Navigation Presentation

8/8/2019 Navigation Presentation

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Navigational Aids


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Animal Navigation

Finding the way to wintering sites thousands of milesaway is easy for animals -- they just put the coordinates

into their GPS systems and follow the turn-by-turn

directions. No problem.

Actually, the methods animals use to navigate their

migration routes are even more amazing than an animal

that could program a GPS device. Some of their

navigation methods are so weird we don't really

understand them.

http://animals.howstuffworks.com/animal-facts/animal-migration4.htm


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Here, we report the first study of post-release movement patterns in translocated

adult crocodiles, and the first application of satellite telemetry to a crocodilian.

Three large male Crocodylus porosus (3.14.5 m) were captured in northern

Australia and translocated by helicopter for 56, 99 and 411 km of coastline, the lastacross Cape York Peninsula from the west coast to the east coast.


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All crocodiles spent time around their release

site before returning rapidly and apparently

purposefully to their capture locations. The

animal that circumnavigated Cape YorkPeninsula to return to its capture site, travelled

more than 400 km in 20 days, which is the

longest homeward travel yet reported for a

crocodilian. Such impressive homing ability is

significant because translocation has

sometimes been used to manage potentiallydangerous C. porosus close to human

settlement. It is clear that large male estuarine

crocodiles can exhibit strong site fidelity, have

remarkable navigational skills, and may move

long distances following a coastline. These long

journeys included impressive daily movementsof1030 km, often consecutively.


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The sun - This seems pretty simple. You can judge

roughly what direction you're heading in by wherethe sun is. But factor in the time of day, time of

year and cloud cover, and you're left with a pretty

tricky navigation system. Yet starlings and ants

navigate this way. Some birds can even travel at

night using the sun -- theories suggest they take a

"reading" from where the sun sets and use that to

set their course.

Weather - Wind conditions are often used assupplementary navigation aid by birds. When

deprived of other cues, such as the sun or stars,birds chose to fly downwind in an experiment.

When the birds could see the sun and stars, they

flew in the right direction regardless of wind

direction.


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Landmarks - This is another pretty

basic navigation system. Fly towardthose mountains, head to the left a little

when you see the ocean, and make a

nest in the first nice-looking tree you can

find. Whales traveling in the Pacific

Ocean near the North American west

coast use this method -- their landmark

is hard to miss, because it's the entire

continent of North America. They keep it

on their left on the way south, and to

their right when they head north.


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Scent - Once an animal is in the general

area, scent can pinpoint specificlocations. Scent won't get an animal

from Saskatchewan to Mexico, but it

probably helps salmon find their exact

spawning ground, for instance. The scent

of rain might shape wildebeest

migrations.


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Magnetic field - The earth has a magnetic field that's usually undetectableto humans who aren't holding a compass. Some animal species do have the

ability to detect the magnetic field, however, and they use it to make their

migrations. Bats and sea turtles use magnetic information to find their way

Sea Turtles

Baby loggerhead sea turtles are able to find

their way along an 8,000-mile migration route

the first time they ever see it. Scientists took

some turtles off course, but they were able to

find their way back with little difficulty.

Believing that some magnetic orienteering was

going on, the next experiment subjected the

turtles to a variety of magnetic fields that

differed from the earth's natural field. These

turtles went off course. Exposure to a magnet

that mimicked the earth's field set them right

again -- proof that the turtles can detect the

earth's magnetic field and use it to navigate


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Last summer, 16-year-old Andrea Axtell read a riveting article in the papers:

A family had wandered aimlessly in an Arizona desert after their car broke

down. Family members said they felt as if they'd wandered in circles for

hours before help arrived. That detail ignited Andrea's interest. "Without acompass or specific landmarks, do people who get lost end up walking in

circles?" she wondered. "And if they do, why?"

These simple questions fueled Andrea's 10th-grade science project. Hungry

for answers, she hit the library to conduct background research. Among

many facts, she discovered that several body organs control direction andmovement. For example:

* Eyes allow people to see their route.

* Structures in the middle ear affect a person's sense of balance.

* The brain controls whether a person's right side or left side is dominant,

or exerts more control. "Studies of runners' strides show that the dominant

foot pushes off with a greater thrust, which pushes the runner slightly right

or left," she explains.


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How does being blindfolded affect a person's ability to walk straight? What

factors seem to affect the direction a blindfolded person takes?

AWINNING PROJECT

Andrea's project led her to an intriguing conclusion: People who are lost and

can't see a defined path or final destination do in fact tend to walk in circles.

But Andrea never expected to walk off with a prize at the 2003 Intel

International Science and Engineering Fair. "I just hoped my project would dowell in our school fair," she says.

It just goes to show, says Andrea: "A winning project doesn't have to be save-

the-world science. Just pick something that fascinates you."

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1590/is_2_60/ai_112168970/?tag=content;col1


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Prior to the introduction of the compass, position, destination, and direction at

sea was primarily determined by the sighting of landmarks, supplemented with

the observation of the position of celestial bodies. Ancient mariners often kept

within sight of land. The invention of the compass enabled the determination of

heading when the sky was overcast or foggy. And, when the sun or other known

celestial bodies could be observed, it enabled the calculation of latitude. This

enabled mariners to navigate safely far from land, increasing sea trade, and

contributing to the Age of Discovery

Cantino planisphere 1502, earliest surviving chart showing the explorations of Columbus to Central America, Corte-Real to

Newfoundland, Gama to India and Cabral to Brazil. Tordesillas line depicted, Biblioteca Estense, Modena


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Navigation

is the process of reading, and controlling the movement of acraft or vehicle from one place to another. It is also the term

of art used for the specialized knowledge used by navigators

to perform navigation tasks. The word navigate is derived

from the Latin "navigate", which is the command "sail". More

literally however, the word "Navi" in Sanskrit means 'boat'

and "Gathi" means 'direction'. All navigational techniques

involve locating the navigator's position compared to known

locations or patterns.


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Modern NavigationalMethods:

Dead reckoning or DR, in which one advances a prior position using the ship's

course and speed. The new position is called a DR position. It is generally acceptedthat only course and speed determine the DR position. Correcting the DR position

for leeway, current effects, and steering error result in an estimated position or EP.

An inertial navigator develops an extremely accurate EP.

is the process of estimating one's current

position based upon a previously

determined position, or fix, andadvancing that position based upon

known or estimated speeds over elapsed

time, and course. While traditional

methods of dead reckoning are no longer

considered primary means of navigation,

modern inertial navigation systems,which also depend upon dead reckoning,

are very widely used.

A disadvantage of dead reckoning is that since new positions are

calculated solely from previous positions, the errors of the process are

cumulative, so the error in the position fix grows with time.


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Pilotage involves navigating in restricted waters with frequent determination

of position relative to geographic and hydrographic features.

is the use of fixed visual references on the ground or sea by means of sight or radar

to guide oneself to a destination, sometimes with the help of a map or nautical

chart. People use pilotage for activities such as guiding vessels and aircraft, hiking

and Scuba diving. When visual references are not available, it is necessary to use an

alternative method of navigation such as dead reckoning (typically with a compass),

radio navigation, and satellite navigation (such as GPS).


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Celestial navigation involves reducing celestial measurements to lines of position using

tables, spherical trigonometry, and almanacs.

also known as astronavigation, is a position fixing technique that has steadily evolved overseveral thousand years to help sailors cross featureless oceans without having to rely on

estimated calculations, or dead reckoning, to enable them to know their position on the

ocean. Celestial navigation uses "sights," or angular measurements taken between a visible

celestial body (the sun, the moon, a planet or a star) and the visible horizon. The angle

measured between the sun and the visible horizon is most commonly used. Skilled

navigators can additionally use the moon, a planet or one of 57 navigational stars whose

coordinates are tabulated in the Nautical Almanac and Air Almanacs.


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An example illustrating the concept behind the intercept method for determining

ones position is shown to the right. (Two other common methods for determining

ones position using celestial navigation are the longitude by chronometer and ex-

meridian methods.) In the image to the right, the two circles on the map representlines of position for the Sun and Moon at 1200 GMT on October 29, 2005. At this

time, a navigator on a ship at sea measured the Moon to be 56 degrees above the

horizon using a sextant. Ten minutes later, the Sun was observed to be 40 degrees

above the horizon. Lines of position were then calculated and plotted for each of

these observations. Since both the Sun and Moon were observed at their respective

angles from the same location, the navigator would have to be located at one of thetwo locations where the circles cross.


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While celestial navigation is becoming increasingly redundant with the advent of

inexpensive and highly accurate satellite navigation receivers (GPS), it was used

extensively in aviation until 1960s, and marine navigation until quite recently. But since

a prudent mariner never relies on any sole means of fixing his position, many national

maritime authorities still require deck officers to show knowledge of celestial

navigation in examinations, primarily as a back up for electronic navigation. One of the

most common current usages of celestial navigation aboard large merchant vessels is

for compass calibration and error checking at sea when no terrestrial references are

available.

The U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy continued instructing military aviators on its use until

1997, because:

it can be used independently of ground aids

has global coverage

cannot be jammed (although it can be obscured by clouds)

does not give off any signals that could be detected by an enemy


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The US Naval Academy announced that it was discontinuing its course on celestial

navigation, considered to be one of its most demanding courses, from the formal

curriculum in the spring of 1998 stating that a sex

tant is acc

urate

to a three

-mile

(5km) radius, while a satellite-linked computercan pinpoint a ship within 60 feet (18

m). Presently, midshipmen continue to learn to use the sextant, but instead of

performing a tedious 22-step mathematical calculation to plot a ship's course,

midshipmen feed the raw data into a computer.

Likewise, celestial navigation was used in commercial aviation up until the early part of

the jet age; it was only phased out in the 1960s with the advent of inertial navigation

systems.

Celestial navigation continues to be taught to cadets during their training in the British

Merchant Navy and remains as a requirement for their certificate of competency.


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Celestial navigation trainer

Celestial navigation trainers combine a simple flight simulator with a planetarium in order

to train aircraft crews in celestial navigation.

An early example is the Link Celestial Navigation Trainer, used of the Second World War.

Housed in a 45 feet (14 m) high building, it featured a cockpit which accommodated a

whole bomber crew (pilot, navigator and bomber). The cockpit offered a full array of

instruments which the pilot used to fly the simulated aeroplane. Fixed to a dome above

the cockpit was an arrangement of lights, some collimated, simulating constellations from

which the navigator determined the plane's position. The dome's movement simulatedthe changing positions of the stars with the passage of time and the movement of the

plane around the earth. The navigator also received simulated radio signals from various

positions on the ground.

Below the cockpit moved "terrain plates" large, movable aerial photographs of the land

below, which gave the crew the impression of flight and enabled the bomber to practiselining up bombing targets.

A team of operators sat at a control booth on the ground below the machine, from which

they could simulate weather conditions such as wind or cloud. This team also tracked the

aeroplane's position by moving a "crab" (a marker) on a paper map.


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Because in the current era UMi lies nearly in

a direct line with the axis of the Earth's

rotation "above" the North Pole the north

celestial pole Polaris stands almostmotionless on the sky, and all the stars of the

Northern sky appear to rotate around it.

Therefore, it makes an excellent fixed point

from which to draw measurements for celestial

navigation and for astrometry. In more recent

history it was referenced in NathanielBowditch's 1802 book, The American Practical

Navigator, where it is listed as one of the

navigational stars. At present, Polaris is 0.7

away from the pole of rotation (1.4 times the

Moon disc) and hence revolves around the

pole in a small circle 1 in diameter. Onlytwice during every sidereal day does Polaris

accurately define the true north azimuth; the

rest of the time it is only an approximation and

must be corrected using tables or a rough rule

of thumb.


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A compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the

Earth's magnetic poles. It consists of a magnetized pointer (usually marked on the

North end) free to align itself with Earth's magnetic field. The compass greatlyimproved the safety and efficiency of travel, especially ocean travel. A compass can

be used to calculate heading, used with a sextant to calculate latitude, and with a

marine chronometer to calculate longitude. It thus provides a much improved

navigational capability that has only been recently supplanted by modern devices

such as the Global Positioning System (GPS).

A compass is any magnetically sensitive device capable of indicating the direction of

the magnetic north of a planet's magnetosphere. The face of the compass generally

highlights the cardinal points of north, south, east and west. Often, compasses are

built as a stand alone sealed instrument with a magnetized bar or needle turning

freely upon a pivot, or moving in a fluid, thus able to point in a northerly and

southerly direction. The compass was invented in ancient China sometime before

the 2nd century, and was used for navigation by the 11th century. The dry compass

was invented in medieval Europe around 1300. This was supplanted in the early

20th century by the liquid-filled magnetic compass.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compass


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China

The earliest Chinese compasses were probably not designed for navigation,

but rather to order and harmonize their environments and buildings in

accordance with the geomantic principles of feng shui. These early

compasses were made using lodestone, a special form of the mineral

magnetite that aligns itself with the Earths magnetic field.

The earliest Chinese literature reference to magnetism lies in the 4th century BC

writings of Wang Xu (): "The lodestone attracts iron.The first mention of the attraction of a needle by a magnet is a Chinese work

composed between 70 and 80 AD (Lunheng ch. 47): "A lodestone attracts a needle.

The earliest reference to a specific magnetic direction finder device is recorded in

a Song Dynasty book dated to 1040-44. There is a description of an iron "south-

pointing fish" floating in a bowl of water, aligning itself to the south.

The first incontestable reference to a magnetized needle in Chinese literature

appears in 1088.

The earliest recorded actual use of a magnetized needle for navigational purposes

is found in Zhu Yu's book Pingzhou Table Talks


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The use of a magnetic compass as a direction finder occurred sometime before 1044,

but incontestable evidence for the use of the compass as a navigational device did not

appear until 1119.

Diagram of a Ming Dynasty

mariner's compass

Navigational sailor's compass rose.Pivoting compass needle in a 14th

century copy of Epistola de

magnete of Peter Peregrinus

(1269)


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Later developments

Dry compass

Early modern dry compass suspended by a gimbal

(1570)

The dry mariner's compass was invented in Europe

around 1300. The dry mariner's compass consists of

three elements: A freely pivoting needle on a pin

enclosed in a little box with a glass cover and a wind

rose, whereby "the wind rose or compass card is

attached to a magnetized needle in such a manner

that when placed on a pivot in a box fastened in line

with the keel of the ship the card would turn as the

ship changed direction, indicating always what

course the ship was on".Early modern dry compass suspended by a

gimbal (1570)


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A bearing compass is a magnetic compass mounted

in such a way that it allows the taking of bearings of

objects by aligning them with the lubber line of the

bearing compass. A surveyor's compass is aspecialized compass made to accurately measure

heading of landmarks and measure horizontal

angles to help with map making. These were

already in common use by the early 18th century

and are described in the 1728 Cyclopaedia. The

bearing compass was steadily reduced in size andweight to increase portability, resulting in a model

that could be carried and operated in one hand.


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Liquid compass

The liquid compass is a design in which the magnetized needle or card is damped by

fluid to protect against excessive swing or wobble, improving readability while reducingwear. A rudimentary working model of a liquid compass was introduced by Sir Edmund

Halley at a meeting of the Royal Society in 1690. However, as early liquid compasses

were fairly cumbersome and heavy, and subject to damage, their main advantage was

aboard ship. Protected in a binnacle and normally gimbal-mounted, the liquid inside the

compass housing effectively damped shock and vibration, while eliminating excessive

swing and grounding of the card caused by the pitch and roll of the vessel.

A flush mount compass on a boat


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Liquid compasses were next adapted for aircraft. In 1909, Captain F.O.

Creagh-Osborne, Superintendent of Compasses at the British Admiralty,

introduced his Creagh-Osborne aircraft compass, which used a mixture of

alcohol and distilled water to damp the compass card. After the success of

this invention, Capt. Creagh-Osborne adapted his design to a much smaller

pocket model for individual use by officers of artillery or infantry, receiving

a patent in 1915.


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Thumb compass is a type of compass commonly usedin orienteering, a sport in which map reading and terrain

association are paramount. Consequently, most thumbcompasses have minimal or no degree markings at all, and

are normally used only to orient the map to magnetic north.

Thumb compasses are also often transparent so that an

orienteer can hold a map in the hand with the compass and

see the map through the compass.

Thumb compasses attach to one's thumb using a small

elastic band.

Placing an even greater emphasis on speed over accuracy,

the wrist compass lacks even a baseplate, consisting solely

of a needle capsule strapped to the carpometacarpal joint

at the base of the thumb; the thumb serves the function of

a baseplate when taking and sighting bearings. It is often

used for city and park race orienteering.


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Using the Compass

The compass consists of a magnetized metal needle that floats on a pivot

point. The needle orients to the magnetic field lines of the earth. The basicorienteering compass is composed of the following parts:

Base plate

Straight edge and ruler

Direction of travel arrow

Compass housing with 360 degree markings

North labelIndex line

Orienting arrow

Magnetic needle (north end is red)


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What is North

No, this is not a silly question, there are

two types of north.

True North: (also known as Geographic

North or Map North - marked as H on a

topographic map) is the geographic

north pole where all longitude lines

meet. All maps are laid out with true

north directly at the top. Unfortunately

for the wilderness traveler, true north is

not at the same point on the earth as the

magnetic north Pole which is where your

compass points.

In 2001, the North Magnetic Pole was determined by the Geological Survey of

Canada to lie near Ellesmere Island in northern Canada at 81.3N 110.8W. It

was estimated to be at 82.7N 114.4W in 2005. In 2009, it was moving

toward Russia at almost 40 miles (64 km) per year due to magnetic changes in

the Earth's core.


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LatitudeThe latitude of a place on the earth's surface is the angular distance north or

south of the equator. Latitude is usually expressed in degrees (marked with )

ranging from 0 at the Equator to 90 at the North and South poles. The

latitude of the North Pole is 90 N, and the latitude of the South Pole is 90 S.

Historically, mariners calculated latitude in the Northern Hemisphere by

sighting the North Star Polaris with a sextant and sight reduction tables to take

out error for height of eye and atmospheric refraction. Generally, the height of

Polaris in degrees of arc above the horizon is the latitude of the observer.

LongitudeSimilar to latitude, the longitude of a place on the earth's surface is the angular

distance east or west of the prime meridian or Greenwich meridian. Longitude

is usually expressed in degrees (marked with ) ranging from 0 at the

Greenwich meridian to 180 east and west. Sydney, Australia, for example, has a

longitude of about 151 east. New York City has a longitude of about 74 west.

For most of history, mariners struggled to determine precise longitude. The

problem was solved with the invention of the marine chronometer. Longitude

can be calculated if the precise time of a sighting is known.


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Philippines is located within the latitude and longitude of 13 00 N, 122 00 E.

Philippine Islands are located in the northern hemisphere.


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1. South Geographic Pole

2. South Magnetic Pole (2007)

3. South Geomagnetic Pole[when?]

4. South Pole of Inaccessibility

The South Pole, also known as the Geographic

South Pole or Terrestrial South Pole, is one of

the two points where the Earth's axis of

rotation intersects its surface. It is thesouthernmost point on the surface of the Earth

and lies on the opposite side of the Earth from

the North Pole. Situated on the continent of

Antarctica, it is the site of the United States

Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, which was

established in 1956 and has been permanentlystaffed since that year. The Geographic South

Pole should not be confused with the South

Magnetic Pole.

Its southern hemisphere counterpart is the South Magnetic Pole. Because the

Earth's magnetic field is not exactly symmetrical, the North and South

Magnetic Poles are not antipodal: a line drawn from one to the other does not

pass through the centre of the Earth; it actually misses by about 530 km (329.3

mi).


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GeographicSouth Pole is marked by a smallsign and a stake in the ice pack, which are

repositioned each year on New Year's Day tocompensate for the movement of the ice. The sign

records the respective dates that Roald Amundsen

and Robert F. Scott reached the Pole, followed by a

short quotation from each man and gives the

elevation as 2,835 m (9,301 ft)

CeremonialSouthPole is an area set asidefor photo opportunities at the South Pole Station.

It is located a short distance from the GeographicSouth Pole, and consists of a metallic sphere on a

plinth, surrounded by the flags of the Antarctic

Treaty signatory states

The Geographic South Pole

The Ceremonial South Pole


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Magnetic North: Think of the earth as a giant magnet (it is actually). The shape of the

earth's magnetic field is roughly the same shape as the field of a bar magnet. However,

the earth's magnetic field is inclined at about 11 from the axis of rotation of the earth,

so this means that the earth's magnetic pole doesn't correspond to the Geographic

North Pole and because the earth's core is molten, the magnetic field is always shifting

slightly. The red end of your compass needle is magnetized and wherever you are, the

earth's magnetic field causes the needle to rotate until it lies in the same direction as the

earth's magnetic field. This is magnetic north (marked as MN on a topographic map).

Figure 6.7 shows the magnetic lines for the United States (as of 1985). If you locate

yourself at any point in the U.S., your compass will orient itself parallel to the lines of

magnetic force in that area.


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Magnetic North vs. True North

Once you've set your bearing, you're on the right track to finding your way. But there's

still another wrinkle. Magnetic north isn't the same as true north -- it's close, but nocigar. Magnetic north is always moving, and we call this margin of error declination.

Declination is an angle that measures the difference between true north and magnetic

north. The angle varies depending on where you are on the planet. This is why it's

important to always use a current map when you're in unfamiliar territory, especially

when you're trekking long distances. With short distances, the declination may only be

100 feet (30 meters) or so. But when you're trekking long distances, the margin of error

could be several miles (or kilometers). Your map will tell you the declination. When you

make your navigation calculations, you add or subtract that angle from the compass

bearing numbers. Some compasses only require you to make that adjustment once for

your entire trip -- check your compass instructions for more about setting the

declination.


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What's yourMap Declination?

The first thing you need to know is where you are in relation to magnetic north.

You can find this information by looking on your map legend. If you look at themap of North America in Figure 6.8 you will see the line roughly marking 0

declination. If you are on the line where the declination is 0 degrees, then you

don't have to worry about any of this, since magnetic north and map north are

equivalent. (Wouldn't it be nice if all your trips were on the 0 degree of

declination line?) If you are to the right of that line, your compass will point

toward the line (to the left) and hence the declination is to the west. If you are

to the left of the line, your compass will point toward the line (to the right) and

hence the declination is to the east.


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The Compass Phone

In early 2008, Nokia unveiled the first

compass phone. This cell phone

features a built-in compass designedfor pedestrian navigation. The

compass aligns the phone's built-in

GPS maps with magnetic north.

Integrating the compass with the GPS

means that the phone will always

show the map in the correctorientation, no matter how the user is

holding the phone


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Navigational-Aid Basics

Unlike the roads and highways that we drive on, thewaterways we go boating on do not have road signs

that tell us our location, the route or distance to a

destination, or of hazards along the way. Instead, the

waterways have AIDS TO NAVIGATION (or ATONs),

which are all of those man-made objects used by

mariners to determine position or a safe course.

These aids also assist mariners in making a safe landfall,

mark isolated dangers, enable pilots to follow channels,

and provide a continuous chain of charted marks for

precise piloting in coastal waters. The U.S. Aids to

Navigation System is intended for use with nauticalcharts, which provide valuable information regarding

water depths, hazards, and other features that you will

not find in an atlas or road map.


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The term "aids to navigation" includes buoys, day beacons, lights, lightships, radio

beacons, fog signals, marks and other devices used to provide "street" signs on the

water. Aids To Navigation include all the visible, audible and electronic symbols that

are established by government and private authorities for piloting purposesTypes of Aids to Navigation

The term "aids to navigation" encompasses a wide range of floating and

fixed objects (fixed meaning attached to the bottom or shore), and

consist primarily of:

Buoys - floating objects that are anchored to the bottom. Theirdistinctive shapes and colors indicate their purpose and how to navigate

around them.

Beacons -Which are structures that are permanently fixed to the sea-

bed or land. They range from structures such as light houses, to single-

pile poles. Most beacons have lateral or non-lateral aids attached to

them. Lighted beacons are called "LIGHTS", unlighted beacons are"DAYBEACONS".

Both Buoys and Beacons may have lights attached, and may have a

sound making device such as a gong, bell or horn. Both Buoys and

Beacons may be called "marks".


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Types of BuoysLateral Marks

Used generally to mark the sides of well-defined, navigablechannels.

They are positioned in accordance with a Conventional Direction

of Buoyage. They indicate the Port and Starboard hand sides of

the route to be followed. They are colored Red (Port Hand

Marks) and Green (Starboard Hand Marks).

http://www.trinityhouse.co.uk/interactive/buoys.pdf


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CardinalMarksUsed in conjunction with the compass to indicate the direction from the mark in which

the deepest navigable water lies, to draw attention to a

bend, junction or fork in a channel, or to mark the end of a shoal. The mariner will be

safe if they pass North of a North mark, South of a South mark, East of an East mark and

West of a West mark.

Cardinal Marks are also used for permanent wreck marking whereby North, East, South

and West Cardinal buoys are placed around the wreck. In the case of a new wreck, any

one of the Cardinal buoys may be duplicated and fixed with a Radar Beacon (RACON).

Cardinal Marks

From left to right: North Cardinal,

East Cardinal, South Cardinal,and West Cardinal Class Two buoys


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Isolate

d Danger

M

arks

Used to mark small, isolated dangers with navigable

water around the

buoy. Typically used to mark hazards such as an

underwater shoal or rock.

They are coloured Black and Red.


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Safe WaterMarks

May be used mid-channel, as a centreline or at

the point where land is reached. These buoys (as

the name suggests) indicate the presence of safe,

navigable water all around the buoy. They may

also indicate the best point of passage under a

fixed bridge. These buoys are coloured Red andWhite.


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SpecialMarks

Not primarily intended to assist navigation but are used

to indicate a special area or feature, the nature of which

is apparent by referring to a chart or Notice to Mariners.

Special Marks are used in the marking of cables and

pipelines, including outfall pipes and recreation zones.

They are colored yellow.


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Emergency Wreck BuoysThese buoys provide a clear and unambiguous

means of marking new wrecks. This buoy is used as

a temporary response, typically for the first 24 - 72hours. This buoy is coloured in an equal number of

blue and yellow vertical stripes and is fitted with an

alternating blue and yellow

flashing light.


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Buoys and markers

Buoys and markers are water traffic signs that provide offering direction and information.They also help identify danger areas and restricted zones.

Learn to identify the different types of buoys and markers and what they mean see the

illustration below.

Mile/channel markers are installed on the main channel of the Colorado River on lakes

Buchanan and Travis. The river channel is not marked on other Highland Lakes.Mile/channel markers are placed about one mile apart and are sequentially numbered

starting at the dam. Facing upstream, green markers are on the left and have odd numbers,

while red markers are on the right and have even numbers.

Its a violation of state law to moor or attach a vessel to any buoy or marker. Its also illegal

to move, remove, displace, tamper with, damage or destroy any buoy or marker.

Hazard buoys on LCRA lakes are installed and maintained by LCRA. Regulatory buoys onthe Highland Lakes must have a permit from LCRA. For information, contact LCRA.


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Sound Buoys

Bell

GongWhistle

H

orn

88

5


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Combination Buoys

Any buoy in which a light and a sound signal are

combined

Examples include:

Lighted bell

Lighted gong

Lighted whistle

Lighted horn

4

5


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beacon is an intentionally conspicuousdevice designed to attract attention to a

specific location.

Beacons can also be combined with

semaphoric or other indicators to provide

important information, such as the status of an

airport, by the colour and rotational pattern of

its airport beacon, or of pending weather as

indicated on a weather beacon mounted at thetop of a tall building or similar site. When used

in such fashion, beacons can be considered a

form of optical telegraphy.

A Scandinavian beacon being lit.


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Beacons -help guide navigators to their destinations. Types of navigationalbeacons include radar reflectors, radio beacons, sonic and visual signals. Visual

beacons range from small, single-pile structures to large lighthouses or light

stations and can be located on land or on water. Lighted beacons are called lights;unlighted beacons are called day beacons.


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MajorL

ights


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A radio direction finder(RDF) is a device for finding the direction to a radio source.

Due to radio's ability to travel very long distances and "over the horizon", it makes

a particularly good navigation system for ships, small boats, and aircraft that might

be some distance from their destination.

Civil Air Patrol members practice using a handheld radio direction finder to

locate an emergency locator transmitter.


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The first usable radio direction finder was created in 1907 by italian engineers Ettore

Bellini and Alessandro Tosi. In 1919 it was replaced by the more efficient Adcock

antenna.

US Navy model DAQ high frequency radio direction finder

Amelia Earhart's Lockheed Model 10 Electra with the circularRDFaerial visible

above the cockpit


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Usage in maritime and aircraft navigation

Radio transmitters for air and sea navigation are known as beacons and are the radio

equivalent to a lighthouse. The transmitter sends a Morse Code transmission on a Long

wave (150 - 400 Khz) or Medium wave (AM) (520 - 1720 Khz) frequency incorporating the

station's identifier that is used to confirm the station and its operational status. Since

these radio signals are broadcast in all directions (omnidirectional) during the day, the

signal itself does not include direction information, and these beacons are therefore

referred to as non-directional beacons, or NDBs

Today many NDBs have been decommissioned in favor of

faster and far more accurate GPS navigational systems.

However the low cost of ADF and RDF systems, and the

continued existence of AM broadcast stations (as well as

navigational beacons in countries outside North America)

has allowed these devices to continue to function, primarilyfor use in small boats, as an adjunct or backup to GPS.


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A non-directional (radio) beacon (NDB) is a radio transmitter

at a known location, used as an aviation or marine

navigational aid. As the name implies, the signal transmitted

does not include inherentdirectional information, in contrast

to other navigational aids such as low frequency radio range,

VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) and TACAN. NDB signals

follow the curvature of the earth, so they can be received at

much greater distances at lower altitudes, a major advantage

over VOR. However, NDB signals are also affected more by

atmospheric conditions, mountainous terrain, coastal

refraction and electrical storms, particularly at long range.

Even with the advent of VHF omnidirectional range (VOR)

systems and Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation,

NDBs continue to be the most widely-used radio navigational

aid worldwide.


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Use of non-directional beacons

Airways

A bearing is a line passing through the station that points in a specific direction, such as

270 degrees (due West). NDB bearings provide a charted, consistent method for definingpaths aircraft can fly. In this fashion, NDBs can, like VORs, define "airways" in the sky.

Aircraft follow these pre-defined routes to complete a flight plan.


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Common adverseeffects

Navigation using an ADF to track NDBs is subject to several common effects:

Night effect: radio waves reflected back by the ionosphere can cause signal strengthfluctuations 30 to 60 nautical miles (54 to 108 km) from the transmitter, especially just

before sunrise and just after sunset (more common on frequencies above 350 kHz)

Terrain effect: high terrain like mountains and cliffs can reflect radio waves, giving

erroneous readings; magnetic deposits can also cause erroneous readings

Electricaleffect: electrical storms, and sometimes also electrical interference (from a

ground-based source or from a source within the aircraft) can cause the ADF needle todeflect towards the electrical source

Shorelineeffect: low-frequency radio waves will refract or bend near a shoreline,

especially if they are close to parallel to it

Bank effect: when the aircraft is banked, the needle reading will be offset

While pilots study these effects during initial training, trying to compensate for them in

flight is very difficult; instead, pilots generally simply choose a heading that seems to

average out any fluctuations.


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Automatic direction finder (ADF)

An automatic direction finder(ADF) is a marine or aircraft radio-navigation

instrument which automatically and continuously displays the relative bearing fromthe ship or aircraft to a suitable radio station. ADF receivers are normally tuned to

aviation or marine NDBs operating in the LW band between 190 535 kHz. Like

RDF units, most ADF receivers can also receive medium wave (AM) broadcast

stations, though as mentioned, these are less reliable for navigational purposes.

A typical aircraft ADF indicator


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LIMITATIONSAND BENEFITS

Pilots using ADF should be aware of the following limitations:

Radio waves reflected by the ionosphere return to the earth 30 to 60 miles from thestation and may cause the ADF pointer to fluctuate.

Mountains orcliffs can reflect radio waves, producing a terrain effect. Furthermore, some

of these slopes may have magnetic deposits that cause indefinite indications. Pilots flying

near mountains should use only strong stations that give definite directional indications,

and should not use stations obstructed by mountains.

Shorelines can refract or bend low frequency radio waves as they pass from land to water.Pilots flying over water should not use an NDB signal that crosses over the shoreline to the

aircraft at an angle less than 30. The shoreline has little or no effect on radio waves

reaching the aircraft at angles greater than 30.

When an electrical storm is nearby, the ADF needle points to the source of lightning rather

than to the selected station because the lighting sends out radio waves. The pilot should

note the flashes and not use the indications caused by them.The ADF is subject to errors when the aircraft is banked. Bank erroris present in all turns

because the loop antenna which rotates to sense the direction of the incoming signal is

mounted so that its axis is parallel to the normal axis of the aircraft. Bank error is a

significant factor during NDB approaches.


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BEARING INDICATOR displays the bearing to the station relative to the nose of

the aircraft. If the pilot is flying directly to the station, the bearing indicator

points to 0. An ADF with a fixed card bearing indicator always represents the

nose of the aircraft as 0 and the tail as 180.

Relative bearing (see NDB Bearings figure, on the left) is the angle formed by the

intersection of a line drawn through the centerline of the aircraft and a line drawn

from the aircraft to the radio station. This angle is always measured clockwise fromthe nose of the aircraft and is indicated directly by the pointer on the bearing

indicator.

Magnetic bearing (see NDB Bearings figure, on the left) is the angle formed by the

intersection of a line drawn from the aircraft to the radio station and a line drawn

from the aircraft to magnetic north.


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HOMING: One of the most common ADF uses is "homing to a station". When using this

procedure, the pilot flies to a station by keeping the bearing indicator needle on 0

when using a fixed-card ADF. The pilot should follow these steps:

tune the desired frequency and identify the station. Set the function selector knob to ADF and note

the relative bearing; turn the aircraft toward the relative bearing until the bearing indicator pointer is

0; and

continue flight to the station by maintaining a relative bearing of 0.


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A radio beacon is a transmitter at a

known location, which transmits a

continuous or periodic radio signal with

limited information content (for exampleits identification or location), on a

specified radio frequency.

Radio beacons have many applications,

including air and sea navigation,

propagation research, robotic mapping,

radio frequency identification (radio-frequency identification, RFID) and

indoor guidance as with real time

locating systems


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RADAR

Radar is an object detection system that uses electromagnetic waves to identify the

range, altitude, direction, or speed of both moving and fixed objects such as aircraft,ships, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. The term RADAR was coined in

1940 by the U.S. Navy as an acronym for radio detection and ranging. The term has

since entered the English language as a standard word, radar, losing the capitalization.

Radar was originally called RDF (Range and Direction Finding) in the United Kingdom,

using the same acronym as Radio Direction Finding to preserve the secrecy of its

ranging capability.


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If you send out a loud

sound toward a car

moving toward you. Someof the sound waves will

bounce off the car (an

echo). Because the car is

moving toward you,

however, the sound waveswill be compressed.

Therefore, the sound of

the echo will have a higher

pitch than the original

sound you sent. If you

measure the pitch of the

echo, you can determine

how fast the car is going.

When people use radar they are usually trying to accomplish one of three things


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When people use radar, they are usually trying to accomplish one of three things:

Detect the presence of an object at a distance- Usually the "something" is moving, like

an airplane, but radar can also be used to detect stationary objects buried underground.

In some cases, radar can identify an object as well; for example, it can identify the typeof aircraft it has detected.

Detect the speed of an object - This is the reason why police use radar.

Map something - The space shuttle and orbiting satellites use something called Synthetic

Aperture Radar to create detailed topographic maps of the surface of planets andmoons.

All three of these activities can be accomplished using two things you may be familiar

with from everyday life: echo and Doppler shift. These two concepts are easy to

understand in the realm of sound because your ears hear echo and Doppler shift every

day. Radar makes use of the same techniques using radio waves.


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Applications of Radar

The information provided by radar includes the bearing and range (and therefore

position) of the object from the radar scanner. It is thus used in many different fields

where the need for such positioning is crucial. The first use of radar was for military

purposes; to locate air, ground and sea targets. This has evolved in the civilian field

into applications for aircraft, ships and roads.

In aviation, aircraft are equipped with radar devices that warn of obstacles in or

approaching their path and give accurate altitude readings. They can land in fog at

airports equipped with radar-assisted ground-controlled approach (GCA) systems, inwhich the plane's flight is observed on radar screens while operators radio landing

directions to the pilot.

Marineradars are used to measure the bearing and distance of ships to prevent

collision with other ships, to navigate and to fix their position at sea when within

range of shore or other fixed references such as islands, buoys, and lightships. In portor in harbour, Vessel traffic service radar systems are used to monitor and regulate

ship movements in busy waters.


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Also, all airliners are

equipped with radarequipment in the

aircraft's nose. Short

bursts of radio signals

are emitted from the

nose cone of theaircraft. These signals

reflect off clouds ahead

of the aircraft.


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Alexander Behm was a German physicist.

As head of a research laboratory in Vienna (Austria) heconducted experiments concerning the propagation of sound.

He tried to develop an iceberg detection system using reflected

sound waves after the Titanic disaster on 15 April 1912. In the

end reflected sound waves proved not to be suitable for the

detection of icebergs but for measuring the depth of the sea,because the bottom of the sea reflected them well. Thus, echo

sounding was born.

Behm was granted German patent No. 282009 for the inventionof echo sounding (device for measuring depths of the sea and

distances and headings of ships or obstacles by means of

reflected sound waves) on 22 July 1913.


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Hyperbolic Navigational Systems


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hyperbolic navigation system is a navigation system that

produces hyperbolic lines of position by the measurement of thedifference in the time of reception, or the phase, of radio signals

from multiple synchronized transmitters at fixed locations



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yp g y

GEE

The British GEE system was developed during World War II. GEEused a series of transmitters sending out precisely timed signals,

and the aircraft using GEE, RAF Bomber Command's heavy

bombers, examined the time of arrival on an oscilloscope at the

navigator's station. If the signal from two stations arrived at the

same time, the aircraft must be an equal distance from bothtransmitters, allowing the navigator to determine a line of

position on his chart of all the positions at that distance from

both stations. By making similar measurements with other

stations, additional lines of position can be produced, leading to

a fix. GEE was accurate to about 165 yards (150 m) at short

ranges, and up to a mile (1.6 km) at longer ranges over Germany.

Used after WWII as late as the 1960s in the RAF (approx freq was

by then 68 MHz).


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The Decca Navigator System was a hyperbolic low frequency

radio navigation system (also known as multilateration) that

was first deployed during World War II when the Allied forces

needed a system which could be used to achieve accurate

landings.


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OMEGA was originally developed by the United States Navy for

military aviation users. It was approved for development in 1968

with only eight transmitters and the ability to achieve a four mile(6 km) accuracy when fixing a position. Each Omega station

transmitted a very low frequency signal which consisted of a

pattern of four tones unique to the station that was repeated

every ten seconds. OMEGA employed hyperbolic radionavigation

techniques and the chain operated in the VLF portion of the

spectrum between 10 to 14 kHz. Near its end, it evolved into a

system used primarily by the civil community. By receiving signals

from three stations, an Omega receiver could locate a position to

within 4 nautical miles (7.4 km) using the principle of phasecomparison of signals.


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John Alvin Pierce, the "Father of Omega," first proposed

the use of continuous wave modulation of VLF signals for

navigation purposes in the 1940's. Working at the

Radiation Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology, he proved the viability of measuring the

phase difference of radio signals to compute a location

solution. Pierce originally called this system RADUX. After

experimenting with various frequencies, he settled on a

phase stable, 10 kHz transmission in the 1950's. Thinking

this frequency was the far end of the radio spectrumPierce dubbed the transmission "Omega," for the last

letter of the Greek alphabet.

John (Jack) A. Pierce, who retired from a position as a senior research fellow atHarvard University, Cambridge, Mass. was awarded the Medal For Engineering

Excellence in 1990 for the "design , teaching and advocacy of radio propagation,

navigation and timing which led to the development ofLoran, Loran C and

Omega.


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OMEGA-Transmitter Paynesville was inaugaurated in 1976 and used as radio antenna anumbrella aerial mounted on a 417 metre high guyed mast of lattice steel, which was the

tallest structure ever built in Africa. The station was directed to the government of

Liberia after the termination of the Omega Navigation System on September 30, 1997.

As of February, 2006, the Omega Tower near Paynesville is still standing, although it is

unused. Access to the tower is not restricted, and it is possible to climb it.


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LORAN (LOng RAnge Navigation) is a terrestrial radio navigation system using low

frequency radio transmitters that uses multiple transmitters (multilateration) to

determine the location and speed of the receiver.

The current version ofLORAN in common use is LORAN-C, which operates in the low

frequency portion of the EM spectrum from 90 to 110 kHz. Many nations use the

system, including the United States, Japan, and several European countries.

A LORAN-C receiver for use on merchant ships


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Timing and Synchronization


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Timing and Synchronization

Each LORAN station is equipped with a suite of specialized equipment to generate

the precisely timed signals used to modulate / drive the transmitting equipment. Up

to three commercial cesium atomic clocks are used to generate 5 MHz and pulse persecond (or 1 Hz) signals that are used by timing equipment to generate the various

GRI-dependent drive signals for the transmitting equipment.

Each U.S.-operated LORAN station is synchronized to within 100 ns of UTC

Cesium atomic clocks


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Transmitters and Antennas

LORAN-C transmitters

operate at peak powers of100 kilowatts to four

megawatts, comparable to

longwave broadcasting

stations. Most LORAN-C

transmitters use mast

radiators insulated fromground with heights

between 190 and 220

metres.


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Map ofLORAN stations.


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Gl b l i i lli


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Global navigation satellite system

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) is the standard generic term for satellite

navigation systems ("sat nav") that provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning with

global coverage. GNSS allows small electronic receivers to determine their location

(longitude, latitude, and altitude) to within a few metres using time signals

transmitted along a line-of-sight by radio from satellites. Receivers calculate the

precise time as well as position,

Early predecessors were the ground based DECCA, LORAN and Omega systems,

which used terrestrial longwave radio transmitters instead of satellites. Thesepositioning systems broadcast a radio pulse from a known "master" location,

followed by repeated pulses from a number of "slave" stations. The delay

between the reception and sending of the signal at the slaves was carefully

controlled, allowing the receivers to compare the delay between reception and

the delay between sending.

Common Applications


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Common Applications

Automobiles can be equipped with GNSS receivers at the factory or as aftermarket

equipment. Units often display moving maps and information about location, speed,

direction, and nearby streets and points of interest.

Aircraft navigation systems usually display a "moving map" and are often connected to the

autopilot for en-route navigation. Cockpit-mounted GNSS receivers and glass cockpits are

appearing in general aviation aircraft of all sizes.

Boats and ships can use GNSS to navigate all of the world's lakes, seas and oceans.

Heavy Equipment can use GNSS in construction, mining and precision agriculture. The blades

and buckets of construction equipment are controlled automatically in GNSS-based machine

guidance systems.

Bicycles often use GNSS in racing and touring. GNSS navigation allows cyclists to plot theircourse in advance and follow this course, which may include quieter, narrower streets,

without having to stop frequently to refer to separate maps.

Spacecraft are now beginning to use GNSS as a navigational tool. The addition of a GNSS

receiver to a spacecraft allows precise orbit determination without ground tracking.

Civil and military uses


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The original motivation for satellite navigation was for military applications. Satellite

navigation allows for hitherto impossible precision in the delivery of weapons to

targets, greatly increasing their lethality whilst reducing inadvertent casualties frommis-directed weapons. (See smart bomb). Satellite navigation also allows forces to be

directed and to locate themselves more easily, reducing the fog of war.

In these ways, satellite

navigation can be

regarded as a force

multiplier. In particular,

the ability to reduce

unintended casualties

has particular

advantages for wars

where public relations

is an important aspect

of warfare. For these

reasons, a satellite

navigation system is an

essential asset for any

aspiring military power.

Gl b l i ti t


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Global navigation systems

Operational

GPS Global Positioning System

The United States' Global Positioning

System (GPS) consists of up to 32 medium

Earth orbit satellites in six different orbital

planes, with the exact number of satellitesvarying as older satellites are retired and

replaced. Operational since 1978 and

globally available since 1994, GPS is

currently the world's most utilized satellite

navigation system.


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In development

Galileo

The European Union and European Space Agency agreed on March 2002 to introduce

their own alternative to GPS, called the Galileo positioning system. At a cost of about

GBP 2.4 billion,[3] the system is scheduled to be working from 2012. The first

experimental satellite was launched on 28 December 2005. Galileo is expected to be

compatible with the modernized GPS system. The receivers will be able to combine the

signals from both Galileo and GPS satellites to greatly increase the accuracy.

GLONASS

The formerly Soviet, and now Russian, GLObal'naya NAvigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya

Sistema(GLObal NAvigation Satellite System), or GLONASS, was a fully functional

navigation constellation but since the collapse of the Soviet Union has fallen intodisrepair, leading to gaps in coverage and only partial availability. The Russian Federation

has pledged to restore it to full global availability by 2010. As of April 2010 GLONASS is

practically restored (21 of 24 satellites are operational).

Compass


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Compass

China has indicated they intend to expand their regional navigation system, called Beidou

or Big Dipper, into a global navigation system by 2020[4] a program that has been calledCompass in China's official news agency Xinhua. The Compass system is proposed to utilize

30 medium Earth orbit satellites and five geostationary satellites.

Comparison of GNSS systems


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A satellite-based augmentation

system (SBAS) is a system that


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system (SBAS) is a system that

supports wide-area or regional

augmentation through the use of

additional satellite-broadcastmessages. Such systems are

commonly composed of multiple

ground stations, located at

accurately-surveyed points. The

ground stations take measurements

of one or more of the GNSS

satellites, the satellite signals, or

other environmental factors which

may impact the signal received by

the users. Using these

measurements, information

messages are created and sent to

one or more satellites for broadcast

to the end users.

Regional navigation systems


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Operational:

China

Beidou 1

Chinese regional network to be expanded into the global

COMPASS Navigation System.

France

DORIS

Doppler Orbitography and Radio-positioning Integrated by

Satellite (DORIS) is a French precision navigation system.



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In development

IRNSS -Indian Regional NavigationalSatelliteSystem

The Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) is an autonomous regional

satellite navigation system being developed by Indian Space Research Organisation

which would be under the total control of Indian government. The government approved

the project in May 2006, with the intention of the system to be completed and

implemented by 2014. It will consist of a constellation of 7 navigational satellites. All the

7 satellites will be placed in the Geostationary orbit (GEO) to have a larger signalfootprint and lower number of satellites to map the region. It is intended to provide an

all-weather absolute position accuracy of better than 7.6 meters throughout India and

within a region extending approximately 1,500 km around it. A goal of complete Indian

control has been stated, with the space segment, ground segment and user receivers all

being built in India.

QZSS Quasi-ZenithSatelliteSystem

The Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), is a proposed three-satellite regional time

transfer system and enhancement for GPS covering Japan. The first demonstration

satellite is scheduled to be launched in 2009

The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is an air navigation aid developed by


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The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is an air navigation aid developed by

the Federal Aviation Administration to augment the Global Positioning System (GPS),

with the goal of improving its accuracy, integrity, and availability. Essentially, WAAS is

intended to enable aircraft to rely on GPS for all phases of flight, including precision

approaches to any airport within its coverage area.

WAAS System Overview


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The European Geostationary Navigation


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The European Geostationary Navigation

Overlay Service (EGNOS) is a satellite based

augmentation system (SBAS) under

development by the European Space Agency,

the European Commission and EUROCONTROL.

It is intended to supplement the GPS,

GLONASS and Galileo systems by reporting on

the reliability and accuracy of the signals. The

official start of operations was announced by

the European Commission on 1 October 2009

The system started its initial operations in July 2005, showing outstanding

performances in terms of accuracy (better than two metres) and availability

(above 99%); it is intended to be certified for use in safety of life applications in

2010. A commercial service is under test and will also be made available in 2010.


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Map of the EGNOS ground network


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GLONASS (Russian: , abbreviation of


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; tr.: GLObal'naya NAvigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema; "GLObal

NAvigation Satellite System" in English) is a radio-based satellite navigation system,

developed by the former Soviet Union and now operated for the Russian government

by the Russian Space Forces. It is an alternative and complementary to the UnitedStates' Global Positioning System (GPS), the Chinese Compass navigation system, and

the planned Galileo positioning system of the European Union (EU).

GLONASSGLONASS logo

D l t th GLONASS b i 1976 ith l f l b l b


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Development on the GLONASS began in 1976, with a goal of global coverage by

1991. Beginning on 12 October 1982, numerous rocket launches added satellites

to the system until the constellation was completed in 1995. Following

completion, the system rapidly fell into disrepair with the collapse of the Russianeconomy. Beginning in 2001, Russia committed to restoring the system and by

April 2010 it is practically restored (21 of 24 satellites are operational).

A combined GLONASS/GPS Personal Radio Beacon

A Russian military rugged, combined

GLONASS/GPS receiver

Aircraft Navigation


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A marker beacon is a particular type of low frequency radio beacon used in

aviation, usually in conjunction with an instrument landing system (ILS), to give

pilots a means to determine position along an established route to a destination

such as a runway. From the 1930s until the 1950s, markers were used extensively

along airways to provide an indication of an aircraft's specific position along the

route, but from the 1960s they have become increasingly limited to ILS approach

installations.


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OuterMarkerThe outer marker, which normally identifies the final approack

fix, is situated on the same line with the localizer and the

runway centerline, four to seven nautical miles before the

runway threshold. It is typically located about 1-nautical-mile

(2 km) inside the point where the glideslope intercepts the

intermediate altitude and transmits a low-powered (3 watt),

400 Hz tone signal on a 75 MHz carrier frequency. Its antenna is

highly directional, and is pointed straight up. The valid signal

area is a 2,400 ft (730 m) 4,200 ft (1,280 m) ellipse (as

measured 1,000 ft (300 m) above the antenna.) When the

aircraft passes over the outer marker antenna, its marker

beacon receiver detects the signal. The system gives the pilot a

visual (blinking blue outer marker light) and aural (continuous

series of audio tone morse code-like 'dashes') indication.


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MiddleMarkerA middle marker works on the same principle

as an outer marker. It is normally positioned

0.5 to 0.8 nautical miles (1 km) before the

runway threshold. When the aircraft is above

the middle marker, the receivers amber

middle marker light starts blinking, and a

repeating pattern of audible morse code-like

dot-dashes at a frequency of 1,300 Hz in the

headset. This alerts the pilot, that the CAT I

missed approach point (typically 200 feet

(60 m) above the ground level or AGL on the

glideslope) has been passed and should have

already initiated the missed approach if one of

several visual cues has not been spotted.

InnerMarker


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InnerMarkerSimilar to the outer and middle markers;

located at the beginning (threshold) of the

runway on some ILS approach systems (usuallyCategory II and III) having decision heights of

less than 200 feet (60 m) AGL. Triggers a

flashing white light on the same marker

beacon receiver used for the outer and middle

markers; also a series of audio tone 'dots' at a

frequency of 3,000 Hz in the headset.

The ILS Components


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When you fly the ILS, you're really following two signals: a localizer for lateral

guidance (VHF); and a glide slope for vertical guidance (UHF). When you tune

your Nav. receiver to a localizer frequency a second receiver, the glide-slope

receiver, is automatically tuned to its proper frequency. The pairing is

automatic.


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Tracking inbound on the Localizer to Runway 067, Green airport, Providence, R.I. From left to right, the aircraft is 1 Right of

course, two dots (turn left to return); On course; and 1 Left of course (turn right to return).

Navigation Presentation

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