Coastal and Marine Resources Management Jamaica possesses a varied and irregular coastline which gives rise to a unique ecosystem formed by the integration of coastal features that include harbours, bays, beaches, rocky shores, estuaries, mangrove swamps, cays, and coral reefs. These natural features provide a coastal resource base that contributes significantly to the economic well-being of the country through tourism. More significantly, most of the Jamaican people live in coastal plains and ipso facto the majority of the economic activities within the country occur there, making coastal zone management very important for the country. Numerous sandy beaches around Jamaica's coastline and on several inshore cays are invaluable to the tourism industry for the enjoyment of local and foreign visitors. This resource is under threat from pollution, erosion and illegal sand mining. The erosion of Jamaica's shoreline may be attributed to several factors. The degradation of coral reefs and mangrove forests have exposed the sandy beaches to increased wave action, and the illegal but common practice of mining sand from beaches has exacerbated the problem. Both recreational and fishing beaches have been fouled by the pileup of refuse, debris and fish offal, as well as by occasional offshore and nearshore oil spills. The quality of the water around several recreational beaches is deteriorating due to pollution, particularly from human waste, which makes sea bathing unpleasant. The wetland areas are important to the coastal ecosystem in that they provide habitat for a wide variety of organisms (e.g. birds, crabs, oysters), a nursery area for fish and lobsters, and provide protection to the shoreline from wave action. The area of Jamaica's wetlands (mangrove forests and salt marshes) has been steadily decreasing, with a corresponding decrease in fish and wildlife and an increase in coastal erosion. In the past, the importance of wetland areas (then called swamps) was not recognized. Considered eyesores and breeding grounds for mosquitos, many were drained or dumped up and acres of mangrove forest were cut down to make way for the construction of houses, hotels or other structures. At the same time, mangroves provided an income for small-scale harvesters of timber. Today, the pressure on the mangroves has increased tremendously. Mangrove poles are used for fuelwood, to make charcoal, as fence posts, stakes, yamsticks, scaffolding and construction material. The requirement that permits must be obtained before cutting is totally ignored, and mangroves are de facto an open access resource. New harvesting technology (chain saws) has dramatically increased the quantity of timber harvested, and clear-cutting is making natural regeneration difficult. In addition, wetland areas are still targets for construction projects. Jamaica has extensive coral reefs which are important as habitat for a complex mixture of fish, invertebrates and algae. Jamaica's coral reefs are commercially important for two main reasons: most of Jamaica's artisanal fishers use traps aimed at capturing reef fish; and the reefs are important dive sites for water sports operators in the tourism industry. Recent years have seen extensive degradation of Jamaica's coral reefs, leading to decreases in fish catches and increases in visitor dissatisfaction. Recent hurricanes (particularly Allen in 1980 and Gilbert in 1988) have caused major structural damage to Jamaica's coral reefs. This is an unavoidable occurrence, from which the reefs are normally able to recover; however other factors are hampering reef restoration. Pollution of the marine environment by sewage has promoted the growth of algae which are stifling the coral organisms (eutrophication). The sea urchins, major reef grazers who can usually be expected to keep algae growth in check, were almost wiped out by a viral disease in the 1980s, which promoted reef death. The reduction of fish grazers (e.g. parrot fish) due to overfishing has also made a significant contribution to eutrophication. The widespread use of fishing methods such as dynamite and certain toxic substances are destructive and avoidable. The importance of sea grass beds in the growth cycles of fish, lobsters and other commercially important species is recognized by scientists but has not been fully explored. Indeed there is very little information available on the extent and location of sea grass beds on Jamaica's coastal shelves and (inshore and offshore) banks. Jamaica's marine environment is notoriously overfished; indeed the CARICOM Fisheries Resource Assessment and Management Programme (CFRAMP) has declared Jamaican waters to be the most overfished in the English-speaking Caribbean. A study conducted by Thompson in 1945 reported the island shelves (North and South) to be overfished by fishers using unmotorized canoes. As a way of increasing the catch he recommended expanding the area fished to include the almost unexploited inshore and offshore banks, which would require motorization. Since then, developments in fishing technology (including motorization and the introduction of SCUBA gear) have resulted in overfishing on the inshore and offshore banks. Government initiatives have led to substantial increases in fishing effort while there is inadequate institutional capacity to plan for, manage and monitor the fishing industry. Jamaica's catch of marine fish has declined from 10.89 million kg (24 million lbs) in 1964 to 7.71 million kg (17 million lbs) in 1980, despite an expansion into new fishing grounds. Not only has overall catch weight declined but so has the average size of fish caught. The species composition of the catch has also declined, towards less favoured varieties and trash fish. The mesh used in fishpots is usually 2.5 cm (1") or3.125 cm (1.25"), which traps fish before they are of age to spawn (juveniles); thatched pots covered with wire mesh used in certain parts of Jamaica, have an effective aperture of 1 cm (0.4"), which is very destructive of fish populations. Dynamite destroys fish habitat, as do certain toxic substances currently in use and certain seine and trammel nets. Other nets are destructive of fish (e.g. gill nets) and the mesh in most nets is quite small. The laws of Jamaica which address fisheries management are deficient. The Wildlife Protection Act (1945) states that juvenile fish are to be protected, and that the definition of juvenile fish will be provided in accompanying regulations; those regulations were never issued. The Fishing Industry Act (1975) does not set minimum mesh sizes for fishtraps, and there are several large loopholes in its provisions. Wild stocks of a few species of invertebrates have been traditionally exploited by artisanal fishers. Lobster, shrimp and crabs (crustaceans), conch and oysters (mollusc) were generally lightly harvested, but in recent years, increases in demand have led to large increases in fishing pressure. A lucrative export market for lobster and conch has brought big business into the fishery, and now these stocks are overfished. The government is making efforts to manage these wild stocks. Widely ignored closed seasons for lobsters and conch have been imposed, and efforts are now under way to establish quotas for the conch harvest. The emergence in recent years of local oyster bars has led to over-harvesting of the mangrove oysters. Stocks of the more popular cup oyster (Crassostrea rhizophorae) have declined considerably, and the oyster harvest is now predominantly of the flat oyster (Isogamon alatus). Many invertebrates are caught by hand using SCUBA or Hooka equipment. Under the Fishing Industry Act (1975) no license is required for such activity, which will make management quite difficult. Aside from the inappropriate behaviour of Jamaican fishers, poachers from Central America and other Caribbean territories fish illegally in Jamaican waters and EEZ. Jamaican commercial fishers also appear to breach regulations and agreements aimed at producing sustainable harvests. The consuming public as a whole does not appear to behave responsibly, as they continue to purchase lobsters during the closed season, and even protected species such as turtles and manatees. Some varieties of agar-bearing seaweed (Gracilaria spp.) locally called Irish moss are also harvested from the wild as the main constituent in a variety of drinks popular with Jamaicans at home and abroad. Due to poor harvesting techniques, the yield has decreased in recent years, and now the wild stocks are unable to satisfy the local and export demand for Irish moss. Large quantities of a carrageenan-bearing substitute (Euchuma spp.) are now being imported to address this deficiency. Poor harvesting techniques are fast reducing the wild stocks of Irish moss. Instead of cutting the algae with a knife leaving the rest to grow again attached by the holdfast, the standard procedure is to rip the plant off the substrate. Arising out of Jamaica's concerns at the state of coral reefs and related ecosystems, Jamaica has been actively associated with the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), co-sponsoring the resolution in 1994 establishing the Initiative. Jamaica has remained actively involved in the planning of the ICRI International Consultation scheduled to be held in the Philippines at the end of May 1995 and hosting a regional consultation planned for early July 1995. Coastal Zone Management is being given significant attention with the execution of a project emphasizing an integrated approach to Coastal Zone Management with the support from the Government of Sweden. The national interest also requires that Jamaica support research and monitoring of global warming and its effects such as sea level rise which is of critical importance for management of the coastal zone, given the current patterns of population density and dispersal on the island. The prospect of increasing sea level rise poses serious implications for the re-siting of important social, economic and other infrastructure.