Naturally occurring data What counts as data?. Data cannot be inherently unsatisfactory: depends...
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Transcript of Naturally occurring data What counts as data?. Data cannot be inherently unsatisfactory: depends...
Naturally Naturally occurring data occurring data
What counts as data?What counts as data?
Data cannot be inherently unsatisfactory: depends what you want to do with it.
No data ‘untouched by human hands’.
Difference between natural & non-natural should be investigated
Data productionData production
1 Choices1 Choices
Distant measures vs face-to-faceDistant measures vs face-to-face Research instrument vs researcher as Research instrument vs researcher as
instrumentinstrument Single source vs multiple sources (but Single source vs multiple sources (but
cannot simply aggregate data to arrive at cannot simply aggregate data to arrive at ‘whole’ picture)‘whole’ picture)
Pre-determined data vs ‘everything is data’Pre-determined data vs ‘everything is data’
2 Continua2 Continua context free, acknowledge context context free, acknowledge context
or context boundor context bound wholly, semi- or unstructuredwholly, semi- or unstructured Formality & transparency of data: Formality & transparency of data:
wholly, partly or not at all wholly, partly or not at all auditableauditable
Position of researcher in relation Position of researcher in relation to researched: informants, to researched: informants, participants, co-researchersparticipants, co-researchers
Evaluating samplesEvaluating samples
AppropriatenessAppropriateness
Informant characteristicsInformant characteristics
Type of information neededType of information needed
Adequacy of dataAdequacy of data
Sufficiency and quality of the dataSufficiency and quality of the data
Informational adequacyInformational adequacy RelevanceRelevance CompletenessCompleteness Amount of information obtainedAmount of information obtained Theoretical saturationTheoretical saturation
Four fundamental tasks Four fundamental tasks
Selecting participants/material to studySelecting participants/material to study Interacting with to produce dataInteracting with to produce data Avoiding arbitrary findingsAvoiding arbitrary findings Convincing others of what you have Convincing others of what you have
foundfound
Technical decisions have theoretical Technical decisions have theoretical importimport
Qualitative data productionQualitative data production
HIGHHIGH LOWLOWInterviews--Focus Groups--Participant Interviews--Focus Groups--Participant
ObservationObservation
Control over productionControl over production Specificity of data for research questionSpecificity of data for research question
Scalability of productionScalability of production Amount of data that can be producedAmount of data that can be produced
Intrusiveness of productionIntrusiveness of production Range of addressable questionsRange of addressable questions
Starting reflexive points Starting reflexive points Data: produced in the course of the Data: produced in the course of the
researchresearch Analysis: does this interpretation make Analysis: does this interpretation make
sense in this context?sense in this context? Account: responsibility for creative Account: responsibility for creative
activity marked by use of the first personactivity marked by use of the first person Interpretation of qualitative data: Interpretation of qualitative data:
bringing together two sets of bringing together two sets of assumptions (guesses of researcher at assumptions (guesses of researcher at outset & preoccupations expressed by outset & preoccupations expressed by material)material)
Analytic process: 4 stagesAnalytic process: 4 stages
‘‘Giving a voice’Giving a voice’Stage 1: applies specifically to interview Stage 1: applies specifically to interview
data, retell story with eye to empathy & data, retell story with eye to empathy & empowerment.empowerment.
Generation of categoriesGeneration of categories
Thematic analyses Thematic analyses
Discourse analysisDiscourse analysis
Stage 2: Generation of Stage 2: Generation of categoriescategories
Complete range of qualitative data, look Complete range of qualitative data, look for emergence of categories by careful, for emergence of categories by careful, repeated reading of texts.repeated reading of texts.
Grounded theory Glaser & Strauss 1967 Grounded theory Glaser & Strauss 1967 Works from base up, systematically
builds up conceptions of what issues seem to be important and what categories structure the text.
use categories drawn from respondents use categories drawn from respondents themselves, aim is not to build a different themselves, aim is not to build a different account/uncover hidden motives, but to make account/uncover hidden motives, but to make explicit what is implicit in the text.explicit what is implicit in the text.
Theory developed inductively from corpus of Theory developed inductively from corpus of data: emergent – sets out to find what theory data: emergent – sets out to find what theory accounts for the research situation as it isaccounts for the research situation as it is
Comparative orientation: constant comparison – Comparative orientation: constant comparison – initially comparing data set to data set, then data initially comparing data set to data set, then data set to theoryset to theory
Category Category
A theme or variable which makes A theme or variable which makes sense of what your informant has said, sense of what your informant has said, interpreted in the light of the situation interpreted in the light of the situation
you’re studying, and other interviews, and you’re studying, and other interviews, and the emerging theorythe emerging theory
Core category – emerges with high Core category – emerges with high frequency of mention, & is connected frequency of mention, & is connected with many other emerging categorieswith many other emerging categories
Case orientation: whole case, not Case orientation: whole case, not variable (not additive model, like variable (not additive model, like ANOVA)ANOVA)
Theoretical sampling: to increase Theoretical sampling: to increase diversity in samplediversity in sample
Literature also emergent, not Literature also emergent, not privileged over data, same statusprivileged over data, same status
Coding Coding
Categories which sum up key underlying ideas Categories which sum up key underlying ideas of text are generated.of text are generated.
Saturate the categories.Saturate the categories. Each category label should operate as a good Each category label should operate as a good
descriptor of each of the instances/quotes descriptor of each of the instances/quotes included.included.
Collapse, drop, split headings.Collapse, drop, split headings. Interrelationships (links & contrasts) between Interrelationships (links & contrasts) between
different headings operate as connections to different headings operate as connections to organise material to be presented in analysis organise material to be presented in analysis section – theoretical sensitivity.section – theoretical sensitivity.
Stage 3: Thematic Stage 3: Thematic AnalysisAnalysis
List set of assumptions underlying research List set of assumptions underlying research alongside categories that emerged in alongside categories that emerged in grounded theory part of analysis.grounded theory part of analysis.
Themes will be an accommodation of text’s Themes will be an accommodation of text’s version to issues investigation set out to version to issues investigation set out to address.address. Accommodation – production of something new – Accommodation – production of something new –
change in category as it absorbs & contains new change in category as it absorbs & contains new material (assimilation – material is fit into pre-material (assimilation – material is fit into pre-established schema)established schema)
Stage 4: Discourse AnalysisStage 4: Discourse Analysis
Discourses = sets of statements which Discourses = sets of statements which construct an object construct an object (any category of thing (any category of thing or person that is spoken about by an interviewee)or person that is spoken about by an interviewee)
Variability; construction; functionVariability; construction; function- how language changes, how it how language changes, how it
works, how it is put together.works, how it is put together.
Definition (Ruth Wodak )Definition (Ruth Wodak )(Greek v) Ana-lyein ‘deconstruct’(Greek v) Ana-lyein ‘deconstruct’(Latin v) Discurrere ‘running back & forth’(Latin v) Discurrere ‘running back & forth’
DA penetrated many disciplines: DA penetrated many disciplines: sociology, philosophy, history, sociology, philosophy, history, literary studies, cultural studies, anthropology, psychology, literary studies, cultural studies, anthropology, psychology, linguistics…linguistics… distinct meanings in each of these, from a distinct meanings in each of these, from a social science methodology to the label for a whole field, a social science methodology to the label for a whole field, a subdiscipline of linguistics, a critical paradigm…subdiscipline of linguistics, a critical paradigm…
Discourse analysts come from a variety of intellectual Discourse analysts come from a variety of intellectual traditions and work in a variety of ways.traditions and work in a variety of ways.
a particular uptake of the ideas within psychology, mostly DP a particular uptake of the ideas within psychology, mostly DP in social psychology.in social psychology.
No single definition of DA as a research method - can be No single definition of DA as a research method - can be characterized as a way of approaching and thinking about a characterized as a way of approaching and thinking about a problem. problem.
a manner of questioning the basic assumptions of research a manner of questioning the basic assumptions of research methods, enables access to the ontological and methods, enables access to the ontological and epistemological assumptions behind a project, a statement, epistemological assumptions behind a project, a statement, a method of research. a method of research.
Every text is conditioned and inscribes itself within a given Every text is conditioned and inscribes itself within a given discourse, thus the term Discourse Analysis. discourse, thus the term Discourse Analysis.
Will not provide absolute answers to a specific problem, but Will not provide absolute answers to a specific problem, but enable us to understand the conditions behind a specific enable us to understand the conditions behind a specific "problem" and make us realize that the essence of that "problem" and make us realize that the essence of that "problem", and its resolution, lie in its assumptions; the very "problem", and its resolution, lie in its assumptions; the very assumptions that enable the existence of that "problem".assumptions that enable the existence of that "problem".
Discursive Psychology - comprising the set of Discursive Psychology - comprising the set of social constructionist approaches within social social constructionist approaches within social psychology mainly (Potter, Wetherall, Billig) psychology mainly (Potter, Wetherall, Billig)
Various kinds which all share the field of social Various kinds which all share the field of social constructionism: share views on language and constructionism: share views on language and subjectivity, also the very important aim of subjectivity, also the very important aim of ‘carrying out critical research, that is,‘carrying out critical research, that is, ‘‘to investigate and analyse power relations in to investigate and analyse power relations in
society and to formulate normative practices from society and to formulate normative practices from which a critique of such social relations can be which a critique of such social relations can be made with an eye on the possibilities for social made with an eye on the possibilities for social change’ (Philips & Jorgensen).change’ (Philips & Jorgensen).
No longer a marginal perspective, for No longer a marginal perspective, for an increasing number of academics an increasing number of academics discourse analysis is the main way of discourse analysis is the main way of doing social psychological research doing social psychological research (LSE, Cambridge, Loughborough).(LSE, Cambridge, Loughborough).
Also a proliferation of forms of Also a proliferation of forms of discourse analysis - from CA to post-discourse analysis - from CA to post-structural and Foucauldian thinking.structural and Foucauldian thinking.
Antaki, Billig, Edwards & Antaki, Billig, Edwards & Potter 2006Potter 2006
Identify things that might Identify things that might superficially give the appearance of superficially give the appearance of conducting discourse analysis but do conducting discourse analysis but do not in fact do so.not in fact do so.
Burman - list of ‘mistakes and Burman - list of ‘mistakes and errors’ actually highlight with errors’ actually highlight with particular clarity ideological as well particular clarity ideological as well as conceptual and methodological as conceptual and methodological features of the discipline. features of the discipline.
6 non-analyses.6 non-analyses.
1. Under-analysis through summary 1. Under-analysis through summary 2. Under–analysis through taking sides2. Under–analysis through taking sides3. Under-analysis through over quotation 3. Under-analysis through over quotation
or through isolated quotation. or through isolated quotation. 4. Circular identification of discourses 4. Circular identification of discourses
and mental constructs and mental constructs 5. False survey5. False survey6. Analysis that consists in simply 6. Analysis that consists in simply
spotting features. spotting features.
Burman (commenting on Burman (commenting on antaki et al. )antaki et al. )
ElaboratesElaborates Under-analysis occurs when the analysis Under-analysis occurs when the analysis
substitutes detailed examination of the text for substitutes detailed examination of the text for the adoption of a theorized position.the adoption of a theorized position.
A way out of circular reasoning would be to A way out of circular reasoning would be to elaborate the analysis or categories to relate to elaborate the analysis or categories to relate to structures outside the detail of the text, e.g., via structures outside the detail of the text, e.g., via analyses of institutional practices and systemic analyses of institutional practices and systemic patternings. patternings.
Proper analyses should also include consulting Proper analyses should also include consulting theoretical analyses of a historical and cultural theoretical analyses of a historical and cultural kind that inform how such conversational moves kind that inform how such conversational moves come to be possible and how they function. come to be possible and how they function.
Don’t stop at what they say, ask why? Don’t stop at what they say, ask why?
3 further points to add to 3 further points to add to Antaki’s 6:Antaki’s 6:
Under-analysis through Under-analysis through decontextualisationdecontextualisation
Under-analysis through uncontested Under-analysis through uncontested readingsreadings
Under-analysis through not having a Under-analysis through not having a questionquestion
DA is a form of action rather than of DA is a form of action rather than of reflectionreflection
Not only does doing discourse analysis mean Not only does doing discourse analysis mean doing analysis BUT discourse analysis means doing analysis BUT discourse analysis means analyzing discourse. analyzing discourse.
Must have a theory of discourse (or text or Must have a theory of discourse (or text or transcript) as well as of analysis to do transcript) as well as of analysis to do discourse analysis - and this also includes discourse analysis - and this also includes having an analysis of the technologies of one’s having an analysis of the technologies of one’s own analysis.own analysis.
van Dijk (1997)van Dijk (1997)An analysis of discourse is a scholarly An analysis of discourse is a scholarly
analysis only when it is based on more or analysis only when it is based on more or less explicit concerns, methods or theories. less explicit concerns, methods or theories. Merely making “common sense” comments Merely making “common sense” comments on a piece of text or talk will seldom suffice on a piece of text or talk will seldom suffice in such a case. Indeed, the whole point in such a case. Indeed, the whole point should be to provide insights into structure, should be to provide insights into structure, strategies or other properties of discourse strategies or other properties of discourse that could not readily be given by naïve that could not readily be given by naïve recipients. (p. 1)recipients. (p. 1)
Levels of Levels of (discourse)analysis?(discourse)analysis?
Where to draw the boundaries? Or Where to draw the boundaries? Or what should be included? The what should be included? The linguistic, social, political, historical, linguistic, social, political, historical, material, institutional … material, institutional …
What is discursive and what counts What is discursive and what counts as extra-discursive? (Willig’s paper as extra-discursive? (Willig’s paper on critical realism in DA) on critical realism in DA)
What is context?What is context?