and 9atnasambhawa/ representin# the

different aspects of the acti%ities of 6uddha). The fifth was called Dairochana and was

thou#ht to reside in the centre of the stupa, represented by the eyes of

the harmika.The paintin# of the eyes is a uniue Nepali practice and be#an durin# the

3alla period after the &+thcentury.

The desi#n of the finial %aries but consists of ! principal parts5 i) the cube ii) the

tapered midsection and iii) the crownin# parasol. The cube or the harmikais deri%edfrom the pa%ilion that surmounted the early Indian stupas which was supposed to be

the home of the #ods. The taperin# &! sta#es symboli


36/43

a vajra is placed in front of it. All the chapels are belie%ed to ha%e been added durin#

the 3alla period.

UTILITIES

GAT49

R Ghatswith stepped or circular platforms were built at ri%er ed#es for ritual bathin#

and cremation.

RPokharis were lar#e brick lined tanks e#. 9ani :okhara, Tawa :okhari and

/iddhapokhari of 6haktapur. They were used for commercial and household purposes

such as dyein# and washin#.

R Ghaidharas +gahiti) or deep sunken pit taps were pro%ided for lar#er community

uses.

R Tutedharasconsisted of tanks filled with water and drawn out throu#h stoppered

spi#ots.

Rnarsor brick lined wells were built primarily for pri%ate use but also ser%ed

communal function.

SHAH AND RANA PERIOD ARCHITECTURE

:rith%i Narayan /hah adopted the traditional Newari architecture when he built the

Nautale durbar, also known as 6asantapur at the southern end of Nasal Chowk of=athmandu palace in &". The buildin# was created as a pleasure palace and was a

tall buildin# of four roofs and nine stories. Compared to the earlier 3alla period, the

scale tended to be lar#er with lar#er doors and windows, more storeys etc. The motifs

used were, howe%er, similar and some struts had erotic car%in#s. An attempt was

made to mer#e the temple and the palace form. 0e also built the ad1oinin# fourstorey

uadran#le ori#inally called ?ohan Chowk but later known as 6asantapur or Te1arat

Chowk. These buildin#s were thou#ht to ha%e been built %ertically o%er smaller

buildin#s. The uadran#le has three pa%ilions at the corners of superficial 3u#hali


37/43

a shrine. It is built on ! load bearin# walls with the central wall bisectin# the buildin#

alon# its len#th. Its desi#n influenced the desi#n of the Nautale @urbar at 6asantapur.

Fust as in the earlier ?ichcha%i period when art form and use of stone was influenced

by the 7uptasL=usans, durin# 3alla and /hah period some Indian influence was

percei%ed in paintin#s and buildin#s, e.#. in the northern win# of the Nasal Chowk,arches with and 8 foils ha%e been used. /imilarly, many buildin#s with dome roofs

were constructed which had recessed arch niches with foils and decorati%e motifs

borrowed from 3u#hal buildin#s.

@harahara, a free standin# minaretlike structure of 3u#hul desi#n, was erected by

7eneral 6himsen Thapa (prime minister between &$"&$!8) in &$2. It was

ori#inally 2+" ft. but was destroyed durin# the &8!' earthuake and was subseuently

restored by Fuddha /umshere to its current hei#ht of 2"! ft. A %iewin# platform was

also added durin# restoration. There does not appear to be a need for such a structure,

unless as su##ested, it was to maintain contact with Chouni barracks and summon the

army at short notice. The palace of 6a# @urbar was also built for 6himsen Thapa,

howe%er, it was se%erely dama#ed durin# the earthuake and 0ari 6hawan was built

in its place. The -inance 3inistry currently resides in 0ari 6hawan.

6himsen Thapa built 6him 3ukteswora and 9ana 3ukteswora in 3o#hul style with

dome roofs, usin# hori


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front win# was destroyed by fire in &8!. The first courtyard was reconstructed usin#

modern construction techniues but with the ori#inal ele%ational treatment. The

buildin# currently houses the prime ministerEs offices and the office of the National

:lannin# Commission. The front win# which was of e*uisite neoclassical desi#n

was sa%ed from the fire. It houses the 6elayati 6aithak which is still used for %arious

national ceremonies.

6ahadur 6hawan was constructed in &$$8 and was later refurbished into the first hotel

of Nepal, the 9oyal 0otel. The buildin# was reno%ated and is currently in use by the

National 4lection Commission. ?al @urbar was built for 6ir /umshere in &$8" and it

#ot its name because of the red bricks used. It was one of the few buildin#s with

e*posed brickwork built by the 9anas. A part of the buildin# has been reno%ated and

incorporated into the 0otel ak and eti comple*.

/eto @urbar was also constructed by 6ir /umshere in &$8!. 3ost of the palace

buildin# was destroyed by fire durin# the &8!' earthuake. >nly a small win# of the

ori#inal buildin# remains and is %isible on the west side of =in#Es Gay behind the

3ercantile >ffice /ystems.

:hora @urbar was constructed by 6ir /umshere ne*t to his palace in &$8+ with

#ardens and fountains. Its name was deri%ed from the lar#e number of fountains. It

was used mainly for cultural pro#rams and cinema. The buildin# was completely

dismantled in &8".

A#ni 6hawan was built in &$8' for A#ni /umsh

Nepal Architecture

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