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![Page 1: Nationalism Lecture 7: Unification and Separatist Nationalism Prof. Lars-Erik Cederman Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Center for Comparative.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062422/56649ea75503460f94baa56e/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
NationalismLecture 7: Unification and
Separatist NationalismProf. Lars-Erik Cederman
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH)Center for Comparative and International Studies (CIS)
Seilergraben 49, Room [email protected]
http://www.icr.ethz.ch/teaching/nationalism
Assistant: Kimberly Sims, CIS, Room E 3, [email protected]
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State-FramedNationalism
Nationalism’sThree Time-Zones inEurope
FrenchRevolution
UnificationNationalism
SeparatistNationalism
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Unification nationalismCommon state?
Com
mon
nat
ion?
No Yes
No
Yes
Phase I:Nation-formation
Phase II:State-building
Central & Southern Europe: -Germany-Italy
State-formationblocked
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Historical pre-conditions of unification nationalism
The era of consciously articulated
nationalism triggered by the French Revolution:
• Early state-formation blocked by outside powers and internal fragmentation
• Nation-formation outside state framework
• Late state-building through mix of conquest and voluntary merger
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Differences from state-framed nationalism
• cultural meditation• identities and boundaries deeply contested• sudden mobilizationBecause of tricky geography and external
intervention, these areas were dominated
by small city-states and pre-modern
principalities under a layer of imperial and
religious authority
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“Risorgimento” nationalism
Reaction to French Revolution and
Napoleonic wars:– ideational revolution: democracy
+ popular sovereignty– direct Napoleonic rule– French military model– Vienna 1815: elimination of
small geopolitical entities
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Which came first? Nation or State?
Common state?
Com
mon
nat
ion?
No Yes
No
Yes
Radicalconstructivism
Essentialisttheory
Culturalnation?
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The German Case
• Failed state-formation
• Charlemagne united most of Central and W. Europe in 9th c. but then the empire split
• Faced with invasions, the Holy Roman Empire developed into a weak dynastic umbrella: Reichsnation restricted to nobility electing the Kaiser
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Why did state-formation fail?• Reich too vast, terrain
too rugged, cultures too diverse
• Princes defended their sovereignty
• Confessional split: Luther rallies against Rome, but no religious unity: Peace of Westphalia in 1648 cements religious patchwork: “cuius regio, eius religio”
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Cultural convergence
Cities blossomed, intellectual and commercial
communications across regional boundaries:• Gutenberg invents the printing press (Leipzig 1450)• Bible translated• Commercial contracts require standardization linguistic community beyond political orders;
Bildungsbürgertum and Aufklärung
Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) precursor
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Reaction to French Revolution• Conservative and anti-nationalist (Austria)• Liberal and nationalist (Germany):
– Johann Gottlieb Fichte: “Address to the German nation” in 1807
• Nation-building through politicized organizations• Democratization against neo-absolutism of
Princes• State-formation in opposition to Kleinstaaterei
• Conservatives prevail at Congress of Vienna (1814-15): German Confederation, but considerable geopolitical consolidation
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Springtime of the nations!
Nationalist revolutions reverberate
throughout Europe– July 1830: revolution in Paris
triggers nationalist unrest in Germany and Italy
– Vormärz: gradual nationalist mobilization drawing on anti-French and anti-Danish feelings
– Revolution of 1848: unrest in France diffuses, shaking the Habsburgs
1848: agitation at the
Michaelsplatz in Vienna
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The Frankfurt ParliamentAfter revolutionary turmoil
tears apartGerman Confederation, the
FrankfurtParliament convenes in
1848. All partiesagree that nation-state
should be built, but:– boundaries
controversial (“klein-” or “grossdeutsch”?)
– popular sovereignty fails because Princes resist
– Prussia fills vacuum
=> Failure: no unified state, no secure democracy, no cohesive nation
1848 convention of the Frankfurt Parliament
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Late state-building
• After Italian unification in 1860 liberal momentum builds up, but Bismarck, the Prussian Kanzler, “hijacks” the nationalist issue: successful wars against Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), France (1870-71) => German Empire 1871
• Instead of liberal nation-state, centralized, semi-democratic monarchy led by the Kanzler
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Toward integral nationalism...• The German nation-state was born in war and
Prussian militarism became dominant• While liberal mainstream was bought off, the
masses remained excluded• Diversionary tactics: rallying against France,
Britain, and “internal enemies” (socialists and Jews)
• Uncertain Eastern boundary with Slavs
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The Italian case
Parallels with the German case:– geopolitical fragmentation and foreign
domination– large, pre-modern entities (Catholic
Church)– effect of French Revolution– unification by leading state (Piedmont)
>>>integral nationalism results
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Failed state-building
• Renaissance system of city-states locked into balance of power
• Difficult terrain and parochialism• French and Spanish domination• Napoleon’s conquest triggers geopolitical
reorganization but restoration of Papal and Austrian power after 1815
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Growing nationalism
• In 1831, Giuseppe Mazzini founds Giovane Italia in Marseilles
• In 1847, the newspaper Il Risorgimento appears with Cavour as supporter
• In 1848, riots against Austrian rule in Lombardy but Austrians resist
• In 1852, Cavour becomes Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia; Garibaldi forms the Association for the Unification of Italy
Mazzini & Garibaldi
Cavour
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State-building
• In 1860, the first “Italian Parliament” meets in Turin, and the One Thousand Red Shirts leave for Sicily
• In 1861, Victor Emmanuel becomes king of Italy and the Kingdom gets a liberal constitution
• Integral nationalism leads to fascism in the 1920s
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SeparatistNationalism
Europe in 1885:The breakupof the empiresbegins
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Europe on theeve of WWI:Before the collapse of thegreat empires
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Collapse ofCzarist Empire
Collapse ofHabsburg Empire
Collapse ofOttoman Empire
Colonialism
Europe in 1925after the collapseof the empires
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What came first? Nation or State?
Common state?
Com
mon
nat
ion?
No Yes
No
Yes
Phase I:State-formation
Phase II:Secession &collapse
Eastern Europe: Ottoman, Habsburg,Russian Empires
Nation-buildingblocked
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Separatist nationalism
• State-formation creates a multi-ethnic empire as in state-framed nationalism
• But nation-building is blocked• Nationalities secede from the empire
– Internal causes: sub-state revolts against “foreign” rule (mobilization & coordination)
– External causes: weak military performance compared with more cohesive nation-states
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Hroch’s main argument
• When nationalism hits an area, nationalist mobilization corresponds to the level of modernization.
• The later modernization happens, the less liberal and more violent the movement.
• See also Breuilly: imperial policies important for timing and character of nationalism
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Hroch’s phase model
• Phase A. Scholarly inquiry
• Phase B. Politicization
• Phase C. Mass movementMore complex explanation than Gellner’s:
Social preconditions depend on more than industrialization (e.g. social mobility, communications, ideological “imports”, imperial policies)
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Hroch’s typology
Depending on the timing of modernization || we get:• Type 1. Integrated nationalism: |B|--C-->
– Czechs, Hungarians, Norwegians• Type 2. Delayed nationalism: B--||--C-->
– Croats, Slovenians, Lithuanians, Latvians• Type 3. Insurrectional nationalism: B-C--||-->
– Serbs, Greeks, Bulgarians• Type 4. Disintegrated nationalism: --||--BC-->
– Basque, Catalonians, Flemish, Welch
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The Habsburgs
• Multi-ethnic empire headed by Vienna that dominated fragmentary but partly autonomous ethnic groups and territories through conquest and dynastic politics
• Led by Germans, but Hungarians enjoyed special status (especially toward the end)
• Feudal + absolutist tendencies
• Attempted but failed modernization
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The Ottomans
• Sprawling Turkish dynasty that never tried to build national-state (“Sick Man of Europe”)
• Large degree of cultural autonomy and self-rule; masses un-mobilized (cf. Gellner’s agrarian phase)
• Millet system: tolerant religious system for Muslims, Orthodox Christians, Armenians
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A chain reaction of nationalism
French Revolution,Napoleon
Vienna
Hungary
Croats Rumanians
Czechs Slovaks
Imperial policies
Serbs Greeks
Constantinople
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The Magyar case
• Pragmatic Sanction of 1723• A => B. Diffusion of ideas esp. from French
Revolution + German nationalism (Herder): Szechenyi and Kossuth. April laws.
• B => C. Vienna’s oppression. Revolt crushed by Vienna & Russia in 1849; War with Prussia creates Ausgleich (compromise) of 1867 which initiates the Dual Monarchy
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The Croat case
• Croatia part of “military frontier” defending against Ottoman Empire (boundary effect!)
• A => B. The Sabor resists Magyar demands. Illyrian linguistic consolidation attempted (Gaj and Strossmayer).
• B => C. Magyar repression esp. after Compromise of 1867. Yugoslavism on the rise.
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The Serb case
• Serbia conquered by Ottomans in 1459. Early insurrections in 1812 not nationalist. Serbia independent in 1878.
• Economically backward and tolerant Ottoman rule
• Nationalist mobilization “imported” from Habsburgs via Voivodina overtakes modernization