Nautical Knoweldge_1_Cable-Rope Wire & Chain

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Nautical KnowledgeRope, Wire and Chain 1DEC, 2002

Contents

Section 1Cable Rope, Wire and Chain 3

Ropes 3

Natural fibre ropes 4

Synthetic fibre ropes 4

Steel-wire rope (SWR) 5

How ropes are made 7

How SWR is made 10

Care and maintenance Of fibre ropes and SWR 14

Inspection of natural and synthetic fibre ropes 15

Safety when using fibre rope 16

Care and maintenance of SWR 20

Inspection of SWR 21

Chain 23


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2 Nautical KnowledgeRope, Wire and ChainDEC, 2002


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Section 1Cable Rope, Wire andChain

RopesRopes can be made of natural (vegetable) fibres such as Hemp, Sisal,

Manilla, Coir, and Cotton, or manufactured (synthetic) fibres such as Nylon,

Terylene or Dacron, Polypropylene, Polyethylene, and Kevlar.

The smallest component of rope making is the fibre.

In the case of natural and polyethylene (silver) cordage the fibres are short in

length (staple) as compared to the majority of synthetic fibres, which are

continuous (monofilament).

The process of ropemaking consists of spinningfibresto form ayarn.

The yarns are twisted to form astrandand then laid up to form cordage.

To prevent the rope unlaying, the strands are laid up in the oppositedirection to the yarns. For example, if the strands are laid up right handed

during manufacture, then the yarns in the strands will be laid left handed,

and the fibres would be right handed.

Figure 1


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To identify whether a rope is left or right hand lay, lead the rope through

the palm of your right hand and look at the strands. If they are pointing up

towards your right thumb, it is a right hand lay. Figure 1 illustrates a right

hand laid line.

Ropes are made with their use in mind. Natural fibre ropes, synthetic ropes

and wire ropes are the most common types of ropes encountered in themarine environment.

Natural fibre ropes most commonly used today are sisal and manila.

They are made from short fibres.

Synthetic ropes are made up of manufactured strands. The most common

types of synthetic ropes are polypropylene, polyester and nylon.

The term rope is used for both Fibre and Wire ropes. The term cordage is

used to denote fibre ropes only.

Natural fibre ropesThey all have different characteristics when it comes to strength, elasticity

and durability in the marine environment. Made of short fibres they are used

where safety is important. For example, because of its coarseness manila is

used for making rope ladders. On the other hand, because it absorbs water

and moisture, manila rope tends to swell, making it impractical for static

lines such as lashings.

Synthetic fibre ropesThey comprise mainly polypropylene, polyester, nylon and silver rope.

Other types also used are Kevlar and Spectra. Synthetic fibre ropes are

manufactured with specific uses in mind. The table below shows the

properties of various types of synthetic ropes commonly in use.

Name Appearance Properties Cost Comments

Polypropylene Glossy and

plasticky,

normally

manufactured in

bright colours

Floats

Stretches moderately

Vulnerable to the ultra-violet

(UV) light in sunlight

Fairly cheap

Silver rope White, hairy, three-

strand

Floats when new

Better UV resistance than

polypropylene

Cheap Probably the most

commonly used

rope on the

harbour for

general use.


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Nylon White, soft and

smooth

High elasticity (stretches,

and then goes back once

load is off)

Good UV resistance

Does not float at all

Ideal anchor rope

because it sinks

and stretches.

Polyester Very close inappear-ance to

nylon (so close that

manufacturers put

in one coloured

flake to differentiate

it from nylon)

Low stretch

Good resistance to UV

Costsslightly more

than nylon.

Kevlar and

spectra

Braided with very

bright-coloured

polyester cover

High strength

Little or no stretch

Costly Used mostly on

racing yachts

Pract ical Act iv i ty

See what types of ropes are used on your boat and list their properties. Are

the most appropriate ropes being used?

Steel-wire rope (SWR)The two most commonly used steel-wire ropes on the market aregalvanised

steel and stainlesssteel.

Galvanising is a zinc coating applied to the steel wire. The steel is

galvanised to protect it from corrosion. So if the wire is to be used in a

highly abrasive situation, you should not choose galvanised wire.

Stainless steel wire ropes are usually 304 or 316 grade. Ask your

trainer/mentor to show you some samples.

Figure 2


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Wire ropes are monofilament and are comprised mostly of six strands. The

wires are laid left-handed to form strands which are laid right handed around

a heart or core of either jute, hemp, polypropylene or sometimes another

steel wire strand. The heart allows for a better lubrication of the wire and the

natural fibre heart increases its flexibility.

Flexibility is further increased by an increasing number of wires making upthe strands. A wire core increases the wire ropes strength but reduces its

flexibility. That type of wire is used mainly in standing rigging.

So based on the above, flexibility in SWR can be introduced by building the

strands around a fibre heart, and the wire in each round a fibre core, or by

building the strands around a fibre heart and increasing the number of wires

in each strand while reducing their individual thickness.

Other types of rope

Ropemaking is essentially a series of twisting operations. These opposing

twists make the rope balanced.

Braided ropenormally comes with a core and a cover. Most of the strength

of the rope is the core, while the cover is mostly to provide better friction

and protect the core from abrasionand weather.

Figure 3 (a):Braided rope with braided core and heart of parallel strands

Figure 3 (b):Braided rope with hollow braided core

Figure 3 (c):Braided rope with a multiplicity of three-strand rope core members


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Plaited ropeis a rope for average use, cheaper than double-braid, yet easier

to handle than hawser-laid.

Figure 3 (d):Plaited rope

So we can have three-strand rope, plaited rope and double-braid rope made

of different materials. Not all combinations are available on the market.

How ropes are made

We have seen earlier the various types of natural and synthetic ropes usedin the marine industry. We are now going to look more closely at their

construction.

Types of construction (Lay)

Hawser laid

Figure 4:Hawser laid

This is the most common type, three strands laid up right handed, available

in sizes 3 mm diameter upwards.


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Shroud laid

Figure 5:Shroud Laid

This is less common nowadays, four strands laid up right handed over a

central heart. It is 11 per cent weaker than equivalent sizes in three strand.

Cable laid

Figure 6:Cable laid

This consists of three-by-three stranded right hand ropes laid up left handed.

Very elastic and may be used as a spring for towing.

Braided cords

Figure 7:Braided Cord


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Solid braided cords are constructed from either 12 or 18 strands, braided

together, normally over a central core. Available in sizes 3 mm to 12 mm

diameter.

Other forms of braided cordage include, plaited and double braided.

Square rope

Figure 8:Square rope

This is the plaiting of four left hand and four right hand strands, resulting

in a tough, kink resistant rope providing increased flexibility wet or dry.

Sizes 16 mm and upwards, towing and mooring lines.

Stiffness

Stiffness refers to the ease of working the rope. The levels are soft, mediumand hard lay.

A full description of rope includes the following:

size (diameter)

type of fibre

construction

lay

stiffness.


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How SWR is madeThe chief component parts of a stranded wire rope are shown in the

illustration (see Figure 9 below).

Figure 9

Properties of Steel Wire Rope

Size

Construction

Type of Core

Lay

Flexibility.

Construction

This identifies the make up of a rope and shows the number of strands in the

wire,then the number of wires in the strand.

Figure 10

Figure 10 shows a 6/7 Flexible Steel Wire Rope (FSWR) (the 7 representing

6 over 1), ie, six strands of seven wires each.


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Size

Ropes are referred to by diameter. The way to measure is shown below in

Figure 11.

Figure 11

The core or heart

As previously stated the two types of core are natural or synthetic fibre or

wire with its purpose being to act as a lubrication sponge. It also provides

support for strands enabling the rope to keep its shape.

Fibre cores provide a resilient foundation for the strands and are used for

ropes not subject to heavy loading, and where flexibility is required.

They are inadequate where the SWR is subjected to heavy loading,

prolonged outdoor exposure, and crushing on small drums and sheaves.

Synthetic fibre cores differ to natural fibre cores in that they do not rot and

are more flexible than wire cores.

Figure 12


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Wire strand cores are used chiefly for standing ropes (guys or rigging).

They offer high tensile strength, and have a greater resistance to corrosion

failure due to larger wires in the core.

Figure 13

Steel wire ropes are conventionally produced with right hand lay unless

special circumstances require left hand. This is referred to as Right Hand

Ordinary Lay (RHOL) or Regular Lay. With RHOL the wires are laid lefthanded and the strands laid right handed.

Another method of construction is Lang Lay where the strands are laid up

in the same direction as that in which their constituent wires are twisted,

ie both wires and strands Right Handed or both Left Handed.

Langs lay makes for a more flexible rope and wears well when used for

hoisting, due to wear being spread over a larger area of wire. It can only be

used when both ends are anchored and prevented from rotating, (eg crane

topping lifts), because it is liable to unlay when under stress if one end is

free to rotate. However it is not as easy to handle as ordinary lay.

Figure 14

Figure 15:Right Hand Langs Lay


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In non rotating wire rope the outer strands may look like Langs Lay, but all

the wires and strands are very much smaller in size. The inner strands are

arranged so that any tendency for the rope to rotate under load is reduced to

a minimum. It is very flexible and well suited to crane whips (runners).

Figure 16:Non Rotating Wire rope

Any of the above lays may be pre-formed or non pre-formed. During the

manufacture of pre-formed wire rope, the wires and strands are given the

exact spiral form they take up in the finished rope. They lie naturally in

position, free form internal stress, and will not spring out of place likeordinary SWR, where the wires are held forcibly in position.

Naming protocol for wire rope

Wire rope is named by its size and construction. You start with the:

length of rope, then

diameter in mm, then

the number of strands, then

the number of wires in each of those strands.

For example, 2 m of 12 mm 7x19 stainless steel:

7x19 means seven strands each with 19 wires. Wire is laid in six strands,

so the seventh strand is the core (middle).

Seven-strand wire means that the core is steel also. However, with 6x24

we still have six strands and a core, but the core will be a natural or

synthetic fibre.

As stated the main reason for a fibre core is more flexibility, but it will also

often be greased or tarred to lubricate the steel and help prevent corrosion.

Of course, stainless steel rope does not require this.

Therefore:

a non-flexible wire would be 1x19 (1 strand with 19 wires)

a semi-flexible wire would be 7x7 strands with one steel core witheach carrying seven wires

flexible wire could range from 7x19 to 6x36.


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A full description includes the following details.

(a) Rope diameter (mm).

(b) Number of strands x the number of wires per strand.

(c) Direction of layR.H. or L.H.

(d) Type of layO.L/L.L/N.R.(e) Pre-formed or non pre-formed.

(f) Type of core.

(g) Galvanised.

For example:

20 mm Diameter 6x24 Rope

Construction

(15/9/F)

Strand

Construction

R.H.O.L Direction

and Type

Pre-formed,

Galvanised

FSWR with

Fibre core

Pract ical Act iv i ty

Identify some of the ropes you have on board a vessel you crew on. See their

construction and make a note of their use together with their descriptions.

Care and maintenance Of fibre ropesand SWRWithout proper care, fibre rope and SWR will weaken. Correct storage and

handling are essential to keep all ropes in a good state and ready for use.

Letsexamine ways to avoid damage and breakdown.

Fibre rope should be kept dry in a well-ventilated space where it will not be

affected by varying temperatures. It should be coiled on gratings (which

allow for ventilation and drying out). Natural fibre line will rot if stored wet.

Synthetic-fibre ropes are resistant to rot so they can be stowed for long

periods without deterioration and may be stowed wet.

Chafing and uneven wear will damage the rope and thus should be avoided.

Fibre rope is most commonly damaged through bad leads over sharp edges,

and through chafing.

Ropes should always be whipped or spliced at their ends to prevent

unravelling. Before cutting a rope, whippings should be made on both sides

of the cut. Never use a wire rope stopper on a fibre rope.


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If a rope has been used in mud, sand or grit, it should be cleaned thoroughly

before being stored. To wash rope, hang it up in loose coils or flake it out on

the deck and hose with fresh water.

All fibre line must be protected from chemicals and excessive heat, which

will melt synthetic ropes and make natural ropes dry and brittle. Excessive

heat can be generated by friction on a winch drum or any rubbing against ahard surface.

Inspection of natural and synthetic fibreropesAll rope is subject to deterioration and wear and tear. The user should be

able to differentiate between normal wear and tear and deterioration that

prevents the use of any rope.

As discussed the factors that cause deterioration are:

improper maintenance

improper stowage

ropes subjected to abnormal loads

friction and chafing

improper usage.

Ropes should be frequently inspected for damage. External examination ofthe rope may reveal broken strands, distorted strands or unusual wear and

tear. These can be caused by excessive friction over drums, bollards and

fairleads.

The signs of external damage to natural fibre rope are:

abrasion

cuts

soft spots and general softness

discolouration

bleaching

parting of outer fibres

burns.

The signs of internal damage to natural fibre rope are:

dry rot and mildew

any change in colour of fibre strands


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broken fibres

flattened fibres

powdered fibres

broken central core.

Safety when using fibre rope Dont overload: The load applied should never exceed the minimum

Breaking Force or in the case of lifting equipment the Safe Working

Load (SWL)see later section.

Avoid shock loads: Sudden strain can part ropes that would normallybe capable of supporting the same loads under steady pulling

conditions.

Avoid kinks: Never load a kinked rope or pull it through a block.

Avoid knotting: For the purpose of forming an eye this will reduce itsstrength by 50 per cent. Eye splices are preferable.

Avoid sharp angles and bends: Chafe and wear account for most ropefailure. Never use a smaller sheave than is recommended for the size

of rope you are using.

Do not drag ropes: Do not drag over sharp, rough or dirty surfaces,as abrasives can penetrate the rope and damage the fibres.

Listen to the rope: Natural fibre ropes tend to give a warning whenthey are reaching breaking point by making a creaking sound.

Synthetic fibre ropes reduce dramatically in diameter and most do not

make a sound before breaking. Due to their elasticity they have whip

effect and it is essential that all personnel are working clear of the

rope.

Never stand in the bight of a rope:You should also avoid standinginside a loop, on a line, or in line with a rope under load (you could

be cut in half when it recoils after snapping). See Figure 17 on the

next page.

End for end: Equalise wear over the entire length by reversing therope where possible or cutting off ends to move wear points.


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Figure 17:Unsafe practices


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Uncoiling new cordage

Below rope of 48 mm diameter the rope can be taken directly from inside

the coil. This will maintain its protective wrapping. With right handed rope

the coil should be stood on the end which will allow the rope to be taken offleft handed from the inside (see Figure18 below).

Figure 18:Uncoiling rope

Uncoiling the rope in the wrong direction will insert twist and increase the

danger of kinking.

The preferred method, particularly for larger diameter line is unreeling the

coil using a turntable whereby the reel rotates as the rope or wire is

uncoiled.

Coiling down

Always coil ropes in the direction of their lay. Right hand rope should be

coiled clockwise and left hand laid rope anti-clockwise.

When coiling down a rope the end should be kept free to allow the uncoiled

length to rotate thus working out any kinks.

One method of avoiding these turns should the end not be free, is to turn

the coil round while coiling down the rope, thus turning the coil into a reel.

Another method is to allow as long a length as possible between reel and

coil. This length will absorb any turn until the end is free from the reel.

Once coiled lines should not be allowed to line on the deck. Coiled lines that

have to be left on the deck, such as large mooring or throwing lines must be

raised off the deck during a deck wash. Failure to do this will result in debris

(such as small pieces of glass) and grit becoming imbedded in the rope.

This may cause injury to crew and will certainly damage the line.


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Figure 19: Hanging a large coil on a cleat

To avoid problems in paying out a rope, it should be FLAKED down.

This avoids it becoming tangled or kinked.

Figure 20

A fancy way to finish a rope is with a Flemish Coil. It should only be used

for tidiness and never when required to render quickly through a block

(see Figure 21). Line that has been Flemish Coiled may kink.

Figure 21

Whipping

Before cutting the desired length of rope, whippings should be applied close

to each side of the intended cut. Failure to observe this precaution can cause

excessive unlaying of the rope.


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The four main types of whipping used are: Common, American, West

Country and Sailmakers. Common is the quickest to apply while Sailmakers

is the most durable.

Figure 22:Common whipping

Care and maintenance of SWRWire ropes can be permanently damaged by kinks and nips. For this reason

wire ropes need to be cared for at all times. Removing the kinks and

avoiding sharp bends will help reduce that risk of damage.

Using a smaller sheave than what is required for the wire will cause thewire rope to cripple. Wires also become crippled if bad leads are used.

Remember that any damage to the wire rope will greatly reduce its strength.

Crossing of wires on a winch drum will also cause damage such as crushing

and flattening.

Uncoiling a wire rope can also be a source of potential damage. This was

dealt with early.

Care should be taken when stowing a wire. It should be greased and kept

away from sources of moisture in a well-ventilated space. No chemicalsshould be kept adjacent to the wire ropes.

The greasing of wire ropes is probably one of the most important tasks

when it comes to preserving the wire rope. There are several types of wire

lubricants on the market. Linseed oil and fish oil are also used to achieve

the same result.

The wire should first of all be cleaned with a wire brush to remove any dried

grease lodged between the strands. Then a fresh coat of grease or oil should

be applied to the wire.


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Do not use any chemical to remove the old grease. Use a cloth or gloves to

apply the fresh grease on a coiled wire. Do not attempt to use this same

method if greasing a moving wire being winched on a drum. Broken wires

can also cause injury.

The aim is to lubricate the wire rope both internally and externally without

any injury to anyone.

Inspection of SWRRegular visual inspections will help detect any unusual wear and tear and

damages.

Inspecting around terminal ends, splices and thimbles cannot be stressed

too highly.

Marine Order 32 states that a wire rope must be replaced if more than

five per cent of the visible wires along a length equal to 10 times the

rope diameter are actually broken.

When checking wire ropes, look for:

Corrosion: Lack of lubricant is a frequent cause of corrosion.The rope may have either not been lubricated enough or the lubricants

have been removed by exposing the wire to products such as strong

detergent or acids. Any sign of corrosion or rust indicates that a

thorough examination of the wire is necessary. Open up the strands

of wire to inspect the core. A dry powdery core is a sign that the

wire has not been properly maintained and lacks lubricant.

Distortion: Is mainly caused by bad handling or the wrong equipment.Distortion affects the working load of wires and when it happens it

cannot be repaired. The rope should be replaced.

Breakage: The rope breaks if any of the small wires are broken. If youthink the breaks may have been caused by corrosion, you can expect

the rest of the wires to follow close behindthese wires should have

been replaced earlier. In the case of a rig, which involves more than

one length of wire, if you suspect that all the other wires are the sameage, then all those wires should be replaced (particularly with the

stainless steel wires). If the breaks have occurred for any other

reasons, a safe general allowance is to replace the wire when the

amount of broken wire represents 10 per cent of all wires in the length

of eight times the diameter of the rope. Any broken wire below a

fitting is a sign of fatigue, and the fitting, at least, should be replaced.


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Figure 23:Wires broken near fittings

Figure 24:Reduction in diameter

Handling steel-wire rope

Any loop or turn can easily be pulled into a kink, which permanently

damages it. Because it is less flexible, wire rope requires more care in

handling than cordage. Bending it sharply and laying it over sharp edges will

seriously damage the wire by distorting its strands.

Chafing appears as a narrow band of heavy wear. Avoid unnecessary

chafing by either protecting the parts concerned or by changing the lead

of the rope.

Choose the right construction to match the flexibility needed and use the

right equipment (blocks, sheaves etc) designed for each size of wire.

The radius of the groove on a sheave should be between five and 10 per cent

greater than the radius of the wire. The diameter of the sheave should be at

least 20 times the diameter of the six-strand wire rope.


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Figure 25:Correct groove

ChainChains are suited for use as slings, lashings, preventers etc., as they

withstand corrosion and abrasion better than steel wire ropes.

Chains are made of mild or special steel and are either short link, long link

or stud link. Those used for chain blocks are calibrated ie the link sides are

made parallel.

Chain identification depends on material composition. Welded chains,if tested and marked in compliance with ISO are graded three upwards to

nine (higher the number, better the grade).

The grade numbers are usually stamped on the chain approximately.

Some manufacturers may use letters. Unmarked chains should be treated

as Grade 3 (mild steel).

Figure 26:ISO Chain markings (Grade 3 or L)


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Care and maintenance

Faults in chain are not easily seen and should be examined frequently for

wastage due to rust, missing studs or distorted links.

The following is a list of DONTS when using chain.

Do not:

cross, twist, knot or kink a chain

drag from under a load

use around sharp corners, without protective padding

use bolts or bull-dogs for joining or shortening

use if over 10 per cent wear in links

use if links are elongated AT ALL

use any chain for slinging unless it has the approved SWL tags.

Make up a sling assembly from separate components, unless you are sure

which components are the correct ones.

Wrought iron chain needs annealing because it is subject to surface

embrittlement, which deepens with time. If not annealed regularly it

becomes dangerous.

Inspection of chain

Regularly is every six months up to 12 mm diameter and every 14 months

above 14 mm diameter.

Chains of mild steel should be checked for the flexing or bending of links.

Damage to links where a chain has been used around sharp edges, causing

cuts or nicks, is a good reason for condemning.

High tensile and alloy chain have great ability to stretch under shock loads

and revert to normal size. If elongation is apparent while not under load,

it has been seriously overloaded and should be discarded.


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Check your prog ress

1 List the three main types of ropes used in the marine environment.

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2 Natural fibres have some advantages over the other types of ropes. List these

advantages.

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3 What are the most popular types of synthetic fibres that are currently in use in the

marine environment?

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4 Compare these with the natural fibres mentioned in question 2.

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5 Explain how is a wire rope described.

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6 What are the advantages and disadvantages of using wire rope in the marine industry?

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7 Explain how you would cut a piece of fibre rope from a coil.

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8 How would you lubricate a wire rope?

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9 Explain how you would secure a rope that will have to be released when under tension.

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10 You have to prepare a space to store some ropes. Explain how you would go about it.

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11 Describe how you would inspect a rope for internal and external damage.

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12 List six things that you must not do when using chains.

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13 How would you detect damage to chains?

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14 What precautions would you take when making a stopper?

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15 What are the factors that may cause deterioration of a natural fibre rope?

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16 How would you recognize signs of deterioration in a natural fibre rope?

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17 What are the factors that cause deterioration of a steel wire rope?

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18 How would you prevent a steel rope from deteriorating?

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19 A badly maintained synthetic rope can cause accidents. How would you care for these

types of ropes?

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20 What are the signs of deterioration in synthetic ropes?

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21 List the safety precautions you would take when using fibre ropes.

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22 List the safety precautions you would take when using wire ropes.

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23 What measures would you take to prevent a rope being overloaded?

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Check your answers with those given at the end of this learning resource.

Nautical Knoweldge_1_Cable-Rope Wire & Chain

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