Clearly delineated wetlands at the South Course, Whitefish Lake Golf Club,Whitefish, Montana.

NaturalAreasEstab lishing naturalareas on the golf course.by MATT NELSON

MANY articles have expoundedthe merits of golf courses inthe overall scheme of environ-

mental quality. Some of the environ-mental benefits provided by golfcourses include wildlife habitat, waterpurification, noise reduction, tempera-ture modification, atmospheric pro-cesses, and preservation of greenspace.l Adversaries of golf courses citerampant development, often in envi-ronmentally sensitive locations, poten-tial pollution by pesticides and fer-tilizers, unwarranted use of potablewater, and other threats posed to theenvironment by golf courses. Regard-less of the exact ecological significanceof golf courses, the fact remains thatthe approximately 15,000 golf coursesin the United States constitute a size-able acreage, particularly in urbanand suburban areas. Opportunitiesto naturalize exist within many golfcourses, and these will become in-creasingly significant in landscapeconservation. This article discussesestablishment and maintenance ofthree general types of natural areascommonly found on golf courses: (1)grasslands, including wildflower areas;(2) riparian areas, including streams,shorelines, and wetlands; and (3)forested areas.

GrasslandsThe value of natural areas on the golf

course is generally acknowledged, butlittle has been published concerningthe implementation of natural areaplantings on golf courses. The use ofnative grasses to establish attractive,environmentally beneficial, low-main-tenance areas is one of the most com-monly desired types of natural areas.Stands of native grasses can result inwater savings, reduced fuel use andlabor, and improved aesthetics. Imagesof these areas conjure visions of someof the world's greatest courses - the

Old Course at St. Andrews, PrairieDunes, Shinnecock Hills, and NationalGolf Links. Unfortunately, not all sitesare blessed with the soils, climate, andexisting vegetation to make the estab-lishment and maintenance of theseareas as easy as the great courses makeit seem. Most course officials do notunderstand the establishment processrequired for native grasses, and accord-ingly lack the patience to see the im-plementation of these areas through tofruition. Even more common is thefailure to employ proper establishmenttechniques, which often translates into

the development of an unsightly standof weeds that receives strong criticismfrom the golfers.

EstablishmentWhen establishing native grasses

from seed, minimum or no tillage isrecommended when preparing theseedbed. This technique discouragesthe germination of weed seed presentin the soil. Drill seeding is preferred,and seeding rates should be kept low toavoid establishing an excessively thickstand that reduces the quality of wild-life habitat and slows the pace of play.

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Milkweed provides invaluable habitat for monarch butterflies.

A rate of 25 Ibs. of seed per acre is acommon recommendation for sowingseeds of native grasses.7 Grasses suchas fescues or annual ryegrass used as acover crop can dominate the standand hinder native grass establishment,so cover crops usually are not recom-mended and, if used, should be kept

to a very low seeding rate. Fertilizer isnot recommended except for extremelypoor soils and, if used at all, shouldconsist of low analysis natural organicmaterial. Fertility generally enhancesweed growth over the native grassstand. The use of a non -selective herbi-cide prior to planting reduces compe-tition with existing vegetation fornutrients, water, and light. An earlyfall planting date takes advantage offavorable soil temperatures and de-creased weed pressure in most areas.Since most of these areas will be non-irrigated, seeding dates should betimed to take advantage of climatic pat-terns and expected precipitation. Early

8 USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

spring seeding and dormant seedingalso can be effective in many areas.S

During the first year or two of estab-lishment, native grasses typically allo-cate around 70% of fixed carbo-hydrates to root development. 7 Thisexplains why it may take up to threeyears to notice significant foliar devel-

opment in native grass stands. Thephrase "sleep, creep, and leap" is oftenused to describe the first three years ofnative grass development. Therefore, itis important to convey to the golfingclientele what to expect when estab-lishing grasslands with native species.

Native grasses also can be estab-lished vegetatively. Many nurseriestoday stock native plants, includinggrasses. Some golf courses have estab-lished on-site nurseries today of nativegrasses where plant material can beexpanded and relocated to desiredareas on the golf course. Vegetativeestablishment is an effective way tospeed stand establishment, and may

be especially desirable on steep slopesthat are prone to erosion.

Weed ControlControlling weeds during establish-

ment is an important facet of a plant-ing program and can involve mowing,hand rouging, spot or wick applicationof selective herbicides, and open fieldburning. Mowing establishing grass-land areas reduces weed pressure byinhibiting photosynthesis of broadleafspecies. Mow twice per year during thefirst few years of establishment.7 Pull-ing weeds manually is one of themost effective methods of weed con-trol, but obviously is labor intensive.Spot applications of a selective herbi-cide also are possible, as is wick appli-cation early in the year when broadleafweeds have grown above the canopyof the grasses.

However, weed control should becarefully considered. Many plantsdeemed weeds are in fact valuableherbs and forbes within the com-munity. For instance, milkweed mightbe considered undesirable by somefor aesthetic reasons, but this plant iscritical for the reproduction cycle ofmonarch butterflies. The best approachis to have all plants in the standidentified and their relative signifi-cance and abundance evaluated bysomeone familiar with local ecology.Species identification can determinewhere and when weed control effortsare warranted.

Open field burning is a very effectivemeans of reducing weed pressure sinceit destroys weed seed. Burning alsoreduces disease and insect pests andimproves vigor of desirable grasses.3Burning grasslands is one of the oldestagricultural practices, and its benefitswere well known by native peoples ofthis continent who employed burningof grasslands for millennia. If allowed,burning should commence on an an-nual basis after the third year of estab-lishment. Burning before this timecould cause injury to juvenile grassplants. Bum in early spring, and it maybe helpful to swath the area ahead oftime to lay senesced tissue down forfuel. 16 Be sure to obtain all necessarypermits before proceeding to burnnatural areas.

Among the most popular nativegrasses used on the golf course are bigand little bluestem, switchgrass, indian-grass, blue grama, side-oats grama,buffalograss, reed canary grass, wheat-grasses, and sheep fescue. These grassesvary in their climatic adaptation, so

A wonderful example of a stream in natural condition. Thermal protection from trees,vegetated stream banks for erosion control and habitat, and spillways oxygenating thewater all contribute to a healthy stream. Springdale Golf Club, Princeton, New Jersey.

check references to determine appro-priate native grasses for your particularsite.7

Wildflowers often are a popularcomponent of grass stands and aresometimes established alone. Much ofthe same advice applies for establish-ment: minimize tillage and fertility,prepare the site in advance, and seedwhen germination is favored. Wild-flowers usually do not perform well inshaded or trafficked areas, or undervery poor soil conditions. Look forsunny, well-drained, out-of-the-waysites for wildflowers. As with grasses,choose a mix of wildflowers that isadapted to your region, and choose adesired blend of annual and perennialflowers. Wildflower areas may requireannual or biennial seeding to preventone perennial species from dominatingthe stand. Weed control requires pre-plant herbicide applications and handpulling of weeds. Spot applications ofherbicides can be made, but no selec-tive herbicides are available for broad-leaf weed control in wildflower stands.s

WildlifeWildlife habitat can be significantly

enhanced with the establishment ofgrasslands. Birds and mammals utilizeprairie plant communities for nesting,foraging, and cover. Stands that are toothick actually reduce habitat qualityby impeding overland travel; therefore,maintain open, bunch-type stands ofgrasses and flowers.4 Creating cells, orzoned patches, of habitat with shrubsor trees enhances the wildlife value ofthe area by mimicking natural plantsuccession. Isolated patches of shrubsprovide thermal and protective coverfor wildlife, thereby reducing isolationand vulnerability to predators.

A stand of native plants also helpspreserve populations of native insectpollinators. Many ecologists have con-sidered the loss of native pollinators asignificant threat to many native plantspecies. The relationship between plantand insect can be very specific, and golfcourses offer an opportunity to pre-serve native plant species within theecosystem. 13

Another important considerationwith regard to wildlife habitat is thepresence of ecotones, which are thetransition areas between habitat types.For instance, edges of forests andriparian areas could be considered eco-tones. The most desirable approachwhen considering ecotones is to avoidstark transitions like straight lines.Transition areas should approximate

the natural landscape and include ir-regular borders and a diverse vegetativecomposition. Ecotones are importantcomponents of the ecosystem as theyrepresent areas of community inter-action and varied wildlife habitatcomponents.14,15

When naturalizing the golf coursewith native grasses and wildflowers, besure to start with a small area to evalu-ate establishment methods and theadaptability of the chosen plants. Also,be sure that the selected areas areappropriately located so as not toadversely affect the speed of play.Excessively thick stands of secondaryrough often are located too close toin-play features and can be overlypenal. The caliber of play at the golfcourse should be evaluated to deter-mine where forced carries and other

natural areas come into play. The num-ber of available teeing areas per holealso could impact where natural areasare appropriate. From an aestheticstandpoint, determine what type ofnatural areas are suitable to your site.Not all sites are suited to prairie ormeadow-type natural areas, and theymay look out of place when forcedinto the wrong location.

Riparian AreasRiparian areas on the golf course

include the shorelines of lakes and

ponds, stream corridors, and wetlands.Natural vegetation in these areasserves the dual purpose of improvingaesthetics and providing a functionalcompon€nt of ecosystem enhance-ment. Buffer strips along lakes, ponds,and streams reduce soil erosion, filterrunoff, provide a barrier betweennutrient-rich grass clippings and thewater feature, create wildlife habitat,utilize nutrients that have entered thewater feature, and help prevent thermalpollution of our waterways.2, 11 Estab-lishing buffers also saves valuable laborhours by reducing or eliminating time-consuming string trimming and walkmowing. Vegetative buffers also maydeter geese from occupying criticalplay areas such as greens, tees, andfairways. Geese often are reluctant toventure through thick vegetation when

exiting a water source for fear ofpredators on the terrestrial side.

Lakes, Ponds, and StreamsVegetated shorelines and stream-

banks can be established simply byallowing existing vegetation to growunmaintained, or native riparian plantspecies can be established by seed ortransplanting. Emergent vegetationsuch as juncus and iris can be trans-planted and provide a wonderfulaesthetic enhancement, especiallywhere water levels fluctuate. Cattail

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seed can be collected by hand andspread along shorelines to establishthis extremely productive plant. Cat-tails utilize many nutrients whichotherwise might be available for algalgrowth. These are a few examples ofvarious techniques used to reclaimshoreline vegetation.

Maintaining vegetation alongstreams, especially trees in out-of-playareas, provides thermal protection andhelps maintain adequate supplies ofdissolved oxygen for floral and faunalaquatic species by reducing biologicaloxygen demand. Vegetated stream-banks and shorelines also anchor soilsand reduce erosion. Another importantconsideration for streams is to leave acertain amount of downed wood androcks in the stream channel to createspillways and eddies for oxygenationand wildlife habitat. This is a lessonthe u.s. Forest Service learned afterdecades of logging and stream clearingwhen salmon habitat declined severely.Dredging and clearing stream channelseliminates wildlife habitat, reducesnatural water purification, and pro-motes accelerated erosion.

Water quality in streams, ponds, andlakes should be monitored regularly todocument change and establish base-line values for evaluation of mainte-nance practices. A testing laboratorycan perform water quality testing,and stream health can be gauged bysampling macroinvertebrate aquaticspecies.9

Vegetated shorelines and stream-banks should be at least 10 to 15 feetdeep from the edge, and should beclearly marked for hazard delineationon the maintained edge. Protection ofour waterways should be given a highpriority by golf courses, as protection ofwater resources is at the forefront ofenvironmental concern in this country.Also, maintenance hours spent stringtrimming and hand mowing shorelinesand streambanks can be put to betteruse on other areas of the golf coursemore critical to play.

WetlandsWetland areas should be clearly

delineated, and players and employeesshould be kept out. Use caution withfertilizer, pesticides, clippings, and irri-gation near wetlands. In some cases, itmay be appropriate to designate wet-lands as environmentally sensitiveareas by an appropriate authority. Wet-land areas are among the most pro-ductive and dynamic ecosystems on theface of the earth, and they are host to

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numerous foraging and nesting wildlifespecies. Wetlands should be monitoredyearly for water level fluctuations,water quality, and species changes.Water should be tested and numerousphotographs should be taken at regularintervals throughout the year.10, 12 Docu-mentation of wetland parameters en-ables the establishment of a database,which can be used to evaluate manage-ment practices and correlate to climatevariations.

ForestsTrees can be both an environmental

asset and liability on golf courses. Thekey is to know where forest habitat isappropriate and where it is not. Froman environmental standpoint, it gen-erally is believed that a diverse mix ofboth tree species and ages is the bestfor wildlife and plants. A stand con-sisting of a well-developed structureprovides the greatest amount of habi-tat niches for the most diverse amountof wildlife. Thus, canopy, secondarygrowth, and understory all are impor-tant functional components of theforest community. It has been welldocumented that snags and dead ordecaying trees provide excellent roost-ing habitat for many raptors and nest-ing habitat for cavity-nesting birdspecies such as the spotted owl. Equallyimportant, but often overlooked, isdowned wood on the forest floor.Downed wood provides habitat formany terrestrial species, serves as nurselogs for new trees, is important fornutrient cycling, and helps holdmoisture in humus and soil layers.Leaving downed wood in forest areasis just as important as leaving snags.

In many climates across the UnitedStates, however, there are areas of thegolf course where natural forest areasare not appropriate. Where summerhumidity and disease pressure areproblems, a well-structured forest inclose proximity to turfgrass can createsevere problems, especially for greensand tees. This is the case where treescan actually create an environmentalliability. Shading and restricted air cir-culation limit growth and recovery oftUrfgrasses, and enhance disease pres-sure. To keep grass alive, increasedpesticide use often is necessary, whichincreases employee and golfer expo-sure, volatile losses to the atmosphere,and the threat of groundwater or sur-face water pollution. Although propermanagement and application canminimize these risks, modification ofthe growing environment can reduce

the amount of needed chemical inputs.Shade and poor air circulation areamong the biggest problems for turfmanagement in the United States,reflecting people's poor understandingof the effects of trees on tUrfgrass.Forested areas can provide tremendousenvironmental enhancement, but theyneed to be properly located and alsoproperly balanced with the rest of themanagement program.

Rarely do tree plantings approximatethe natural condition. Trees planted ongolf courses should be selected for anumber of management and playabilityfactors, and species that are part ofnative, local forest communities shouldbe selected. Never plant trees to theimmediate southeast of greens andtees, as they eventually restrict morningsunlight penetration. Morning sun isthought to be the most important ofthe day. Also, avoid introduced species.The Norway maple is an example of anintroduced tree species commonly usedon golf courses. It severely restrictsgrass growth and has become a prob-lem in natural forest communities.Norway maples develop leaves muchearlier in the season than most nativetrees, and they hold their leaves muchlater into the fall. The result is thatmany forest species and tUrfgrass areeffectively shaded out of establishment.This weed can be considered one of thegreatest threats to native plant com-munities in many parts of the country.

Using forested natural areas as cor-ridors between larger natural areas isa progressive means of enhancingwildlife habitat and managing withinthe larger ecosystem. Linking frag-ments of habitat preserves geneticdiversity among populations and pro-vides thermal and protective cover fordiurnal and seasonal movement ofwildlife.lO Golf courses often serve aslinks between surrounding habitatsand natural features. This point shouldalways be given consideration duringnew development.

Forested natural areas can be anexcellent benefit to wildlife and theenvironment, but be sure they areproperly located far enough away fromcritical play areas. Allowing forestplants to develop through natural suc-cession is perhaps the best way tomanage these areas. Leave snags anddowned wood, and allow the forest tomanage itself. Walking paths withsigns identifying different species andcomponents are a wonderful way toshare the benefits of natural areas withgolfers.

The implementation of plans fornatural areas on the golf course can bea rewarding experience for humans andnature. Every golf course has some-thing different to offer, and collectivelygolf courses can play a tremendousrole in landscape conservation acrossthis country. The game of golf is hereto stay, as is continued populationgrowth and development. The focusnow should be retrofitting the nearly15,000 golf courses nationwide to maxi-mize their environmental contribution,and laying the groundwork for sus-tainable golf course development andmanagement in the future. Golf haslong shared a close connection withour environment, and the game nowhas an increasingly important role inconservation. It is time to step upand contribute at your course. Afterall, it isn't called the greatest game fornothing.

MATT NELSON visits golf coursesthroughout the Northeast as an agrono-mist for the USGA Green Section. Hefinds natural areas to be some of thegreatest assets of golf courses.

Literature Cited

IBeard, J. B. 1996. The benefits of golfcourse turf. Golf Course Management.64(3):57-61.

2Beeman, S. 1995. Aquascaping: Thenatural approach to water features. USGAGreen Section Record. 33(6):6-8.

3Canode, C. L., and A. G. Law. 1978. Influ-ence of fertilizer and residue managementon grass seed production. AgronomyJournal. 70:543-546.

4Ciekot, n 1996. Native and naturalized.Golf Course Management. 64(3):100-112.

5Conard, R. 1992. Applewood golf course:Reintroducing theshortgrass prairie andlinks-style golf. USGA Green SectionRecord. 30(6):11-12.

6Dodson, R. 1996. Managing wildlife andhabitat. USGA Green Section Record.34(2):17-18.

7Harker, n E, S. Evans, M. Evans, andK. Harker. 1993. Landscape RestorationHandbook. Lewis Publishers. Boca Raton,Florida.

8I<rouse, J. M. 1996. Wildflowers on yourcourse? USGA Green Section Record.34(2):8-11.

9Minnis, M. M. 1997. Is your stream clean?Ask the insects. Golf Course Management.65(2):53-57.

lONelson, M.C., and W J. Johnston. 1994.Maximizing biological potential in turf.Proc. 48th Northwest Turfgrass Conf.,Gleneden Beach, Oregon. Northwest Turf-grass Assoc., Olympia, Washington.

llOatis, n A. 1995. You can bank on it!USGA Green Section Record. 33(3):15.

12Sadlon, N. 1992. Working within thequagmire of wetland regulation! USGAGreen Section Record. 30(2):21-23.

13Stangel,P. 1997.Golf courses as importantwildlife habitats: Wildlife Links Program.Proc. Golf Environments of the 21st Cen-tury, Washington, nc. 6 May 1997.USGAand National Fish and Wildlife Foundation.

14Terman,M. 1994. The promise of naturallinks. Golf Course Management. 62(12):52-59.

15Terman,M. 1996. The bird communities ofPrairie Dunes Country Club and SandHills State Park. USGA Green SectionRecord. 34(6):10-14.

16Weston, J. 1994. Fire as a landscapemanagement tool. USGA Green SectionRecord. 32(1):14-16.

Wildflowers can provide an attractive and functional feature on golf courses. Niagara Palls Country Club, Lewiston, New York.

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