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hether you are in Doha, Dubai, Manama, Salalah, Jiddah or anobscure country village, when you step into an herbal medicineshop or wander through the traditional suqs (markets), you willfind vendors of herbs, spices, bark, twigs, rocks and salt intendedfor culinary, cosmetic or medicinal purposes.

As you gaze at the piles of twisted bark or the varied combinations of dried flowers, youmay wonder: What are these products? Where do they come from? How are they used locally?

These fascinating items whisper tales of the ancient trade routes, for many still come to Arabia from India, China, Indonesia, Egypt,Syria and other exotic locations, and are distributed across the Peninsula through existing commercial networks. Others are harvestedlocally, some under harsh desert conditions, and have their own fascinating stories to tell.

The people of the Arabian Peninsula have, for centuries, combined goods obtained by trade and barter with a prudent use of localplants and have developed a rich heritage of folk medicine.

Many of the natural remedies presented here are the result of a questionnaire distributed throughout the Arabian Peninsula in early2002. The questionnaire, printed in both Arabic and English, asked families to explain how they, as well as their mothers and grand-mothers, use various herbs, spices and other substances in natural healing. It also requested specific remedies for conditions such asheadache, colds and coughs, sore throats, hair loss, general fatigue, childbirth and so on. We present their generous responses, which havehelped to unlock many of the mysteries of local medicinal herb shops and reveal unique insights into the natural remedies of Arabia.

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These remedies have been pro-vided by families in Saudi Arabia,Bahrain, Yemen, Oman and theUnited Arab Emirates, and repre-sent past and present use of natu-ral substances in folk healing.References to “provinces” (e.g., Eastern Province, CentralProvince) are to the provinces of Saudi Arabia.

The information presented is for educational purposes onlyand should not be relied upon for the treatment of illnesses orother physical conditions.

Written by Robert W. Lebling and Donna Pepperdine Photographed by Donna Pepperdine

Excerpted with permission from Natural Remedies of Arabia (ISBN 1-905299-02-8),published by Stacey International (London) and Al-Turath (Riyadh)

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ALUM Arabic: Shabba, Shabb; Other English:Potassium Alum, Potash Alum

First-time visitors to Middle Easternmarkets may be puzzled to see piles ofstones displayed prominently among theherbs and spices. One of them is alum,a crystal-white mineral often importedfrom China. Alum is a compound ofseveral metals, including aluminum. It isan astringent, widely used in the MiddleEast to control bleeding and to cleanand heal wounds. Shabba powder ismixed with henna for skin decoration,and when applied to the underarms, it acts as a deodorant. Alum is notingested, nor is it used in cooking.

Did you know?• In ancient Babylon, physicians used

alum in a mouthwash, as a styptic, asa pessary for menorrhagia, as a nasaldouche, and as a treatment for itchyscabs, gonorrhea and purulent oph-thalmia. Greek and then Arab medicalauthorities continued these practices,and went on to use alum for the treat-ment of leprosy, bad gums, pustulesand ear trouble.

• The alums are valuable in paper man-ufacturing, textile dyeing, fireproofing,water purification, and in medicine asastringents, styptics and emetics.

• The Alum Mountain, in Bulahdelah,Australia, is the only known above-ground outcrop of alum stone (alunite)in the world.

• Using shabba deodorant stones is con-sidered safe and will not cause highlevels of aluminum in your system.This is because potassium alum mole-cules have a negative ionic charge, and the aluminum is unable to passthrough cell walls.

• Bauxite, the ore from which alum isdrawn, can be purified and converteddirectly into alum.

ANISE Arabic: Anisun, Yansun, YansoonPimpinella anisum Umbelliferae/Apiaceae (Parsley Family)

From cookies to colds, this tiny, aro-matic, gray-brown seed—often calledaniseed—serves families across theArabian Peninsula. Saudi merchantsimport much of their aniseed fromSyria and India. Anise also grows in Egypt, Cyprus, Crete and on theEastern Mediterranean coast.

How to use:1) For tea,simmer oneteaspoon ofaniseed in a cup ofwater forabout 10minutes.Strain anddrink; 2) Grind seeds to powder for usein baking; 3) Chew the seeds to freshenthe mouth and aid digestion.

In the kitchen: Licorice-flavored aniseedprovides subtle flavor to cookies andother sweets.

Remedies across Arabia: Anise is a pop-ular folk medicine, with a long traditionin Islamic pharmacology. It is used totreat general abdominal pain, colic,indigestion, menstrual cramping, coughsand headaches. It is also believed toclean the urinary system and preventinflammations. Anise has aromatic,diaphoretic, relaxant, stimulant, tonic,carminative and stomachic properties.

Did you know?• Anise is sometimes confused with fen-

nel (Foeniculum vulgare), particularlythe Iranian varieties, which are quitesimilar in appearance and flavor.

• An oil distilled from anise is whatgives licorice candy its flavor.

• Anise is a key ingredient of supari,the digestive spice mix served after a curry meal.

ARAK Arabic: Arak, Rak; Other English: Toothbrush Tree, Mustard Tree, SaltbushSalvadora persica L.; Salvadoraceae

Have you ever wondered how peoplecleaned their teeth before the invention

of the toothbrush? One answer is themiswak! A miswak (plural: masawik) isa fibrous stick prepared from the rootof the arak tree. It has antiseptic andastringent properties which help cleanand protect the teeth and gums. A high-quality miswak has a strong, pungentsmell. It is pale yellow or cream in color.It is moist and flexible.

The Prophet Mohammad, founderof Islam, recommended the miswak to his followers. He used it to sweeten

his breath during fasting andadvised its use prior to prayer.This practice is still popular inArabia today.

The arak is a short evergreentree that grows in sandy and aridareas of the Middle East andAfrica. Sheep and goats like tonibble its leaves.

How to use: Soak the root inwater for a few hours to soften the natu-ral fibers. Then scrape off five to 10millimeters (1⁄4 – 1⁄2") of bark from the tipand gently chew until fibers have sepa-rated and the root becomes brush-like.Clean the teeth by rubbing the miswakup and down and sideways as youwould a conventional plastic toothbrush.When the fibers become overused, sim-ply cut off the tip of the miswak, scrapeoff more bark and continue to use asbefore. To retain freshness, keep miswakin the refrigerator or soak in water.

Did you know?• Arak roots contain triclosan, an effec-

tive antibacterial used in moderntoothpastes. Other ingredients includefluoride, vitamin C, alkaloids andsmall amounts of tannins andflavenoids.

• A herbaltoothpastewith pure mis-wak extract(made by ahygiene-prod-ucts companyin India) iscurrently mar-keted in SaudiArabia andother countriesof the region.

• Other naturaltoothbrush

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sources, when arak is not available,include the peelo tree, the olive tree,the bitam tree, the walnut tree, theneem tree or any bitter tree that is notharmful or poisonous in any way!

ASAFETIDA Arabic: Haltita, Hiltit; Other English:Asafoetida, Giant Fennel, Devil’s Dung,Stinking Gum, Food of the GodsFerula assa-foetida or F. asafoetida;Umbelliferae/Apiaceae (Parsley Family)

When the doorbell rang, Khalidknew that his grandmother had arrivedwith her infamous family remedy: thefoul-smelling gum resin of the asafetidaplant. His mind raced to find an excuse,any excuse, to avoid taking it. He feltuncertain that the effort required toswallow the bitter substance was worththe cure. Yet he knew his grandmotherwould be firm. Her words still echoedto him from times of past sickness:“You know, Khalid, asafetida has beenused for ages as an effective medicine

in the Arabworld. Itworks mainly toimprove thedigestive sys-tem, but it’salso used as a pain-reliever, acough medi-

cine and a blood thinner. We’ll use it totreat your upset stomach.” Khalid hadno choice but to agree—and he soonfelt better. In Saudi Arabia today, fami-lies still turn to asafetida as a “last-resort” treatment for coughs, colds,fevers and stomach discomfort. It is notthe most popular home remedy; parentsmust coach their children to hold theirnose and swallow quickly in order totolerate the strong smell and bitter taste.

How to use: 1) Melt in hot water anddrink; 2) Grind or crush the lump resininto powder or melt it in liquid and usesparingly as a cooking spice.

In the kitchen: Despite its sulfuroussmell, asafetida, when cooked, imparts a surprisingly pleasant flavor to manyfoods. In Indian cuisine, it is a substi-tute for onion or garlic. Use in smallamounts. The powdered form is milder

than the resin, because it is normallyblended with rice flour. The resin shouldbe fried in hot oil before using. A pea-sized quantity is enough to flavor alarge pot of lentils or vegetables. Storeasafetida in an air-tight container.

Remedies across Arabia: Asafetida isavailable in Middle Eastern herb shopsand can be purchased in lump resin orpowdered form.

Did you know?• Alexander the Great is credited with

carrying asafetida west in the fourthcentury BC, following his expeditionsinto the Persian Empire (modernAfghanistan).

• The famous ancient Roman gourmetApicius (first century) used asafetidain over half of his recipes.

• The British explorer Charles Doughty,who traveled throughout Arabia in themid-19th century, called asafetida “adrug which the Arabs have in sover-eign estimation.”

• Asafetida is native to Iran and westernAfghanistan.

• Modern herbalists regard asafetida asa sedative, antispasmodic and circula-tory agent. It is also known to relieveintestinal and stomach upsets.

• Asafetida is much used in the Ayur-vedic tradition and is also popular inIndian vegetarian cooking.

• Al-Kindi, an Islamic scholar of theninth century, used asafetida tocounter phlegm and treat sore throat,tooth pain, rheumatism and nervousconditions, and also as an aphrodisiac.

• Asafetida gets its name from thePersian aza, for mastic or resin, andthe Latin foetidus, for stinking.

BANANA Arabic: MauzMusa sapientum; Musaceae (Banana Family)

The banana plant is the world’slargest herb. It is often mistaken for a

tree, but does not have a woody trunkor boughs. It springs from an under-ground rhizome to form a false trunkthree to six meters (10–20') high andis crowned with a rosette of 10–20 beautiful, oblong banana leaves.

History credits Arab traders with giving the banana its popular name.Although there are several hundredvarieties which differ in taste, color,form and size, Arab traders noted thatbananas growing in Africa and Asiawere small, about the size of a man’sfinger, and so called them banan, whichmeans “fingertips” in Arabic. “Banana”is the singular form.

Bananas are rich in potassium,riboflavin, niacin and dietary fiber. They also contain vitamins A and C and some calcium and iron. Bananas are a quick source of energy.

How to use: In banana-producing coun-tries, vegetables and spices are some-times wrapped in banana leaves andthen steamed. Banana leaves are used as serving plates, as tablecloths and asbarriers between a wood fire and a pot.They are even used for thatching roofsand making rope.

In the kitchen: Bananas can be eatenfresh or dried. The dried fruit can beground into a nutritious banana flour. A very old and traditional breakfast in Makkah is omelet with banana.Masoub, also featuring the banana, is currently a popular Hijazi breakfastdish. Kanafa with banana is a deliciousdessert.

Remedies across Arabia: For diarrhea,use cornstarch and water; yogurt; tealeaves; mashed potatoes; bananas.

Did you know?• Hundreds of banana varieties thrive

in the tropics. Bananas grow in Egypt,Yemen, Oman and other Arab coun-tries. In the Nile River, near Luxor,Egypt, local boats sail to Gazirat al-

Mauz (“Banana Island”),where visitors can samplefruits from a large bananaorchard.

• The banana has been culti-vated in India for at least4000 years. Bananas arewidely used in Indian folkmedicine for the treatmentof diabetes mellitus.

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BLACK SEED Arabic: Habba Souda, Habbat al-Barakah;Other English: Fennel Flower, Black CuminNigella sativa; Ranunculaceae (Buttercup Family)

Native to the Mediterranean andgrown throughout the Middle East and

parts of Asia, Nigella sativais cultivated for its

seeds, which areknown as the“seeds of bless-ing.” For theArabs, black seedis not only a food

but also a valuedtraditional medicine

that has long been usedto treat such ailments as

asthma, flatulence, polio, kidneystones, abdominal pain and so on. Ithas served as an important health andbeauty aid for thousands of years.

According to tradition, the ProphetMuhammad described black seed as acure for every disease except death. Thegreat physician Ibn Sina (980–1037),better known as Avicenna, stated thatblack seed works as an expectorant,stimulates the body’s energy and helpsovercome fatigue and dispiritedness.

How to use: 1) Eat black seeds plain; 2)Eat a teaspoon of black seed mixed withhoney; 3) Boil black seed with water.Strain and drink; 4) Heat black seed andwarm milk until it just begins to boil.Remove from heat. Cool, then drink; 5) Grind black seed and swallow it withwater or milk; 6) Sprinkle on bread and pastries; 7) Burn black seed withbukhoor (incense) for a pleasant scent.

In the kitchen: Black seed is aromaticwith a slight peppery flavor. It is oneof the distinct flavors of Arab pastries.It is often sprinkled on breads andcheese. It is heated with milk for fla-vor. It is eaten ground with honey orwith cakes and pastries.

Remedies across Arabia: In Arabia,black seed remains a traditional remedyfor asthma, coughs, stomach aches,abdominal pain, colic, general fatigue,rheumatism, mouth and larynx diseases,skin diseases and cancer. It is alsobelieved to strengthen a mother afterchildbirth; stimulate menstruation, uri-nation and liver functions; aid digestion;

dissolve kidney stones; and increaseintelligence. Black seed is used to beau-tify skin, nourish hair and stimulatehair growth.

Did you know?• Black seed was found in Tutankhamen’s

tomb. This suggests that black seedhad an important role in ancientEgypt, since it was customary to placein tombs items needed for the afterlife.

• In the Old Testament, the prophetIsaiah contrasts Nigella (black cumin)with wheat. (See Isaiah 28: 25, 27.)

CARAWAY Arabic: Karawya, KarawiyaCarum carvi; Umbelliferae/Apiaceae(Parsley Family)

Some botanists say that caraway isthe world’s oldest known herb. It ismentioned in the Bible and otherancient texts, and has been found inEuropean archeo-logical excava-tions dating back8000 years. Inthe spice marketsof Arabia, carawaycan be found along-side her sister spices ofanise (yansoon), fennel (shamr) andcumin (kamun). You need only ask for karawiya (from which we get theEnglish word caraway) to take somehome. Caraway is grown throughoutEurope, the Mediterranean area, NorthAfrica, Asia and North America.

Did you know?• Caraway seed is the spice which gives

rye bread its characteristic flavor.• Caraway is important in Tunisian cui-

sine and is sometimes an ingredient of harissa, a fiery North African condi-ment made from dried hot peppers.

• Caraway leaves may be used as a herbin salads and as a garnish, while itsseeds may be used as a spice in breads,cheese spreads, pastas and vegetableand fruit dishes.

• Dioscorides, a Greek physician in thefirst century, recommended oil of car-away be rubbed into skin to improve a pale girl’s complexion.

• Caraway is a biennial. It grows as asmall green plant the first year andthen up to 60 centimeters (2') tall the

second year, producing small whiteand apple-green flowers and fruit.The fruit, commonly called seeds, canbe separated from the plant when ripeand then dried in the sun.

• Most experts believe the word caraway comes originally from theGreek word karon, which meanscumin! Caraway and cumin seeds are very similar in appearance. Arabicborrowed the word as karawiya,which medieval Latin transformed intocarui or carvi (as in Carum carvi).

CARDAMOM Arabic: Hal, Hail; Other English:Cardamom, Lesser Cardamom,Small Cardamom, Malabar CardamomElettaria cardamomum; Zingiberaceae(Ginger Family)

Imagine an ancient trade caravanmoving slowly up the FrankincenseTrail in western Arabia toward theMediterranean. The spices and aromat-ics burdening the camels could be fromYemen, East Africa, India or distantChina. Although anticipating lucrativeexchanges with merchants of theMediterranean, caravaners also stop invillages along the way where both vil-lagers and Bedouins are eager to barter.Exchanging goat meat, fresh produceor woven baskets, the local tradesmenobtain the cardamom necessary to flavor traditional Arabic coffee.

Native to India and Sri Lanka, cardamom is a well-loved spice in theArabian Peninsula. Arab coffee is heavilyflavored with it. In fact, cardamom is avaluable ingredient in Middle Easterncuisine: in beverages, sweets, pastriesand main dishes.

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How to use: 1) Bruise cardamom podsuntil partially open; remove cardamomseeds from their pods; gently bruiseseeds or dry-fry over gentle heat torelease their flavor; or 2) Grind seedsinto powder.

In the kitchen: Cardamom is a vitalingredient in Arabian coffee making. Itsflavor can be added to the beverage bygrinding cardamom pods and addingthe powdered cardamom to alreadybrewed coffee. Cloves, saffron, sugar,nakhwa (See page 19.) or rose water arealso sometimes added for flavor. “Sweetcoffee,” which doesn’t contain any cof-fee at all, is a traditional drink from theHijaz. It is a wonderful, warm beveragewith a pleasant cardamom flavor. It is served on special occasions such as graduation day, which is the day students receive their grade cards.

Remedies across Arabia: A member of the ginger family, cardamom is acarminative and a stimulant. It warmsthe body and helps relieve indigestionand gas.

Did you know?• Cardamom is one of the most expen-

sive spices in the world. This isbecause each individual fruit podcontaining the desired seed spicemust be harvested from its flowerstalk by hand. Flower stalks must becarefully examined and re-examinedas the fruit pods develop at differentrates. Harvested whilestill green and firm, the pods are then driedand sold.

• About 1000 years ago,the Vikings discoveredcardamom in their explo-rations and conquestsaround the Mediterranean.They introduced this spiceto Scandinavia, where it is still used extensivelyin baking spiced cakesand breads.

• Cardamom was one ofthe most popular Orientalspices in ancient Romancuisine.

• Ground cardamom cansoften a plastic spoon leftin it for several days.

CAMOMILE Arabic: Babunaj, Babunij;Other English: ChamomileGerman Chamomile: Matricaria recutita, Matricaria chamomillaSaudi Chamomile: Matricaria aurea;Asteraceae (Aster Family)

One thing every Bedouin, villagerand city dweller can tell you is thatcamomile tea is relaxing and aidsdigestion. Along with this fact comesthe widespread belief that the bestbabunaj comes from the north. As aresult, packaged herbal teas from Syriaand Jordan are popular supermarketitems. These medicinal teas featurecamomile but may also contain corian-der, black seed, anise, rose, lemonbalm, hibiscus, thyme or sage.

How to use: Use the flower heads tobrew a medicinal tea.

In the kitchen: Many families keepcamomile readily available. To makecamomile tea, boil water and thenpour one cup of the water over fourteaspoons of dried flowers. Infuse forfive to 10 minutes and then strain.Add honey for a sweeter taste anddrink the tea warm.

Remedies across Arabia: Camomile is a valued nervine, carminative andgeneral tonic. Camomile tea is well-known for settling the stomach andaiding digestion after a meal. It is alsorelaxing and can help promote sleep

Did you know?• In 1656, John Parkinson wrote,

“Camomill is put to divers and sundryuses, both for pleasure and profit, bothfor the sick and the sound, in bathingto comfort and strengthen the soundand to ease pains in the diseased.”

• Al-Kindi used camomile in a strongdressing for the spleen and in an appli-cation to relax the liver and stomach.

• Camomile tea is used in the Levant tostrengthen a mother after childbirth.

• Camomile is used in perfumes, soaps,bath oils, skin-care products and inshampoos to add luster to blonde hair.

• With a reputation as a mild bleach,camomile has been used to lightenblonde hair by pouring two cups of boiling water over a handful ofcamomile flowers and infusing for 30minutes. After shampooing the hair,rinse several times with this camomileinfusion while it is still warm. It is avery pleasant hair rinse.

CUCUMBER Arabic: KhiyarCucumis sativus; Cucurbitaceae (Gourd Family)

Cucumbers are produced on small farms throughout the ArabianPeninsula and sold in local fruit andvegetable markets. Cucumbers havelong been known in eastern and west-ern traditional medicine as one of thebest natural diuretics. The effect is in

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the seeds, which are rich in sulfur, sili-con and potassium.

Cucumbers originated in Asia, prob-ably in India, and spread into Europeabout 3000 years ago. Today Indianmedicine prescribes cucumber juice foran array of ailments, including constipa-tion, stomach disorders, urinary prob-lems, rheumatism and even cholera.

How to use: 1) Slice or finely chop thecucumber to add to salads; 2) Slice,grate or mash the cucumber for use in skin-care applications.

In the kitchen: Middle Eastern cuisinewould not be the same without thecucumber. Traditional salads, such asfattoush and tabbouleh, call for this fruit

posing as a vegetable, as does the popu-lar yogurt and cucumber salad, whichcomplements and cools rice and meatdishes. Sliced cucumbers and tomatoes,drizzled with lemon juice and garnishedwith fresh mint and parsley, form therenowned cucumber and tomato salad.Arranged decoratively on a serving plate,it is a simple yet healthy choice.

Remedies across Arabia: SuparnaTrikha, one of India’s leading naturalbeauty experts, advised that the juicemade from cucumber skin can be asoothing lotion and skin cleanser. Shealso suggested grating cucumber andmassaging the pulp into the skin andleaving it to dry. Splashing fresh waterand gently wiping the face after 10 minutes or so is a good way to slow the advance of wrinkles. Additionally,cucumber slices are put on swollen eyes,to reduce the swelling.

Did you know?• Cucumbers were a popular food in

ancient Rome, and historian Plinythe Elder reports that the EmperorTiberius ate large quantities.

• The cucumber is a fruit because it contains the seeds to reproduce.Botanically speaking, a fruit is themature ovary of a plant, such as acucumber, apple, melon or tomato.

• Cucumbers, along with squash, melons and pumpkins, belong to the group of vegetables known ascucurbits, or vine crops.

FRANKINCENSE Arabic: Luban; Other English: Olibanum,Oil of LebanonBoswellia sacra or B. carteri or B. thurifera; Burseraceae (Frankincenseand Myrrh Family)

Frankincense is crystallized treesap—a hardened gum or resin exudedby a small tree that grows in the coastalregions of the southern Arabian Penin-sula and nearby coastal East Africa. Inancient times, frankincense was a pre-cious commodity, sometimes morevaluable than gold. Merchants broughtthis treasure to the great civilizationcenters of Europe and Western Asia bysea and by a land trail through Yemenand up the Arabian Red Sea coast tothe Levant. In Saudi Arabia and otherGulf countries, frankincense is used asincense today, though not in religiousceremonies.

How to use: 1) Chew as a gum. This is a popular use as frankincense has amild, pleasant taste and helps to elimi-nate bad breath. 2) Suck on a granule to relieve nausea; 3) Soak frankincensegranules in water and drink the strainedliquid; 4) Burn as incense for a pleasantscent or waft on clothing.

Did you know?• Frankincense comes in five main col-

ors: white, pale lemon, pale amber,pale green and dark amber. The colorof the gum resin is influenced by itsharvest time. A whiter gum is collected

closer to autumn, whereas a darkercolor is harvested closer to spring.

• Although the frankincense gatheringseason lasts from May through mid-September, the product is availableyear-round in traditional local marketsof the Middle East.

• Due to unique climatic conditions, thebest frankincense is produced by treesgrowing in the mountainous Dhofarregion of Oman. In addition to Oman,frankincense today is grown in Yemen,Ethiopia, Somalia and India.

• In the days of the pharaohs, frankin-cense trees were imported into Egypt,where they were grown for the gum,which was burned in religious rituals.

• Tenth-century Persian physician IbnSina (known to the West as Avicenna)recommended using frankincense intreatments for tumors, ulcers, vomit-ing, dysentery and fever.

• Frankincense today remains an ingre-dient in various incense mixturesburned in rituals of the RomanCatholic and Orthodox churches.

• Western herbalists regard frankincenseessential oil as an anti-inflammatory,antiseptic and astringent, and say it isuseful as a uterine tonic during preg-nancy and labor.

• Charred frankincense has been used to make kohl, the black powder tradi-tionally used by women in the MiddleEast to paint their eyelids.

GARLIC Arabic: Thum, ThoomAllium sativum; Alliaceae (Onion Family)

Botanist David Hooper, in his sur-vey of useful plants in Iran and Iraq inthe 1930’s, observed that garlic was thepotherb par excellence of the East—notonly was it used in a dizzying array ofculinary dishes, but it also aided diges-tion and was a gastric stimulant. Ifanything, Hooper’s comment was anunderstatement. We now know garlichas a wealth of other medicinal proper-ties to complement its enduring value asa cooking herb.

Garlic, a bulbous perennial, proba-bly originated in Central Asia, the onlyplace where it grows wild. (There areother plants in other lands referred toas “wild garlic”; they are part of theAllium genus but are not true garlic, A. sativum. Garlic has edible flowersC

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but it is primarilygrown for itsbulbs, each ofwhich contains 12 to 20 cloves.Garlic hasbeen cul-tivated byhumans from timeimmemorial.Hundreds ofvarieties havespread out fromAsia to encompassthe globe.

How to use: 1) Crush, chop or usegarlic cloves whole to flavor dishes; 2) Bake, roast or grill a bulb of garlic.When softened, squeeze out the pulpfrom the individual cloves to eat; 3) Mash the softened pulp of bakedgarlic to form a smooth paste and use it in soups, sauces and dips.Alternatively, grind fresh garlic to a paste with a mortar and pestle.

In the kitchen: Garlic is a much appre-ciated ingredient in both hummus bitahina (chickpea and sesame puree)and baba ghannouj (eggplant andsesame puree), two popular dips withArab bread.

When frying, use enough olive oil or butter to coat the pan and stir often.Garlic burns quickly if cooked overhigh heat.

Store garlic in a cool, dark pantry.Garlic stored in the refrigerator quicklydries out and rots.

Remedies across Arabia: • Use garlic for ant bites. (Northern

Province) • Use a clove of garlic to relieve the pain

of a bee sting. (United Arab Emirates) • Use an ointment made of ground gar-

lic on a wound even if it hurts, sincethis prevents gangrene. Also, you canclean wounds by mixing ground gar-lic in warm water and washing thewound with it to kill the microbes.(Eastern Province)

• Rub a raw garlic clove on the spotwhere a scorpion stings you, and itwill heal. (Eastern Province)

• My grandmother used garlic to killwarts and prevent them from reap-pearing. (Bahrain)

Remedies across Arabia: • Although it doesn’t taste very good

because it is so bitter, myrrh is used to alleviate inflammation in the body.

• Myrrh water is an excellent mouth-wash and is helpful for mouth sores orblisters, sore throats, bronchial conges-tion and other conditions requiring anantiseptic astringent.

• For burns, soak myrrh in a smallamount of water. It is put on burns to reduce scars and to help in quicklyhealing wounds and to remove warts.(Southern Province)

• In the past, myrrh oil was wiped on a new baby’s navel. (Bahrain)

• Myrrh is very good to have if youhave external cuts. It makes them get better quickly. (Central Province)

• We use myrrh for so many uses, forexample to treat sores, appendicitispain after operation, boils, stomachaches and the colon. Soak myrrhstones in water. Then place the wateron the area of pain for boils, ordrink it. (Central Province)

• Myrrh is used to help healing ofwounds, minor burns and wounds of simple surgical operations.(Southern Province)

Did you know?• Ancient Egyptians wore unguent

cones saturated with myrrh, marjo-ram, sweet flag or lotus. They put thecones on their heads in the morning,and as the day grew hot, the coneswould slowly melt, running down the body, keeping the skin moist andrepelling insects throughout the day.

• Myrrh is an oil referenced through-out the Old and New Testaments.The Arabian people used it for manyskin conditions, such as wrinkled,chapped and cracked skin. It has one of the highest levels of sesquiter-penes, a class of compounds that has

direct effects on the hypothal-amus, pituitary and amyg-dala, the seat of our emotions.Myrrh is widely used todayin oral hygiene products.

• The Muslim physician al-Razi(Rhazes), perhaps the greatestof all medieval clinicians, usedmyrrh to treat ailments of thekidneys and bladder, to dissi-pate swellings in the stomachand for colic.

Did you know?• The Greek historian Hero-

dotus, during a tour of Egypt,reported seeing an inscriptionon the Great Pyramid at Gizathat recorded the quantitiesof radishes, onions and garlicconsumed by the laborerswho constructed it.

• According to tradition, the ProphetMuhammad recommended garlic,applied topically, to remedy viper bitesand scorpion stings.

• Al-Kindi, the medieval Arab physician,used garlic in a drug for treating ear-aches and other diseases of the ear.

• Despite garlic’s known antibioticactivity, and despite Internet rumorsto the contrary, there have been noscientific studies showing garlic hasany effect against anthrax.

MYRRH Arabic: Murr, MurrahCommiphora myrrha or C. molmol orBalsamodendron myrrha; Burseraceae(Frankincense and Myrrh Family)

Myrrh is collected from the stems ofbushy shrubs found growing in south-ern Arabia and Somalia. A granularsecretion exits the stem through naturalfissures, or cuts, as a pale yellow liquid.It then hardens to a reddish-brownmass. It can be found in different sizesin the marketplace, most pieces beingthe size of large marbles or walnuts.

The word myrrh means “bitter” inArabic. Myrrh is one of the best anti-septics known, an astringent and astimulant.

How to use: 1) Soak myrrh granules in water for two to three days andthen drink the strained liquid; 2) Swallow small granules like pills; 3) Burn as incense.

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• In Egypt today, traditional medicinepractitioners use myrrh as a stimulant,expectorant, antispasmodic, emmena-gogue, antiputrescent and astringent.It is also used to treat dental cariesand inflamed gums.

• Myrrh is a fixative, meaning itincreases the longevity of the aroma of any fragrance it is combined with but doesn’t dominate or overpowerthat fragrance.

• Scientific tests have shown myrrh topossess significant antibacterial andanti-inflammatory properties.

NAKHWA Arabic: Nakhwa, Nankha or Nanakhwah;Hindi: Ajwain or Ajowan; Other English: Bishop’s-WeedTrachyspermum ammi, Carum ajowan,Carum copticum, Ammi copticumUmbelliferae/Apiaceae(Carrot/Celery/Parsley Family)

Used as medicine by the ancientGreeks and Arabs, nakhwa is still con-sidered a natural remedy. You can buythe aromatic seeds as well as a distillate.

How to use: 1) Release the aroma of theseeds before use by rubbing betweenyour fingertips, crushing with a mortarand pestle or gently stirring whilewarming in a frying pan; 2) Use seedswhole or grind them into powder form.

In the kitchen: Nakhwa is sometimesadded to traditional Arab coffee. Inaddition to providing a unique flavor, itis believed to soften the impact of coffeeon the stomach and reduce the effects of caffeine. In fact, some people acrossArabia drink nakhwa as a substitute forArab coffee to totally eliminate negativecoffee effects.

Did you know?• Like black seed (Nigella sativa),

nakhwa is a popular ingredient inmany herbal medicinal blends.

• The ancient Sumerians describednakhwa as a “plant of the mountain.”

• Nakhwa is grown in Pakistan,Afghanistan, Iran, India and Egypt.

• Though more commonly cultivatedtoday in Asia, nakhwa is actually ofAfrican origin, and some Arabs call it “Ethiopian cumin” (al-kammun al-habashi).

• Al-Kindi (ca. 800–870) used nakhwain a preparation for hemorrhoids.

• Nakhwa seeds yield 40 to 55 percentthymol, a valuable crystalline phenolextracted for medicinal purposes. In the West, thymol is used in somecough medicines.

PETROLEUM Arabic: Naft, Batrul

Although few people are aware of ittoday, petroleum was once consideredan effective natural remedy not only inthe Middle East but in many parts ofthe world. Oil upwellings and gas ventswere known anciently in present-dayKuwait, Iraq, Iran, Azerbaijan,Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Naturaldeposits of thickened petroleum (alsocalled “bitumen”) seeped from open-ings on land or floated to the surface of lakes. It was easy to gather and wasused as a building material, waterproof-ing material, lubricant, adhesive, medi-cine, fuel, illuminant and fumigant, andeven as a weapon.

How to use: The All-EncompassingDictionary (Al-Qamus al-Muhit), writ-ten in Makkah in the 15th century byAbu Tahir al-Fayruzabadi, a scholar ofPersian descent, reveals that oil wascommonly soldas medicine andas a fuel forlighting, andthat it was usedas an incendiaryin a type of mili-tary flamethrower.

In the kitchen:Petrolatum—aneutral, odor-less, tasteless

unguent distilled from petroleum andthen purified—is sometimes used inbakery products as a release agent.Petrolatum meets modern US Food andDrug Administration requirements for medicinal, cosmetic-formula andanimal-feed use, and is also approvedfor direct contact with food.

Remedies across Arabia: Descriptions of petroleum’s healing powers date from2000 years ago, although its traditionalmedicinal use is probably much older.Oil-and-water baths were supposed tostrengthen the body. Ointments of bitu-men and other chemicals were oftenapplied to sores or broken bones. Otherpetroleum preparations acted as anti-dotes to poison, fumigants, disinfectantsor laxatives.

The Book of the Powers ofRemedies, a medical text prepared byMasarjawah, a prominent physicianliving in Basra, Iraq, during the sev-enth century, described the benefits of ingesting oil for fighting disease and infection. Masarjawah wrote:“Warm naphtha, especially water-white naphtha, when ingested in small doses, is excellent for suppress-ing cough, for asthma, bladder dis-comfort and arthritis.”

The All-Encompassing Dictionarystates, “The best grade of naphtha is thewater-white. It is a good solvent, a dilu-ent and an expectorant. Taken internally,it relieves cramps and aches of the belly,and, when applied topically, it cansoothe skin rashes and infections.”

Vicks VapoRub, a nasal decongestant,cough suppressant and topical analgesic,contains petrolatum, and other salves,suppositories and cosmetic products alsobenefit from the consistency contributedby petrolatums.

Did you know?• Akkadian clay tablets from about

2200 BC referred to crude oil asnaptu, from which derives theroot of the Arabic naft.

• William Rockefeller, father ofJohn D. Rockefeller, sold bottlesof raw petroleum to country folkas a cure for cancer.

• Petroleum is used today in homeo-pathic medicine to treat motionsickness, eczema and other skinproblems, nausea and diarrhea.M

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POMEGRANATE Arabic: RummanPunica granatum;Lythraceae/Punicaceae

While nativeto Iran and itsneighboringcountries, thepomegranatewas cultivatedin ancient timesall around theMediterranean andthroughout the Arabian Peninsula. It is a deciduous tree or large shrub thatproduces excellent fruit under semiaridconditions.

How to use: 1) Eat the fleshy seeds toenjoy a delicious, slightly tart flavor;2) Dry the seeds and use in cooking; 3) Extract the juice from the seeds fora refreshing drink or as a flavoringagent in cooking; 4) Dry the outerpeelings and crush them for culinary,cosmetic or medicinal purposes. 5)Boil pomegranate peelings in water,then strain and drink the liquid; ifmore concentrated, the liquid can beused as a dye for clothes; 6) Dry thepeelings, then grind and mix withhenna to make it darker and provideskin nourishment.

In the kitchen: Pomegranate seedshave a sweet-sour taste. Crushed orwhole, they often garnish salads, couscous, hummus and other MiddleEastern dishes. Dried pomegranateseeds and pomegranate syrup are alsopopular in cooking. Pomegranate juiceis a refreshing drink on hot summerdays. Pomegranate juice stains indeli-bly, so it’s wise to wear protectiveclothing when cooking with it.

Remedies across Arabia: Powderedpomegranate peelings are used onburns and to treat infection on exter-nal cuts and wounds. Soaked pome-granate peelings are used for sorethroats, stomach aches and indiges-tion. To treat indigestion, pomegranatepeelings are dried, then boiled, and thewater drunk. Rose water can be addedfor flavor. Pomegranate soaked inboiled water is used with honey forheart trouble.

British Isles, saffron was brought backto England by the crusaders of the 13thcentury. Historically, saffron has beenused for medicine, perfume, dye and as a cooking spice.

How to use: The stigmas produce abright yellow or orange color whenadded to water. If a recipe requiresground saffron, one can crush or grindit to a powder. Be sure it is evenly dis-tributed when added to the recipe.Sifting the ground saffron with the dry ingredients is one way to insure a good mix.

If using whole saffron threads, soakthem for about 10 minutes in a warmliquid required by the recipe, such asmilk, water or broth. The color and fla-vor of the stigmas will be released intothe liquid. A pinch of saffron to a cupof liquid yields enough color and flavorfor about half a kilo (1 lb) of rice. A little saffron goes a long way.

In the kitchen: Saffron can add tasteand color to breads, chicken and ricedishes.

Did you know?• Comparing the beauty of his beloved

to a garden, Solomon (The Song ofSolomon 4:14 in the Old Testament)

lists saffron, cin-namon, frankin-cense and myrrhas some of theplants cultivatedin this metaphor.We sense themagnitude of his admirationbecause theseplant productscommanded veryhigh prices inancient markets. • Today, saffron

remains themost expensive

spice in the entire world.• Scholars studying frescoes at Thera,

a Greek island in the Aegean, believethe wall paintings (dating from 1500or 1600 BC) depict a goddess presid-ing over the manufacture and use of a drug from the saffron flower. Thissuggests that saffron has been used as a medicine for at least 3500 years.

Did you know?• Pomegranate seeds are rich in vitamin

C and are a good source of dietaryfiber.

• Commercially produced pomegranatesyrup is called grenadine.

• The Romans called the pomegranatefruit punicum, the Latin name forCarthage, because they believed thatthe best pomegranates came fromthere.

• The Spanish name for the pomegran-ate is granada, and its fruit appears on Granada’s city seal.

• Pomegranate is believed to be the inspi-ration for the hand-tossed explosivecalled a grenade. When a pomegranateis dropped on a hard surface, it burstsand seeds are tossed everywhere. Themilitary borrowed the modern Frenchname for the fruit, grenade.

SAFFRON Arabic: Za’faran, Za’fran Crocus sativus; Iridaceae (Iris Family)

Saffron refers to the dried, red stigmas collected from the flowers ofCrocus sativus. Its high price is betterunderstood when we learn that some75,000 flowers are required to makeone pound of dried saffron. Commercial

producers of saffron today includeSpain, Iran and India. Native to theMiddle East, saffron was introduced to Europe by the Muslim Arabs andBerbers of northwest Africa, who con-quered most of Spain in the eighth cen-tury. From Spain, known as al-Andalusto the Arabs, saffron was carried toItaly and France, where it became popu-lar. Although not completely new to the

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THYMEArabic: Za‘tar, Sa‘tar, Hasha’Thymus vulgaris; Lamiaceae (Mint Family)

When dining in the Middle East, it is customary to dip bread in olive oil and then in za‘tar for a delicious

taste. Althoughza‘tar is the word for thyme in theArabic language,it is also a termwhich describes a Middle Easternspice blend ofpowdered dried

thyme, sumac and sesame seeds. Eachregion makes za‘tar a little differently.

How to use: 1) Use fresh green thymeleaves when called for in recipes; 2) Use dried thyme leaves as part of thearomatic spice blend called za‘tar; 3) Sprinkle za‘tar (fresh thyme or thespice blend) on meatballs or vegetables;4) Use the za‘tar spice blend with oliveoil as a dip for bread.

In the kitchen: Flat breads with top-pings of melted cheese and za‘tar, labnaand za‘tar, or za‘tar alone are unspeak-ably delicious. Store za‘tar in an airtightcontainer away from direct light.

Remedies across Arabia: A generalremedy for colds, flu, fevers, coughsand bronchitis is to take four to fivecups of thyme tea a day. Thyme isantiseptic, antispasmodic and antifun-gal. It is also an expectorant and ver-mifuge (worm expeller).

Did you know?• Five millennia ago, the Sumerians

used thyme as an antiseptic.• The ancient Egyptians employed

thyme as an ingredient in the mum-mification process.

• The Arab philosopher-scientist al-Kindi (800–870) used thyme in a medicine to treat a bacterial infec-tion or rash called St. Anthony’s Fire (erysipelas).

• The Islamic physician al-Razi(865–925) regarded thyme as anappetite enhancer, stomach purifierand treatment for flatulence.

• Thyme is widely grown commerciallyfor its leaves and essential oils.

• Thyme is one of a small number of

herbs that have more flavor dried than fresh. Others are rosemary andoregano.

TURMERIC Arabic: KurkumCurcuma longa, C. domestica;Zingiberaceae (Ginger Family)

Often called “Indian saffron,” tur-meric rhizome was one of the ancienttrade products brought by sea fromIndia. Today turmeric is widely usedas a spice, cosmetic and dyestuff, andremains part of traditional medicinefrom Egypt to Iran.

How to use: 1) Slice, grate,chop or grindturmeric to apaste with otheringredients. Thenuse it as youwould fresh gin-ger root; 2) Grinddried turmericinto powder; 3) Use whole pieces ofdried turmeric in pickling.

In the kitchen: Slicing a piece ofturmeric rhizome reveals the deep yellow color used to brighten currypowders and a variety of foods. Whencoloring rice dishes, it is also some-times a substitute for saffron. But it iseasier to buy ready-ground turmericthan to grind it yourself. Wear rubbergloves when handling fresh turmeric to avoid staining your hands.

Did you know?• In Indian cuisine, turmeric is an ingre-

dient of virtually all curry powders.• Because turmeric is an edible coloring,

the food industry uses it to colormustard, butter, cheese and liqueurs.

• Turmeric is used to dye cotton and silk.• Al-Kindi used turmeric in a medicine

for throat and mouth pustules, and ina dentifrice to strengthen the gums.

Robert Lebling is a writer/editor and communications specialist. He heads Saudi Aramco’selectronic publishing team and its international media relations group in Dhahran. He stud-ied politics and anthropology at Princeton. He has lived in Egypt, Lebanon and the UK, andworked as a journalist in the Middle East and in Washington, D.C. His Web site address iswww.geocities.com/eyeclaudius.geo.

Donna Pepperdine is an ESL instructor with a special interest in literacy, culture and healtheducation. As a master herbalist, she has focused much of her research on natural healthsolutions within the context of the Saudi family. Donna has lived in the Middle East 10 years.Her Web site address is www.herbaleducator.com.PO

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• The US Patent and Trademark Officein 2001 rejected six attempts topatent the medicinal properties ofturmeric. The office said turmeric is a centuries-old Indian discovery andcannot be patented.

WALNUT BARKArabic: DeerumJuglans spp.; Juglandaceae (Walnut Family)

A container filled with thin barkstrips folded up and tied into bundles is another curiosity at a traditional market. Although not widely usednowadays, it is a reminder of the tradi-tional self-reliance and ingenuity of peo-ples of the Arabian Peninsula duringtimes of more limited resources.

How to use: 1) Chew the end of thebark until soft; 2) Rub the bark vigor-ously on lips for a natural dark brownlipstick; 3) Use the bark as a toothbrushto clean teeth and gums.

Remedies across Arabia: The bark of thewalnut tree is astringent and cleansing. It strengthens the gums and acts as ananti-inflammatory. It has been used totreat gum disease.

Did you know?• Pliny reported that walnut trees were

introduced into Italy from Persia, andVarro, who was born in 116 BC, men-tioned that walnut trees were growingin Italy during his lifetime.

• Walnut bark is a traditional source ofyellow-brown dye.

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