Natural sources of nutraceutical compounds such as fresh fruits...

Natural sources of nutraceutical compounds such as fresh fruits and

vegertables and from their waste products: A Review

Seema Sharma1*, Rahul Agarwal1 and Rahul Saxena1

1*Jaipur National University, Jaipur, India *Email- [email protected]

Abstract- Fruits and vegetables are rich in nutraceutical compounds that bring to the prevention of a number diseases

such as antidiabetic, anticancer, antihypertensive, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial,

antiviral, stimulation of the immune system, cell detoxification, cholesterol synthesis, anticonvulsant and their ability to

lower blood pressure. The nutraceutical compounds are also found, often in even higher concentrations, in the co-

products and by-products from fruit and vegetable during processing. Some researchers have observed that different

kind of food wastes obtained from fruits, vegetables, cereal and other food processing industries can be utilized as

potential source of nutraceutical compounds and which has significant application biological activities against disease.

Such reality makes these co-products and by-products a lovely supply for the sources of bioactives. There has been

lately regenerated interest in extraction methods, notably with a process increase using physical phenomena and the

search for alternative solvents. In the mean time these approaches could allow a modern approach to enhance the

production yield of particular compounds for use as nutraceuticals or as constituents in the innovation of healthy foods.

The objective of this review paper is to provide information on the most recent developments of extraction method of

bioactive compounds from the fruit and vegatables and medicinal properties of nutraceutical compounds.

Keyword: Bioactive compounds, Food waste, Nutraceuticals, Extraction, Medical Properties

I. INTRODUCTION

The increasing world population and the changing dietary habits are the demand for such important food

commodities has increased very significantly and therefore fruits and vegetables have a crucial role in our diet and

human life, (Catherine, 2018; Vilari ˜no and others 2017). The fruit and vegetables and their co-products as

sources of bioactive and functional components have been made consumers awareness toward naturalness and the

trends towards plant-based foods. Many type of healthy compontent are extracted from fruits and vegetables such as

hydrocolloids (polysaccharides) as well as a number of colorants (anthocyanins, carotenoids, and betalains) or

antioxidants (rosemary leaf extract, E392). According to FAO (2017) studied that “at the moment a major public

health challenge is increasing the consumption fruit and vegetable”. Prentice and Jebb (2003) studied that this

statement was made due to nutritional disorders such as weakened immune systems, birth defects, mental and

physical retardation, among others due to the the micronutrient deficiencies being experienced worldwide and

nutritional deficiencies occur as a result of low consumption of fruits and vegetables and also probably because of

low knowledge of the nutritional values of fruits and vegetables.

The bioactive compounds are the secondary metabolism of fruits and vegetables such as phenolic

compounds, carotenoids, and vitamins, which protection against diseases (Sricharoen, Limchoowong,

Techawongstien and Chanthai, 2016). A high level (“five-a-day”) of consumption of varied fruit and vegetables

are increased to relate with better health, and there has been great interest in identifying the molecules behind this

effect. In the last few years, this has worked up on the oversimplifying “antioxidant” hypothesis towards the

identification of mechanisms by that these molecules, or rather their metabolites, move with specific targets in the

human organism (Dangles, 2012).

Bioactive compounds are found both of natural and synthetic form in foods and their safety for human

consumption is proven by specific metabolic or physiological actions. Some factors such as the cultivar, the growing

conditions, storage, and transport conditions effect of levels bioactive compounds in fruits depend on factors. Some

researches studied that nitrates also enhancing exercise performance which occurred in fruit (Affourtit, Bailey,

Jones, Smallwood, and Winyard, 2015; Jones, 2014a,).

During agricultural production, industrial manufacturing, processing and distribution food waste is produced in all

the phases of food life cycle. The food waste is produced by household activities, food manufacturing industry and

in food service sector (ready to eat food, catering and restaurants) 42%, 39%, 14%, respectively while 5% is lost

during distribution. These food wastes are expected to increase to about 126 Mt by 2020, if any prevention policy or

activities are not undertaken (Mirabella et al. 2014). The food waste management can be achieved through the

Science, Technology and Development

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extraction of polysaccharides, flavour compounds, high-value components such as proteins, fibres, and

phytochemicals, which can be re-used as functional ingredients and nutraceuticals (Baiano, 2014). Efforts have been

made broadly to develop methods for find different ways to utilise fruit and vegetable wastes therapeutically from

the past few year. Recent reports shows that agro-industrial wastes have been used extensively as fertilisers or

animal feeds generally and the high value products have been development (such as cosmetics, foods and medicines)

from agro-industrial by-products (Rudra et al., 2015).

Some factors such as the extraction technique, raw materials, and the extraction solvent that are used, effect

the extraction of bioactive compounds (Tiwari, 2015). The extraction techniques can be sorted out into non-

conventional and conventional. The use of organic solvents, temperature, and agitation are requiree in Conventional

techniques. Some technique such as Soxhlet, maceration, and hydrodistillation include in conventional. Recent years

new modern techniques have been developed which reduced use of energy and the implementation of organic solvent,

which are beneficial in relation to the environment, exmples like non-conventional techniques, are green or clean

techniques (Rodriguez Perez et al., 2015). Some reaschers have discussed the use of green technologies in relation to

food processing (Barba, Zhu, Koubaa, de Souza Sant’Ana, and Orlien, 2016; Chemat et al., 2017a; Chemat et

al., 2017b). However, it was not possible to find a review in the literature which covers the various techniques in the

same scientific paper, and which also suggests different extraction techniques according to the target biocompounds.

The aim of this paper was to discuss nutraceutical compounds and medicinal properties of fruit and vegtables, and

their waste materials, some significant conventional and non-conventional techniques such as supercritical extraction,

pressurized liquid, assisted ultrasound, microwave, pulsed electric field, electric high-voltage discharges, and high

hydrostatic pressure, in the extraction of bioactive compounds from fruit and vegetables and waste of fruits and

vegetable.

II. DISTRIBUTION OF FRIUTS AND VEGETABLES IN INDIA

The production of some fruits and vegetables in the world include 114.08 MMT of bananas, 74.49 MMT of grapes,

124.73 million metric tons (MMT) of citrus, 45.22 MMT of mangoes, mangosteens, and guavas, 84.63 MMT of

apples, and 25.43 MMT of pineapples (FAO 2017) while potato (3820.00 MMT), tomatoes (171.00 MMT),

cabbages and other brassicas (71.77 MMT), carrots and turnips (38.83 MMT). India has wonderful chance for

export the fruit and vegetables due to vast production. India exported fruits and vegetables worth Rs. 8,391.41 crores

which comprised of fruits worth Rs. 3,524.50 crores and vegetables worth Rs. 4,866.91 crores during 2015-16.

Some fruits such as mangoes, walnuts, grapes, bananas, pomegranates account for larger portion for exported from

the India while some vegetables like onions, okra, bitter gourd, green chillies and potatoes contribute largely to

export from the India. The horticulture produce demand is increased from the country so India's share in the global

market is still nearly 1% only. The horticulture produce demand is increased due to concurrent developments in the

areas of state-of-the-art cold chain infrastructure and quality assurance measures (APEDA, 2017).

III. Nutrional constituents of friuts and vegetables

The nutrional compositions of vegetables and fruit change with the degree of maturity prior to harvest, and the

condition of ripeness, which is progressive after harvest and is further influenced by storage conditions and depend

on the botanical variety, cultivation practices, and weather. Nevertheless, some generalisations can be made. The

high water content, low protein, and low fat content are ocuured in the most fresh vegetables and fruit and the water

contents will generally be greater than 70% and frequently greater than 85%. Commonly protein content in fruit and

vegetables will not be greater than 3.5% while fat content greater than 0.5 %. The dates and raisins have exceptions

which cannot be considered fresh in the same sense as other fruit due to substantially lower in moisture but some

vegetables such as avocados which are substantially higher in fat and sweet corn which are slightly higher in fat; a

few legumes such as certain beans and peas are higher in protein (Naderi et al., 2018). The rich source of both

digestible and indigestible carbohydrates is vegetables and fruit. The sugars and starches are the digestible

carbohydrates are present largely while roughage provides by the indigestible cellulose which is important to normal

digestion. The important sources of minerals and certain vitamins, especially vitamins A and C are fruit and

vegetables. The yellow-orange fruit and vegetables and leafy vegetables have the precursors of vitamin A, including

beta-carotene and certain other carotenoids. Potatoes are excellent sources of vitamin C while green leafy vegetables

and tomatoes also provide vitamin C for the diets of many countries. The level of vitamin C in potatoes is not high

but rather to the large quantities of potatoes consumed. Due to the presence of macro and micronutrients such as

carbohydrate content, fiber, minerals, vitamins and a number of nutrceutical components, including phenolic



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compounds such as anthocyanins, ellagitannins, resveratrol, and quercetin; fruits can act as a functional role in

health and exercise.

IV. Nutracecutical components in fruit and vegetables

Utilization vegetables and fruits with different colors in a diet in high quninty provides the body with a high variety

of nutracecuticals and increaseing the potential for synergistic health beneficial effects of the various

nutracecuticals, while decreasing the likelihood of deleterious side effects. As novel therapeutical agents the

nutracecuticals natural products have always played a significant role and they have immense medicinal properties

and profound effect on human health by both direct and indirect. Epidemiologic research confirms the association

between large intakes of fruits and reduces risk of chronic diseases so that throughout the world the fruit species are

largely appreciated and highly consumed. Behind the consumption of fruits might reduce or prevent chronic

diseases; there are several biological reasons. Fruits vegetables are biologically active compounds and other

nutrients and energy compounds such as vitamins, minerals, fiber and numerous. Moreover, some waste material of

fruits and vegtable like fruit peels, leaves and barks also possess medicinal properties and have been included in this

review.

The nutracecuticals can be classified on the bases of chemical structure, botanical origin, biosynthesis, or biological

properties. The typical color of the food product is provied by presence of particular phytochemicals in relatively

large amounts. For example, the large amounts of anthocyanins provide the blue and purple fruits and vegetables

like blueberries, blackberries, blue grapes, raisins, and eggplant while carotenoids and vitamin C provide the orange

and yellow fruits and vegetables like carrots, oranges, peaches, and yellow apples. The high amounts of the lycopene

and anthocyanins contribute the red color in fruits and vegetables like tomatoes, red apples, beets, cranberries, and

red grapes. The presence of chlorophyll phytochemicals in green (leafy) vegetables and fruits like Brussels sprouts

and broccoli is provided green color (Amao, 2018).

Some health disease like heart disease, inflammation and arterosclerosis with their hepatoprotective,

neuroprotective, antimicrobial, antioxidants, anti-diabetic properties and also play a pivotal role against several

cancers were preventin by Citrus fruits and limonoids (Duarte et al., 2016). For the prevention of some types of

cancers pomegranate is used due to contain medicinal properties against cancer (Panth et al., 2017). The extract of

fruits of Phaleria macrocarpa act as phytochemical which regulates the hormonal imbalance in women and reduce

reduce risk of dysmenorrhoea, endometriosis and cancer while as the extracts of Thevetia peruviana have shown

potential activity against cancer (Tjandrawinata and Rouli, 2017). Some fruits like Passiflora edulis, Berry,

Terminalia species and leaf extracts of Persea Americana (avocado) are reported that they are rich souces of

nutraceuticals against antifungal, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, anti-anxiety, and antihypertensive activities,

cardioprotective and neuroprotective, effectscontrolling cancer, anti-diabetic effect (Conner et al., 2017; Oyebode

et al., 2014), vasorelaxant and anticonvulsant activity while the avocado seed extract is considered as a good source

of antioxidant (He K, et al., 2004) protects against cardiovascular disease.

Friut and vegetables are not only rich source vitamins or dietary fibers, but also they are proven to be indispensable

for human health, or compounds with demonstrated acute pharmacological or negative activities (notably alkaloids).

Due to presence of some chemical classes such as saponins and borderline in fruit and vegetable, the field

phytochemistry is rised (Brewer, 2011). The level of proof or activity needed for a health claim appropriate to a

functional food or nutraceutical is therefore a tight balance between the demonstration of a pharmacological effect

and unsubstantiated claims. The claims made by the EFSA (European Food Safety Agency) that few molecules or

extracts have been able to pass the stringent evaluation. The phytochemical compounds are secondary metabolites

which are not prodoucing during the plants’ basic metabolism (e.g. energy production, protein synthesis, and others)

according to plant physiology. It is generally sutdied that fruit and vegetable concern interactions with the outer

environment, where they may act as protective agents against UV radiation (flavonols), as deterrents against

herbivores (glucosinolates, some polyphenols), or as attractants for pollination (anthocyanins), among other

properties and functions (Deo and Sakhale, 2018). Researcher have been studied that few of these phytochemical

molecules have action in preventing life-style diseases or the relatively low levels of proof for many of them. This

may also explain why most developments have been focused on a few classes that are either remarkably active

(glucosinolates, isoflavones) or remarkably abundant (like the polyphenols or 101 carotenoids). Table 1 summarizes

the classes of phytochemicals compounds that are most commonly called “nutaceuticals” and which can be found in



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fruits or vegetables, i.e. including herbs and spices, but not medicinal plants. Some of the phytochemicals name is

given on the basis of their botanical family, for example the glucosinolates (Brassica) or capsaicinoids (Capsicum)

while others are very widespread, like the phenolic acids or flavonols. Many of phytochemical compounds have

antioxidant properties and which are mediated by specific interactions of their circulating metabolites with cellular

targets (Dangles, 2012).

4.1. Food waste as a source of bioactive compounds

For the production of nutraceuticals, functional foods, and food additives the bioactive compounds are an excellent

sources. Fruits and vegetables are rich in important of bioactive components and represent the simplest form of

functional foods (Table 2). Fruits diminish the risk of developing certain types of cancer due to presence of large

amount of polyphenols and carotenoids have been shown to have antioxidant activity. After extraction of juice, oil,

starch and sugar from the fruit and vegetables; waste includes trimmings, peelings, stems, seeds, shells, bran and

residues remaining. The waste obtained from dairy processing and seafood industries are called the animal-derived

waste. The recovered phytochemicals and by-products can be used food processing for preparations of medicinal

and pharmaceutical and to produce functional foods in (Baiano, 2014). Some important bioactive phytochemicals

extracted from tomato by-products such as tocopherols, terpenes carotenes, sterols and polyphenols having

significant amounts of antioxidant activities. Therefore, the important bioactive compounds which extracted from

such waste can be used as additives in food products to extend their shelf-life and natural antioxidants for the

formulation of functional foods (Kalogeropoulos et al., 2012).

V. Recent developments in extraction methods

Some factors such as the extraction technique, raw materials, and the extraction solvent that are used, effect the

extraction of bioactive compounds (Tiwari, 2015). The extraction techniques can be sorted out into non-

conventional and conventional. The use of organic solvents, temperature, and agitation are requiree in Conventional

techniques. Some technique such as Soxhlet, maceration, and hydrodistillation include in conventional. Recent years

new modern techniques have been developed which reduced use of energy and the implementation of organic

solvent, which are beneficial in relation to the environment, exmples like non-conventional techniques, are green or

clean techniques (Rodriguez Perez et al., 2015). However, it was not possible to find a review in the literature

which covers the various techniques in the same scientific paper, and which also suggests different extraction

techniques according to the target biocompounds.

5.1. Conventional techniques

The Soxhlet, maceration, and hydrodistillation techniques are included in the main conventional extraction of

nutraceutical compunds. Due to some security issues such as the the presence of solvent residues in the extracts and

toxicity of solvents, together with low yield, have accelerated the evolution of other extraction technologies, such as

clean or green technologies, which can minimize or eliminate the use of organic solvents. These techniques are also

known as cold extraction techniques, where in the green technologies the energy required for extraction is reduced

and quality of the extracted compounds is not affected (Tiwari, 2015). Some factor effect the the efficiency of

conventional extraction methods like nature of solvent and the polarity of the compound, since solvents of dissimilar

polarities are used for identification and isolation. The single method for the efficient extraction of all compounds is

difficulty to develop due to different polarities of compounds. A good solvent supplies a low boiling point, quick

mass transfer, low toxicity, preservative action, and the inability to make the complex extract dissociate. Several

factors such as the type of extract, the temperature, and the extraction time also efects the yield and the amount of

the extract (Silva, Rock-Santos and Duarte, 2016). For the extraction of extract target compounds from various

fruits and vegetables; a number of new alternatives to conventional techniques have been proposed.

Maceration consists of two steps first is the grinding the sample into smaller particles so as to increase the surface

area for a good mixture with the solvent and second the agitation in the maceration process. Increasing the diffusion

and by removing the concentrated solution from the surface of the sample is done by the agitation. This process has

been used for a periods of time to extract essential oils and bioactive compounds (Azmir et al., 2013). For

extraction of polyphenols from dried chokeberry Ćujić et al. (2016) hase been used the conventional method

(Aronia melanocarpa) fruit. The effects of various parameters in the extraction of total phenolics and anthocyanins

were studied. Some factors like the solvents, particle size, solid-solvent ratio, and extraction time were not effect the



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grinding and agitation process. The some researches studies indicated that the extraction of bioactive compounds

from chokeberry fruit is effective by the steeping.

In the hydrodistillation only distilled water is used to extract the volatile fraction in foods without using other

organic solvent, this method usually takes 6-8 h. The hydrodistillation process involves three main physicochemical

steps: hydrodiffusion, hydrolysis, and decomposition by heat. Phytochemical compounds can degrade at high

temperatures during extraction, which limits the use of this technique (Wu, Wang, Liu, Zou and Chen, 2015).

Volatile organic compounds and non-volatile organic compounds can be extracted and physically separated in one

step by hydrodistillation is a very complete process:. The volatile organic compounds are leached from the matrix by

azeotropic distillation; they are then condensed, collected, and separated in a Florentine flask. By using boiling

water the soluble non volatile organic compounds are extracted, which is in contact with the matrix inside the

alembic. However, high levels of energy and time is consuming in the hydrodistillation process (Petigny et al.,

2014).

5.2. Green technologies

The green technologies protect the samples from hazards like the presence of solvent residues in the extracts and the

toxicity of solvents together with low yield, which can minimize or eliminate the use of organic solvents. The green

technologies are also known as cold extraction techniques, where the constancy of the extracted chemical

compounds is not affected and the energy consumed for extraction is decreased (Tiwari, 2015). The aim is behind

the using of these green extraction processes is to attain a faster extraction rate, more effective energy use, increased

mass and heat transfer, reduced equipment size, and a reduction in the number of processing steps (Jacotet-Navarro

et al., 2016). The application of these technologies is also aimed to save the natural environment and its resources

(Silva et al., 2016). By the few researchers have assayed to define the main points or elementary rules of green

chemistry. In the green technology basically 12 factors are needed to be followed during the processing: prevention

(avoiding waste); economy of atoms (maximizing the incorporation of all the starting materials in the final product);

the synthesis of less hazardous products (little or no toxicity in relation to human health); safe product design (which

performs the desired function and at the same time is non-toxic); safer solvents and auxiliaries; the search for energy

efficiency (reduced environmental and economic impacts); the use of raw materials from renewable sources; the

prevention of the formation of derivatives; catalysis (reagent as selective as possible); design for degradation

(innocuous degradation products which do not persist in the environment); real-time analysis for the prevention of

pollution; and chemistry that is intrinsically safe in order to prevent accidents (Lenardão, Freitag, Dabdoub,

Batista and Silveira, 2003).

5.2.1 Supercritical fluid extraction

The extraction is carried out in the high pressure equipment (in batch or continuous manner). In both cases, the super

critical solvent is put in a contact with the material from which a desirable product is to be separated. The super

critical solvent saturated with extracted product is then expanded to atmospheric conditions and the solubilized

product is recovered in the separation vessel permitting the recycle of the super critical solvent for further use. The

sample is placed in an extraction vessel and pressurized with SCF CO2 to dissolve the sample. After extraction the

extract is transferred to the fraction chamber and depressurized due to which CO2 loses its solvating power causing

entire material to precipitate. Now the CO2 gets recycled. Precipitated material is extracted with addition of small

amount of solvents. (Silva and Martínez, 2014). By using the supercritical fluid extraction; the extraction is fast,

selective, and does not require further cleaning; furthermore, it can be used for extraction of small amounts of

sample (Oroian and Escriche, 2015). Another great advantage is the possibile in this process is that two analytical

techniquies are direct connected with each other such as chromatographic techniques as gas chromatography (GC)

and supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) (Silva-Santos Rocha and Duarte, 2016). This technique process can

be completed in two steps: the solubilization of the chemical compounds present in the solid matrix, followed by

their separation in the supercritical solvent. In the first steps the solvent flows through the packed bed and all

compounds that are present in the matrix are solubilized. After extraction the extract is transferred to the fraction

chamber and depressurized due to which CO2 loses its solvating power causing entire material to precipitate. Now

the CO2 gets recycled. Precipitated material is extracted with addition of small amount of solvents. (Silva-Santos

Rocha and Duarte, 2016). Supercritical fluids exhibit desirable transport properties that enhance their ability to

adapt. As compared to fluid solvent, which is utilized in conventional extraction procedure, supercritical fluids have

more thickness, spreading more effortlessly inside the strong frame work, as well as mor surface pressure, which

permits quick entrance of dissolvable into the solvent, the extraction proficiency increased. Since more vicosity is



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related to solvability by changing the extraction weight theconstrain of the liquid can be altered (Pouliot, Conway

and Leclerc, 2014). The solvents used in supercritical extraction are used according to isolate nonpolar bioactive

compounds (carotenoids and lipids). Some modifier has been used to increase the efficiancy of solvent such as

ethanol, methanol, water, and acetone to extraction of polar compounds, such as flavonoids (Herrero, Castro-

Puyana, Mendiola and Ibañez, 2013). The density of the solvent is also effected the solubility of the extracts.

Thus, example of some supercritical fluids have been used in extraction process are following: CO2; propane;

cooking gas (LPG); ethane; ethene; methanol; nitrous oxide; n-butene; n-pentene; sulfur hexafluoride; and water

(Silva, Rocha- Santos and Duarte, 2016).

5.2.2. Extraction with pressurized liquid

In the extraction with pressurized liquid uses to separate the solute from solid matrix. The fluid solven, at raised

temperatures and pressure, are utilized, which develops a reduction in the surface pressure of the dissolvable, which

in turn encourage the entrance of the dissolvable into the pores of the matrix. The method interrupts the matrix

which increments the mass exchange of analyte from the dissolvable sample (Garcia-Mendoza, Paula, Paviani,

Cabral and Martinez-Correa, 2015). The solvents are chosen based on the solubility characteristics of the desired

solute. The versatility of pressurized solvents is excellent due to the physicochemical properties of the solvent,

including the density, diffusivity, viscosity, and dielectric constant, which can be controlled by varying the

temperature and the pressure of the extraction system.

In this extraction technique the pressurized liquid is using because it increases rapid extraction and decrease solvent

consumption; the extraction of anthocyanins from various plants this extraction technique have been used (Santos,

Veggi, and Meireles, 2012). Machado et al. (2015) repoted that extraction with pressurized liquid has been used

for the extraction of antioxidant compounds from cranberry waste. In this process different solvents (water, acidified

water: 2.5, ethanol) and temperature have been used for different samples (60, 80, and 100°C). The best condition

was compared with conventional extraction (Soxhlet and maceration). In this process the best results were obtained

by using water and ethanol as solvent for extraction with pressurized liquid at a temperature of 100°C, reseachers

examined that the recovering bioactive compounds from fruit this technology is more effectiveas compared to other.

The pressurized water methodology has been used by Xu et al. (2016) to extract polysaccharides from gooseberry

and to investigate the antioxidant activity. The author developed a new and efficient extraction method for

polysaccharides from gooseberry. Extracts from blackberry residue was obtained by using pressurized liquid

extraction (Machado et al., 2015).

The reseachers stressed that thie techniques require sophisticated instrumentation because it requires greater

application of pressure and extraction temperatures. This is disadvantage of this method.

5.2.3. Ultrasound-assisted extraction

It is a form of energy generated by sound waves of frequencies that are too high to be detected by human ear, i.e.

above 16 kHz. Ultrasound can propagate in gases, liquids and solids. Considered to be technologies that were

developed to minimize processing and maximize quality and safety in food.These applications include improvement

in microbial inactivation, food preservation, manipulation of food texture and food analysis (Azmir et al., 2013).

UAE is used for the extraction of compounds from the different samples because it is an effective extraction

technique. Roselló-Soto et al. (2015) obserevd that the ultrasounds have impact that enchance heat and mass

transfer by the break of plant cell walls, contributing to increased the discharge of the target compounds from

several natural sources. The dispersion through the cell wall and rinsing the cell content after breaking the walls are

the two factors which are using in the extraction ultrasound. The action of ultrasound is regulated by some factors

sch as the temperature, pressure, frequency, and sonication time (Rajha et al., 2015). (Kek, Chin, and Yusof,

2013) obsereved that in the proces of indirect sonication such as using an ultrasonic water bath, the waves have to be

transferred through the water until they reach the sample. The advantage of using of ultrasonication technique for

the extraction of bioactive compounds have been considered following; it increases the mass transfer coefficient,

accelerates the kinetics, and increases the final yield (Riera et al., 2004). Xu, Li, and Sun (2015) resulted that

natural antioxidants extracted from the Eucommia Oliver plant using distilled water as solvent is improved by using

ultrasound- assisted. The use of ultrasound has improved the effectiveness of traditional treatments, providing higher

yields and the selectivity of natural antioxidants.



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5.2.4. Microwave assisted extraction

Microwaves are non-ionizing electromagnetic waves of frequency between 300MHz to 300 GHz and positioned

between the X-ray and infrared rays in the electromagnetic spectrum MAE of anthraquinone in pure alcohol at 60°C

for 30mins gave a recovery of 65% which resulted from 3 days maceration in pure ethanol at room temperature.

Microwave-assisted extraction is an efficient method which involves deriving natural compounds from raw plants.

Microwave extraction allows organic compounds to be extracted more rapidly, with similar or better yield as

compared to conventional extraction methods. Some important phytochemicals compounds, like as antioxidants,

essential oils, pigments, flavorings, and other organic compounds, can be efficiently extracted by using this method

(Li et al., 2013). According to Leadbeater (2014) obsereved that the application of microwave extraction

technology is flourishing as compared to convential heating method due to maintent the higher temperatures easily,

safely, and in a reproducible manner; the reaction time can be reduced; the yield can be increased; and the purity can

be improved. Oroian and Escriche (2015) reported that microwave extraction techniques can be performed either

with or without the addition of any solvent. Simha, Mathew, and Ganesapillai (2016) investigated to isolate

phytochemical compounds from the pharmaceutically significant medicinal plants Cymbopogon citratus and

Adathoda vasica by using microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) is the effectiveness.

5.2.5. Pulsed electric field assisted extraction

A microbiology technique in which an electrical field is applied to cells in order to increase the permeability of the

cell membrane, allowing chemicals, drugs or DNA to be introduced into the cell. Process of the cell electroporation

by PEF: Building the transmembrane potential up by the applied external electric field creation of small metastable

hydrophilic pores. Evolution of the pore population post-treatment stage (leakage of intracellular compounds, pore

shrinkage and disappearance, etc) (Azmir et al., 2013; Rajha et al., 2015). Roselló-Soto et al., (2015) have been

reported that PEF is used to recover of valuable compounds from different fruit and vegetable tissues from an

economic and sustainable point of view, mainly due to its ability to soften and disrupt cell membranes, thus

facilitating the release of intracellular compounds. Soliva-Fortuny et al. (2009) studied the system typically used

for the treatment of pumpable fluids, which consists of a PEF generation unit, which is in turn composed of a high

voltage generator and a pulse generator, a treatment chamber, a suitable product handling system and a set of

monitoring and controlling devices. The advantage of the pulsed electric field technique using is that it enchane the

extraction of bioactive components from different raw materials, as well asimproving the rate of extracted

compounds, decreasing the temperature and the solvents consumption is also reduced. The recovery of food waste

and byproducts is improved by using the both Electrically-pulsed and high-voltage discharges (Oroian and

Escriche, 2015).

5.2.6. High-voltage electrical discharges

This technique is worked upon a current of high-voltage electrical discharge which produces by two submerged

electrodes which produced energy which is introduced directly into an aqueous solution through a plasma channel

(Barba et al., 2015). The intensity of the electrical field is in a position to induce Associate in nursing avalanche of

electrons that are answerable for beginning theunfold of the positive streamer for the negative conductor. Secondary

phenomena, likebubble cavitation, turbulence, and pressure shock waves, contribute to the development of

cell harm, facilitating the discharge of compounds and also the extraction of biomolecules from the living

substance of the cells (Rajha et al., 2015). It is necessary to optimize the extraction parameters for every product.

The character of the raw materials considerably affects the potency of the treatment, as was incontestible within the

study by Barba et al. (2015).

5.2.7. High hydrostatic pressure

High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) is a thermal process that the aim of this process is obtaining avoiding unfavorable

change within the sensory, physicochemical, and nutritional properties of foods and microbiologically safe food

products. The pressure applying for this technology operates under pressures generally ranging from 100 to 1,000

MPa (Briones-Labarca et al., 2015). The HHP process is recognized by the Food and Drug Administration in the

United States, since it only does not create waste byproducts less electric power is needed and it also enchane mass

transfer rates and imprive the extraction of the secondary metabolite (Andrés et al., 2016).



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VI. Extraction technologies for bioactive compounds from food waste

Various techniques have ben used for the extraction of bioactive components which present in agro-industrial waste

(Fig 1). Availability of these techniques provides an opportunity for optimal use of any of these for recovery of

specific compounds. The extraction techniques for bioactive compounds are mainly based on solvent extraction

(SE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), subcritical water extraction (SCW), use of enzymes, ultrasounds and

microwaves are selective basis of literature survey. In the following sections, these techniques have been discussed

independently in reference to recent studies.

VII. Medicinal properties of friuts and vegetables

The Pacific Regional Workshop on Promotion of Fruits and Vegetables for health in 2014 has been observed that

colours of fruits and vegetables are health beneficial for the human. The fruits and vegetables which purple/blue

colours like beetroot and eggplant; these are rich sources of the antioxidant properties and their ability to reduce the

risks of cancer, stroke and heart disease. The tomato, watermelon, radish and red grapes are red in colour and rich

sources of hytochemical which reduces the risk of cancer and improves heart health. The carotenoids bioactive

compounds present in orange/yellow-coloured fruits and vegetables that help in maintaining healthy eyes (e.g.

carrot, lemon and pineapple). Phytochemicals are found in brown/white fruits and vegetables such as banana, garlic,

onion and ginger, among others having antiviral and antibacterial properties. In addition, the phytochemicals which

are presented in green-coloured fruits and vegetables the having anticancer properties such as green apples, spinach,

broccoli, cucumber and green pepper lettuce (Hoejsko, 2014). Some scientist studied that higher consumption of

fruits and vegetables are greater life span, enchance mental health, improve cardiovascular health, decreased risks of

some cancers and weight management, among others (Conner et al., 2017; Oyebode et al., 2014). According to the

USA study women who consume fruits and vegetables have lower risk of obesity was observed among healthy

middleage (He et al., 2018). Some fruits are rich in sufficient potassium, which are needed to reduce occurrence of

kidney stones and also reduce effect of bone loss. Fruits are also prosperous witjin dietary vitamins certain as

potassium, antioxidants then folic sourtaste ( Law and Morris, 1988) consumption of fruit ensures choicest fitness

offers immediate energy in accordance with the physique yet provides nutritional vitamins or minerals up to

expectation are best to body functioning ( Amao, 2018).

Inaddition, vegetables are vital namely those assist improve overall health, guard the critical organs overthebody, aid

between weight control, or raise healthy skin and hair.They also deliver abundantantioxidants as help keep diseases

abroad outof the physique or usefulresource of cooking via stoppingconstipation,haemorrhoids then diarrhoea. Fruits

possess an array of medicinal properties and act against several human diseases owing to which they are highly

consumed worldwide. The various medicinal properties of fruits and the bioactive compounds associated with them

are described in this section with examples.

7.1. Antioxidants

A majority of fruits are affluent in antioxidants. Recently, the changes in the phenolic compounds of eight fruits

were evaluated and cogent differences amid the antioxidant and phenolic agreeable were recorded and researcher

results showed that Aronia melanocarpa and Sambucus nigra were acceptable sources of antioxidant properties

while accomplished antioxidant action was recorded in Vaccinium myrtillus. Hydro-alcoholic leaf extracts of P.

edulis and P. nitida accept apparent able antioxidant effect in vivo and in vitro antioxidant activity (Taıwe and

Kuete, 2017). The extract of fruits like Psidium cattleianum, Butia odorata and Eugenia uniflora was evaluated in

vitro antioxidant activity by (Vinholes et al., 2017) acceptance able antioxidant action due to the attendance and

aggregate of phenolic compounds, anthocyanins, carotenoids and abbreviation sugars was observed. Citrus spp. is

claimed to be accepting antioxidant action due to the advantage of bioactive compounds begin in this fruits, but it

was absolute that the antioxidant action was higher in the peel than in the fruit tissues (Assefa, and Saini, 2017).



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7.2. Anticonvulsant

Blyznyuk and Prokopenko (2016) Studied that extracts from leaves of the Ukrainian flora shrubs showing

Anticonvulsant activity and Corylus avellana dry aqueous extract can be a promising substance with anticonvulsant

properties. Anticonvulsant activity of leaf extract of avocado and Olives also was reported having high (Tcheghebe

et al., 2016).

7.3. Anticancer

Anticancer effect is appear in the analysis done by (Panth, Manandhar, and Paudel, 2017) with the fruits of

Punica granatum assuming in vivo and in vitro effects acquired by several authors for breast cancer, prostate cancer,

colorectal cancer, leukemia, glioblastoma and hepatocellular blight acquired in beastly and animal analytic trials.

Pomegranate was apparent to arrest lung, prostate and urinary float urothelial blight by booze extract and extract

(Wu et al., 2017). Recently researchers have studied that bioactive compounds of citrus fruit like narigin and

hesperidin have used against different types of cancer with positive results against lung, colon and breast cancers

(Gualdani et al., 2016). Also, bioactive compounds such as limonoids actinic compounds limonin, nomilin,

deacetylnomilinic acid, isolimonelic acid, nominilic acerbic are which present in the citrus used against the

anticancer (Gualdani et al., 2016). Due to presence of bioactive compounds in the Phaleria macrocarpa fruit

extracts; it has been used against breast and cervical cancers.

7.4. Antimicrobial

Bacterial diseases are actual accepted in bodies and are advised analytical at times. Antibacterial action was

evaluated in C. Sinensis (sweet orange) which accepted that the cultivars Sisila, BAN and MT bedevilled anti-

bacterial activities against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus Aureus; the cultivar Biblia candied and the acerb

orange C. Aurantium prompted effect gainst E. coli and Staphylococcus Aureus, and MRSA, but berry oil was

apparent to accept bigger effect than fruit extract against Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans (Olabanji et

al., 2016). Moreover, citrus actinic compounds like limonin, nomilin, obacunone and isoobacunoic acerbic are used

for against the several microbial species, like virus, bacterial, fungal and larvicidal (Van Duyn and Pivonka, 2000).

In vitro studies that the peptides present in the P. edulis seeds antiseptic were used against Trichoderma harzinum,

Fusarium oxysporum and Aspergillus fumigatum and leaf extract of Plinia cauliflora used inhibit the growth of

Candida five species (Debnath, Dey, Chanda and Bhakta, 2012). It has high antioxidant antimicrobial and

anticancer properties so that it is used to treat nausea and vomiting, lowers blood pressure, regulates blood glucose

levels and also alleviates rheumatoid arthritis.

7.5. Effect against Cardiovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular diseases are one of the better problems in animal health. To ascendancy this ache some letters accept

apparent that P. edulis booze extracts and lurid fruits were able to lower claret burden in hypertensive rats (Hart,

Azubuike and Barimala, 2015). Also, Eugenia uniflora leaf extracts were appearing as getting able in blurred claret

burden in hypertensive rats. The aegis of cardiovascular ache was appearing in Aronia melanocarpa. P. Aamericana

berry abstract was appearing to assure cardiovascular diseases and the bake-apple abstract produced

hepatoprotective aftereffect. Olives have effect as accepting anti-hypertensive and cardio-protective action as is

axiomatic by the actinic compounds uvaol, ursolic acerbic and oleanolic acerbic isolated from the leaves (Rolls,

Ello-Martin and Tohill, 2004).

7.6. Against Inflammation

Inflammatory genes accompanying to endometriosis were advised with the bioactive admixture DLBS 1442

acquired from fruits extracts of P. macrocarpa and begin that it added the beef in sub-G1 date and apparent

inhibitory effect on proliferation, clearing and angiogenesis (A. Duarte, Carvalho and Miguel, 2016). Anti-

neuroinflammatory effect was beginning in Citrus associate peels getting adumbrated that the lot of actinic

compounds that appearance anti-inflammatory furnishings are: limonin, nomilin and citrusin (Gualdani, Cavalluzzi

and Lentini, 2016). Also, anti-inflammatory effect was detected in of P. edulis and P. nitida aqueous leaf extract

with able effect in vivo, and in systemic administering getting able in suppressing tumour life. Another plant with



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anti-inflammatory furnishings is Prunus persica (Deb et al., 2010). Consumption of garlic helps abate the accident

of blight and cardiovascular diseases, stimulates the allowed function, restores concrete backbone and enhances

detoxification (Xiao, 2017). Onions assure the physique from cardiovascular diseases, some infections and abdomen

cancer; it aswell improves lung function. It contains quercetin, which thins the blood, lowers cholesterol level, fights

asthma, prevents claret clot, and acts as a allaying and an antiinflammatory and anti-viral vegetable. Consumption of

vegetables helps to detoxify the body, cures insomnia, improves the digestive arrangement and anamnesis and

enhances able afraid arrangement (Sharma, 2004).

7.7. Against Diabetes

Anti-diabetic effect is beginning in several fruit and vegetables species. Hydro-alcoholic extracts fruit and

vegetables of P. edulis and P. nitida were activating in the ascendancy of diabetes (Taı¨we and Kuete, 2017).

Extracts of leaf of P. Americana produced anti-hyperglyceamic effect in mice and asawell as anti-diabetic effect

(Kamagate et al., 2014). On the other hand, the ethnobotanical use of 50 altered breed to ascendancy diabetes was

evaluated and a part of them nine breed were the a lot of cited (Giuburtia tessmannii, Anonna bonei, Carica papaya,

P. americana, Anonna muricata, Ceiba pentandra, Coccos nucifera, and Piriclima nitida), with the majority of them

application axis case (50%), leaves (26%), and added locations (24%). Some fruits Brazilian such as Psidium

cattleianum (arac¸a), Butia odorata (butia) and Eugenia uniflora (pitanga) have high antioxidant activity due to

presence of bioactive compounds that decrease blood glucose and defend patients with type II diabetes. Citrus

nomilin was the actinic admixture articular of accepting anti-diabetic action. Vitamin D in tomatoes keeps the hair

agleam and strong, and helps advance vision. Chromium in tomatoes helps diabetic patients to accumulate the claret

amoroso akin beneath ascendancy (Bhowmik et al., 2012).

7.8. Effect against Other Diseases

Several added diseases/disorders affect bodies in the avant-garde society. Majority of citizenry are afflicted with

obesity, all-overs and abasement to name a few. Several other diseases/disorders affect humans in the modern society.

Majority of population are affected with obesity, anxiety and depression to name a few. Extracts of Leaf of various

fruit and vegetables like Eugenia uniflora, P. eduli, Eugenia, Eugenia, Syzygium cumini, Aronia melanocarpa, P.

americana and Olea europea were produced anti-obesity, a natural anti-depressant and anti-anxiety activity,

haematopoietic, hepatoprotective, gastroprotective, anti-arthritic, anti-depressant and anti-anxiety activity, helps to

control body weight (Vinholes et al., 2017). Olea europea leaf extract and oleuropein were appear to be

neuroprotective, abbreviation corpuscle accident in Parkinson’s ache and oleuropein aglicone seems to anticipate

Alzheimer’s by inhibiting baneful amyloid aggregates in brain. Blade and oil extracts were declared to aftermath

gastroprotective after effect (Trupti and Dongre, 2014). In addition, diarrhoea, haemorrhoids, rheumatism and

asthma could be prevented proving the acceptation of these, bake-apple bioactive compounds in animal ache

prevention. Consuming okra aswell contributes to a live lifes tyle. Okra contains antioxidants that abolish chargeless

radicals from the physique and potassium which helps abate array and atherosclerosis. It has vitamin A that protects

derma health, and top vitamin C agreeable that induces the conception of white claret cells, which assists the allowed

arrangement.

IV.CONCLUSION

This review highlights the nutraceutical properties of bioactive compounds which obtained from fruit and vegetable

co-products and by-products. It also discusses the biological activity of bioactive compounds against diseases such

as antidiabetic, anticancer, antihypertensive, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial,

antiviral, and stimulation of the immune system, cell detoxification, cholesterol synthesis, anticonvulsant and their

ability to lower blood pressure. Some new conventional and non-conventional techniques discussed for the

extraction of bioactive compounds such as supercritical extraction, pressurized liquid, assisted ultrasound,

microwave, pulsed electric field, electric high-voltage discharges, and high hydrostatic pressure and these

compounds can be used in food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetic, and chemical industries, and also in food research, and

the development of functional foods.



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Table 1. Chemical classification of the main phytochemicals and their main plant-based food sources.

Category Chemical class Chemical subclass Example Plant-based food sources (examples)

Carbohydrates Polysaccharides (dietary

fiber)

Non-starch

Polysaccharides

Cellulose

Pectins

Wholegrains,almost

all plants Pears,

apples, citrus

fruits

Steroids Phytosterols Sterols Campesterol β-

sitosterol

Stigmastrerol

Whole grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, pulses,

banana, apples, cruciferous vegetables,

asparagus, onions

Organic acids Short-chain organic

acids

Sulfur compounds

Stanols

Aldonic acids

Ascorbic acid

(vitamin C)

Pepper, kiwi, cruciferous vegetables,

berries, citrus fruits, tomato

Nitroen-

containing

compounds

Amines

Cyanogenic glycosides

Glucosinulates

Purines

Other nitrogen

compounds

Benzylamines

Tryptamines

Aliphatic

glucosinulates

Sulfur compounds

other nitrogen

compounds

Thiosulfinates

Sulforaphane

Sinigrin

Benzyl

isothiocyanate

Allyl

iosthiocyanate

Phenethyl

isothiocyanate

Indole alcohols

Garlic, leek, onion, chives

Broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage,

cauliflower

Broccoli

Alkaloids Pyridine alkaloids

Betalain alkaloids

Betacyanins

Betaxanthins

Trigoneline

Potatoes, oats, peas, arabic coffee

Red beet

Phenolics Flavonoids

Phenolic acids

Lignans

Coumarins

Phenylpropanoids

Coumestans,

Furanocoumarins,

Benzodioxoles

Coumarin,

Coumestrol,

Psoralen, Apiole

Tonka bean, vanilla grass, mullein, sweet

woodru Lima beans, alfalfa sprouts, soy

beans Celery, parsley

Terpenoids Monoterpenoids

Triterpenoids

Triterpenoids

Phenolic terpenes

Saponins

Phytosterols

Carotenoids

Vitamin E

Ursolic acid

Campesterol

Zeaxanthin

β-cryptoxanthin

Lutein

Lycopene

β-carotene

α- carotene

Grapefruit, lemon, orange, tangerine, carrot,

celery

Spinach, nuts, avocado

Rosemary, basil

Banana, pomegranate, pepper, grapefruit,

onion

Carrot, pumpkin, sweet potato, tomato,

apricot, mango, cabbage, winter squash,

cruciferous vegetables, spinach, peach,

red/pink grapefruit

Adapted from Scalbert et al. (2011), Tiwari et al. (2013), IARC handbook of cancer prevention and Gonzales et al. (2013).



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Table 2 Bioactive components in different industrial food waste residues

S. no. Fruit/

Source Residue Bioactive components References

1. Apple Peel and pomace

Epicatechin, catechins, anthocyanins,

quercitin glycosides, chlorogenic acid,

hydroxycinnamates, phloretin glycosides,

procyanidins

Wolfe and Liu (2003)

2. Avocado Peel and seeds

Epicatechin, catechin, gallic acid,

chlorogenic acid,

Deng et al. (2012)

3 Banana Peel

Gallocatechin, anthocyanins, delphindin,

cyaniding,

catecholamine

González- Montelongo et

al. (2010)

4 Citrus

fruits Peel

Hesperidin, naringin, eriocitrin, narirutin

Cid et al. (1998

5 Grapes Seed and skin

Coumaric acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid,

chlorogenic

querce

Maier et al. (2009)

6 Guava Skin and seeds Catechin, cyanidin 3-glucoside, galangin,

gallic acid, homogentisic acid, kaempferol

Deng et al. (2012)

7 Litchi Pericarp, seeds

Cyanidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-3-rutonoside,

malvidin, 3-glucoside, gallic acid, epicatechin-

3-gallate

Duan et al. (2007)

8 Mango Kernel Gallic acid, ellagic acid, gallates,

gallotannins, condensed tannins

Puravankara et al. (2000)

9 Palm By-products of

palm oil milling

Tocopherols, tocotrienols, sterols, and

squalene, phenolic antioxidants Tan et al. (2007),

10 Pomegranate Peel and

pericarp

Gallic acid, cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside,

cyanidin-3-diglu-

c

Noda et al. (2002),

11 Vegetables

Carrot Peel Phenols, beta-carotene Chantaro et al. (2008)

Cucumber Peel Chlorophyll, pheophytin, phellandrene,

caryophyllene Zeyada et al. (2008)

Potato Peel Gallicacid, caffeic acid vanillic acid Zeyada et al. (2008)

Tomato

Skin and

pomace

Carotenoids Strati and Oreopoulou

(2011)

12

Cereal

crops

Barley bran

β-Glucan Sainvitu et al. (2012

Rice bran γ-Oryzanol, bran oil Oliveira et al (2012)

Wheat Bran and germs Phenolic acids, antioxidants Wang et al. (2008)



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Figure 1. A schematic representation of different techniques for extraction of bioactive compounds from food

wastes and their health benefits

Figure 2. Medicicnal properties of fruits and vegetables



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