HISTORY

Nationalism in Europe

Major TopicsMeaning- Nationalism and Nation StatesFeature of the painting of Frederic SorrieuFrench RevolutionNapoleon BonaparteRise of Nationalism in EuropeFactors contributed for the growth of Nationalism in

EuropeAge of Revolution: 1830-1848Unification of GermanyUnification of ItalyGreek War of IndependenceRole of Women in nationalist struggle

Nationalism

The words ‘nation’ and ‘nationality’ are derived from the Latin word ‘Natus’ which means a ‘race’. Devotion, love and patriotic feelings for one’s own nation is called Nationalism. It is feeling of political consciousness and unity among the people of the state.

Define- Nation State

A nation state is one, in it’s the majority of the residents as well as the rulers develop a sense of common identity and shared history and traditions.

Feature- Frederic Sorrieu painting (Fig:1)

In1848, Frederic Sorrieu, the French artist prepared a series of four prints visualising his dream of world made up of ‘Democratic and Social Republic’.

In his first print of this series shows people of America and Europe-men and women of all ages and social classes marching in a long train and offering homage to the Statue of Liberty.

In his utopian vision, people of the World are grouped as distinct nations, identified through their flags and national costume.

Leading the procession, USA and Switzerland, that time they were already nation state

France- identifiable by the revolutionary tri colour just reached the statue.

Its followed by Germany- bearing black, red and gold flag but interesting thing German people did not yet exist as a nation state- the flag they are carry is an expression of liberal hope in 1848 to unify the German speaking people in to a nation- state under a democratic constitution.

Following the German peoples, the people of Austria, the Kingdom of two Sicilies, Lomabardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia

From the heaven Christ, Saints and angels graze upon the scene.

They have been used by the artist to symbolise fraternity among the nation of the World.

Feature of the Statue of Liberty

The artists of the time of then French revolution personified Liberty as a female figure. The torch of enlightenment she bears in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other. On the ground in the foreground of the image lie the shattered the remains of the symbol of absolutist institutions.

Ernst Renan and his idea about Nation

He was a French philosopher (1823- 92)He delivered a lecture at the University of

Sorbonne in 1882 and this lecture subsequently published as a famous essay entitled- ‘Quest-ce qu une nation?’ (What is a Nation). In this essay he criticises the notion suggested by others that a nation formed by a common language, race, religion or territory.

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AbsolutistLitterly, a government or system of rule that has

no restraints on the power exercised. In history, this term refers to a form of monarchical government that was centralized, militarised and repressive.

UtopianA vision of a society that is so ideal that is unlikely

to actually exist.Plebiscite

A direct vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept or reject a proposal

What is the importance of French revolution to compare with other revolutions

The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in1789.

Before 1789, France was full fledged territorial state under the control of absolute monarchy.

As a result of the French revolution the power had transferred from the monarchy to the body of French Citizens.

The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute of nation and shapes its destiny

The French revolution had very much influenced the other revolutions also

What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity

among the French RevolutionThe French Revolution was broke out in 1789.

The revolutionaries of France took the following steps to create a sense of collective identity among the French People.

1. The ideas of fatherland (La Patrie) and the Citizen (Le citoyen) laid emphasis on the notion of united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.

2. A new French flag of tri colour was chosen to replace the former French monarch.

3. An elected body of the active citizens, known as National Assembly, was formed manage the state affairs.

4. New hymns were composed and martyrs were commemorated all in the name of nation

5. A centralised system was set up to formulate uniform laws for all citizens within French territory

6. All customs duties were abolished and uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.

7. Regional language were discouraged and French was adopted as the common language of the nation.

Formation of Jacobin Clubs

The news and events related with the French revolution reached in different cities of Europe.

The students and the other members of educated middle classes started the Jacobin Clubs.

Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for the French armies to move in Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy also and the armies carried the idea of nationalism abroad.

The role of Napoleon in French Revolution (Or)

Administrative Reforms of Napoleon

He was a great French general, who won many battles for the revolutionary France.

During his period most of the European nations were under the control of the monarchical form of government.

If any territory came under his control he introduced many reforms already he had introduced in France

He destroyed the democracy in France however in the administrative field he introduced many revolutionary principles

In 1804, he introduced a Civil Code known as Napoleonic Code gave the privileges based on birth, established equality before law and secured the right to property. This Code was exported to the regions under French Control.

He abolished the Feudal system and freed the peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.

In the towns- guild restrictions were removed. Transport and Communication were improved.

Peasants, Workers, Artisans and New businessmen enjoyed lot of freedom

Introduced uniform laws, standardized weights and measures and a common national currency for to exchange the goods from one place to another.

Initially many places like Holland and Switzerland as well as the cities like Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw the French armies were welcomed for to bring the liberty.

But this initial enthusiasm turned in to tensions and became clear that the new administrative arrangements did not go hand in hand with political freedom

Increased taxation, Censorship and the desire for conquer in the rest of Europe considered as the disadvantages of his administration.

He was defeated in the battle of Waterloo in 1815 and had sent him as a prisonerto spent his last days in a small island St.Helena where he died in 1821.

Civil Code of 1804

In 1804, Napoleon he introduced a Civil Code known as Napoleonic Code gave the privileges based on birth, established equality before law and secured the right to property. This Code was exported to the regions under French Control.

Europe in the 18th Century

The map of Europe in the mid of the 18th century was so different from today. Germany, Italy and Switzerland were not countries. All these were split in to different kingdoms.

There were number of monarchies within western and Central Europe.

The people belonged to different ethnic groupsAustria- Hungary were comprised the Habsburg

EmpireThe people in this empire belonged to different ethnic

groups.The territories under the monarchy included the Alpine

regions, Austria, Sudetenland and Bohemia

Some people they spokes Germany and others Italian

The Hungarians spoke Magyar and a number of other dialects.

In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke polishBeside these three groups- Bohemians and Slovaks

to the North, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats in South and the Roumans to the east in Transylvania.

These difference were not helpful in promoting a feeling of commonness among the people.

The idea of nationalism emerged in these countries after a period of time.

How did the idea of Nationalism and Nation State emerged in Europe?

Rise of Middle ClassWithin Europe, there were two classes of people.

There were the Aristocrats and Peasants.The aristocrats made a homogenous social group.

They spoke French and their families were united by matrimonial connections. They comprised the high Society. Their number were very small but the power they enjoyed enormous.

The majority of the population comprised the peasants who worked as a tenants owned by the aristocracy.

The estates were relatively small in Western Europe, but in the East and Central regions, the estates were vast in size. They were cultivated by the serfs.

The industrialization brought important change in these two social groups.

Apart from the aristocrats and peasants a new group were emerged.

The Industrial workers, industrialists, businessmen and Professionals.

These groups were educated and liberal in their attitude, and they were known as Middle Classes.

With the abolition of aristocracies in Europe, these groups though small in number but assumed great significance.

The idea of nationalism were propagated by the Middle class that stood for the abolition of privileges based on birth.

Liberal Nationalism (Political & Economical)

Middle class was for individual equality and freedom.In political terms, which means all people were

treated as equal before law.Citizens were governed by institutions that had been

formed with the consent of the people.There was no place for aristocracy or privileges

based on birth and there was no special privileges for the clergy also.

The right to hold the property was upheld by the liberals during the 19 century in Europe.

The equality before law should not be mixed with universal suffrage or every citizen having the right to vote.

The Napoleonic Code did not provide for voting rights to all citizens.

Women were excluded from the lists.Women and those without property had to agitate

for political rights in the 19th century.In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the

freedom of markets and abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.

Before the introduction of Napoleonic code Germany was divided in to 39 states and possessed own currency, weights and measures.

Duties were often levied according to the weight or measurement of the goods.

It was a time consuming calculation.These are some of the obstacles faced by the commercial

classes, they argued for the creation of unified economic territory

In 1834, a customs union or Zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states.

The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.

The creation of the network of the railway stimulated the mobility and helped these economic interest to national unification.

The economists began to think in terms of the national economy. They talked about how the nation could develop and what economic measures could help to bring all nation together

A wave of economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalists sentiments growing at the time.

Criticism against New Conservatism

The spirit of the Liberalism suffered a big jolt after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815.

Once again conservatism raised its head.The conservatives believed in the old system of monarchy.They believed the role of church and family in the social

life needed to be revived.However they did not propose a return to the society of

pre revolutionary days.They wanted new reforms to be implemented in a manner

that traditional monarchies could be strengthened.The power of the state was to be made more effective

through a strong army and the effective bureaucracy

The Vienna congress in 1815, drawn a new treaty called ‘Vienna Treaty’.

It caused for the restoration of Bourbon dynasty that had been dethroned during the French Revolution.

France was to lose territories that had been annexed under Napoleon, and prevented the French expansion in the future, a number of states were set up on the boundaries of France.

In the North- Netherlands was set up and it included Belgium.

South- Genoa was added to PiedmontWest- new territories were given to Prussia and Australia

was given to control northern ItalyEast- Russia was given part of Poland and Prussia was

given a portion of Saxony

The Treaty of Vienna however did not make any alterations in the German confederation comprising of 39 states.

They tried to restore monarchies that had been overthrown during Napoleonic wars. A new conservative order emerged in Europe after the end of the Vienna treaty.

New regime were autocratic. Censorship were imposed and dissent were not allowed. Ideas of freedom and liberty could no longer be propagated through newspapers, magazines or books in these autocratic regions.

The liberal nationalists they start to criticize the new conservative order and they stand for the freedom of the press.

Revolution against the Autocracy

The liberals opposed to the autocracies chose to go underground.

Secret societies were formed in Europe to protest against suppression of the freedom of speech.

Monarchies were to be challenged through a revolution and they were fight for liberty and freedom.

The revolutionaries felt that it was necessary to have a nation state for the struggle for freedom

Liberalism

It is derived from the Latin word ‘Liber’ which means free. It stand for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges and a constitution and representative government

Zoltherin

It was a customs union, formed in 1834 at the initiatives of Prussia and joined by almost all the German states. T abolished tariff barrier and reduced the number of currencies from thirty to only two.

ConservativesAs against the liberals, the conservatives

believed that to establish traditional institutions of state and society- like monarchy, the Church and Social hierarchies.

Importance of the Vienna Congress- 1815

In 1815, the representatives of the European powers- Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria- who had collectively defeated Napoleon met at Vienna to draw a settlement for Europe.

The congress was hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.

They made a treaty called ‘Treaty of Vienna- 1815’Features1. The Bourbon dynasty was collapsed during the

French revolution, it was restored to power.2. The France lost its territories it had annexed

under Napoleon

3. A series of state were up on the boundaries of France to prevent the French expansion.

4. In the North- Netherlands was set up and it included Belgium.

5. South- Genoa was added to Piedmont6. West- new territories were given to Prussia and

Australia was given to control northern Italy7. East- Russia was given part of Poland and

Prussia was given a portion of Saxony8. But the German confederation of the 39 states

that had been set up by Napoleon was untouchedMain intention was to restore the monarchies and

should create a new conservative order in Europe.

Note about- Giuseppe Mazzini

Italian revolutionaryBorn in Genoa in 1807Became the member of the secret society of

the Carbonari.At the age of 24, he had been exiled from his

country because the attempt for a revolution in Liguria.

He founded two underground societies1. Young Italy in Marseilles2. Young Europe in Berne for the

same minded youths in Poland, France, Italy and Germany

He believed hat God has made the nations to be natural units of mankind.

So Italy could not continue small states and kingdoms.It need to be form a single unified republic with wider

alliance nation.This unification alone could be the basis of Italian

unification.Same to his model Secret societies were started in

Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland.His vision for democratic republic frightened the

conservatives. Metternich described him ‘” the most dangerous

enemy of our social order”

He was known as ‘poor man’s lawyer”Spiritual force behind the unification of ItalyWe Italians could and therefore ought to

struggle for the liberty of our country.

Age of Revolution: 1830-1848

IntroductionJuly RevolutionGreek War of IndependenceRole of Culture for the spread of nationalismRole of Economic factor for the spread of

nationalismRole of Women in nationalist struggleRevolution led by the Liberals in 1848.

The conservative regimes tried to consolidate their power but the liberals and nationalists tried to associate with revolution in many regions of Europe.

Especially- Italian and German states, the provinces of Ottoman Empire, Ireland and Poland.

These revolutions were led by liberal- nationalists belongs to the educated middle class- professors, school teachers, clerks and the members of the commercial middle class.

July Revolution in France- 1830

After the period of Napoleon (1815), Louis XVII the brother of Louis XVI installed his Bourbon dynasty in France.

In July 1830, it was overthrown by liberal revolutionaries.

They installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe as its head.

Metternich states that- “When France Sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold”.

This revolution greatly affected the other countries in Europe- Belgium, Poland, Germany, Italy and England

Greek War of IndependenceGreece had been part of Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth

centuryI821- the growth of nationalism in Europe sparked the

struggle for independence among the Greeks.Nationalism in Greeks got support from the other Greeks

from other parts and the West Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.

Poets artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilization and mobilized the public opinion against the Muslim empire.

The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of fever of fever in 1824.

Finally, the treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.

The role of Culture for the growth of Nationalism in Europe(Or)

Role of Romanticism for the growth of Nationalism

The development of nationalism did not came only through the wars and territorial expansion.

The culture played a huge role especially the art, poetry, stories and music for the growth of nationalism.

RomanticismIt was a cultural movement it tries to develop a particular form

of nationalist sentiment.Romantic poets and artists criticised the glorification of reason

and science and focused on emotions, institutions and mystical feelings

Their effort was to create a sense of shared collective heritage, a common cultural past as the basis of nation.

Johabb Gottfried Herder- Romantic German philosopher claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people- das volk

It was through the folk songs, poetry and dance that the true spirit of the nation (Volksgeist) was popularized

So the collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to nation building

The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore carried a modern national message to large audience who were mostly literate.

End of the 18th century Poland was partitioned by the great powers like Prussia, Russia and Austria.

Poland no longer existed as an independent territory, national feelings were kept through the music and language

Karol Kurpinski- celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, folk songs like the polonaise and mazurka in to nationalist symbol

Language also played on important role for the growth of nationalism

The polish language was forced out of school and Russian language was imposed everywhere.

In 1831 a armed rebellion crushed the Russian rule The clergies in Poland began to use language as a

weapon of national resistance.Polish was used for church gathering and all religious

instructions, a number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by the Russian authorities.

The use of polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance

Economic factor for the emergence of nationalism

1830- great economic hardship in Europe.Half of the 19th century population increased in EuropeMost of the countries unemployment increased very muchPeople from rural areas migrated to the cities.Small producers faced stiff competition from imports of

cheap machine made goods from England, where industrialization was more advanced than on the continent

In textile production carried out from homes or small workshops and was only partly mechanized.

Peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations, especially the aristocratic provinces in Europe

The rise of food price or a year of bad harvest led to widespread led tensions in towns and country

1n 1848- food shortage and widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the road.

Barricades were destroyed and Louis Phlilppe was forced to flee.

The National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21, and guaranteed the right to work. National workshops to provide employment were set up.

What was the cause of the Silesian Weaver’s Uprising?

1845- weavers in Silesia had led a revolt against contractors who supplied them raw materials and gave them orders for finished textiles but drastically reduced their payments.

On January at 2 p.m. large crowd of weavers in Paris marched to the house of contractor for high wages

They were treated with scorn and threats alternatelyA group of them marched to the home and smashed its

windows, furniture and porcelain.Another group broke in to the storehouse and plundered the

items.The contractor fled with his family to the neighboring

village, they refused to give a shelter such a personHe returned 24 hours later having requisitioned army, in the

exchange that followed, eleven weavers were shot dead.

Role of Women for the growth of Nationalism in Europe

In all the Europeans states- France, Germany, Italy and the Austro Hungarian empire women had taken an active part in the nationalist struggles of their countries.

They were equally responsible for demanding constitutionalism with national unification.

Women had formed their own political associations and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations.

They were denied equal voting rights like those of menThe political rights for women was a controversial in the

liberal movementWhen the Frankfurt parliament met at St. Paul Church

women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors gallery

The View of Liberal Politician, Carl Welcke an elected member of Frankfurt parliament was

“Nature has created man and women to carry out different functions….Man, the stronger, the public holder has been designated as protector of the family, its provider, meant for public tasks in the domain of law, production, defence. Woman, the weaker, dependent and timid requires the protection of man her sphere is home, the care of children, the nurturing of the family. Do we requires any further proof that given such differnce, equality between the sexes would only endanger harmony and destroy the dignity of the family.”

To prepare a note about the Revolution of the Liberals in 1848

Parallel to the revolts of the poor, unemployed, starving peasants and workers, a revolution led by educated middle class in Europe

In February 1848, France abolished the monarchy and republic based on universal male suffrage had been proclaimed.

The men and women of the liberal middle classes especially in Germany, Italy, Poland and Austro Hungarian empire combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification

They were demanded for the creation of nation state on parliamentary principles- a constitution, freedom of the press and the freedom of the association

In the German regions, the political associations of the middle class professionals, business men and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfut and decided to vote for an all German National Assembly

On May 1848- 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their place in the Frankfut parliament convened in the church of St.Paul

They drafted a constitution for a German nation . The king of Prussia- Friedrich Wilhelm IV rejected and

joined other monarch to oppose the elected assembly.The opposition aristocracy and military became stronger The parliament was headed by middle class and they

refused the demands of the peasants and artisans consequently they had lost their support.

Lastly the troop was disband

The conservative forces suppressed the liberal movements in 1848, but they could not restore old order.

Monarchs they could understood through the granting of concession they could end the liberal- nationalist revolutionaries.

Especially after 1848, the autocratic monarchs in western and central Europe began to introduce the changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815.

The serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in the Habsburg dominions and Russia

Short note about- Frankfurt ParliamentThe Frankfurt Parliament consisting of 831 elected

representatives from all over GermanyAssembled in 1848 to draft the constitution for a

unified Germany.The parliament was dominated by middle class who

resisted the demand of workers and artisans but lost their support.

The parliament proposed the unification of Germany under the king of Prussia.

The king of Prussia, however opposed the idea of constitutional monarch and declined the offer.

Thousands of German revolutionaries fled to live in exile.

Thus ended the first phase of unification of Germany

Process of German Unification (Or)Different Stages of Unification of Germany

The first Stage: In the 18th century, Germany was divided in to number of states Bavaria, Prussia, Saxony etc…, the economic growth was very slow in these provinces

As a result of the national consciousness the demand for a unified country of Germany became strong in several states.

In 1815, Austria tried to organize themselves into a German states.

To unite Germany and frame a constitution a constituent assembly met at FrankfurtThe parliament proposed the unification of Germany under the king of Prussia.

The king of Prussia, however opposed the idea of constitutional monarch and declined the offer.

Thousands of German revolutionaries fled to live in exile.Thus ended the first phase of unification of Germany

Now Germany was to be unified by the policy of ‘blood and iron’ as was pursued by Bismarck, the Prussian Chancellor. He tried to achieve his aim through military powers

The Second stage: War against Denmark- 1864: Bismarck picked up a quarrel with Denmark over the question of the control of two Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. In 1864 A.D he fought a war against Denmark and took over the control of Schleswig.

The Third Stage: War against Austria- 1866: Bismarck wanted to complete the unification of Germany by ousting Austria from Germany. In 1866, Prussia defeated Austria and annexed the territories of Hanover, Holstein, Luxumberg, Frankfurt. It paved the way for the subsequent unification of Germany

The Fourth Stage: War against France- 1870-71: Prussia defeated the France and occupied Alsace and Lorraine

The impact of the Prussia’s impressive victory other German states also joined the German Confederation which recognised the Prussian king Kaiser William First as the head.

Through this dedicated efforts Bismarck completed the unification of Germany in 1871 A.D

The new state placed a strong emphasis on modernizing the currency, banking, legal and judicial system in Germany

Process of the Unification of ItalyPolitical Fragmentation of ItalyItaly had been split in to number of dynasties as well

as multi national Habsburg empire.Middle of the 19th century Italy was divided in to

seven states of which only one, Sardinia Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house

North was under the control of Austrian HabsburgsCentre was ruled by PopeSouth was under the control of Bourbon king of

SpainEven the Italian language had not acquired one

common form and still had many regional and local variations.

Role of Giuseppe Mazzini: He is known for his noble efforts to achieve the

unification of ItalyHe formed a secret society ‘Young Italy’ and ‘Young

Europe’ for to achieve his goal the unification of ItalyBut the failure of the revolutionary uprisings in 1831 and

1848, the Sardinia and Piedmont fell under the control of king Victor Immanuel II

Role of CavourHe believed that Italy would never be able to free herself

without external helpSo he set about the task of securing foreign aid

necessary for achieving his objective.So with the help of France, he succeeded in defeating

Austrian forces in 1859 and got Lombardy for Sardinia

Role of GaribaldiHe is known as the Sword of ItalyIn 1860, his ‘Red Shirt troops’ defeated Austria to

secure the independence of Naeples and Sicily which later on joined Sardinia.

His contribution to unify Italy is unforgettable.Final Stage of Unification Under Victor ImmanuelHe was the king of SardiniaHe finally completed the task of unification of Italy

after Cavour’s deathHe succeeded in winning the Papal territories of

Venetia and Rome in 1871.In this way a united Italy came in existence in 1871

under his leadershipLater on Rome became the capital of united Italy

Most of the Italian population was in illiteracy and unaware about liberal nationalist ideology

The peasant masses who had supported Garibaldi in southern Italy had never heard of Italia and believed that La Talia was victor Emmanuel’s wife.

The development of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe.

In Britain the formation of nation state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution

It was the result of long process.There was no British nation in the eighteenth centuryThe people they were also from different ethnic groups like

English, Welsh, scot and IrishAll these ethnic groups they had their own cultural and

political traditions.The English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and

power, it was able to extend its over the other nations of the island.

The English parliament, which had snatched power from the English monarch James II in 1688, which became instrumental in establishing a nation state with England at the centre

As a result of the Act of Union between England and Scotland in 1701, England and Scotland were united in 1701 and the result was the creation of Great Britain.

Both state had one parliament and one ruler.Both the countries stood to gain by their union through

sometimes Scottish Highlanders had to be suppressed.Scotland became prosperous and the enmity between

the two countries ended. England was also benefitedAnother step towards nationalism was taken in 1800 by

another Act of the Parliament.The Irish Act of union, Great Britain and Ireland were

united and the new state came to be known as United Kingdom

The Napoleonic attack on England was averted because the union of England, Scotland and Ireland.

No doubt, British dominance over Ireland was resented by the Catholic subjects of Ireland which was suppressed time and again.

The symbol of new Britain, The British flag (the Union jack), the national anthem (God save our Noble King), the English language were actively promoted and both Scottish and Irish people survived only as a subordinate partners in the union.

Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-82)Italian freedom fighter.Family engaged in coastal trade and was a sailor in the

merchant navy.In 1833, he met Mazzini, joined the Young Italy

Movement and participated in a republican uprising in Piedmont in 1834.

This was suppressed and he fled to South America he lived there till 1848

In 1854- he supported Victor Emmanuel II, in his efforts to unify Italian states

In 1860- he led a famous expedition of the thousands to South Italy. Fresh Volunteers kept joining through the course of the campaign, till their number grew to about 30,000. They were popularly known as Red Shirts

In 1867- he led an army of volunteers to Rome to fight the last obstacle to the unification of Italy

The Red Shirt proved to be no match for the combined French and Papal troops

In 1870 the papal states joined to Italys

Role of Artists for the growth of Nationalism(or)

Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they

were portrayed?The artists in the 18th and 19th century played a

huge role for the growth of nationalismThey represented the country as a personNations were then portrayed as a female figureThis female form did not stand for any particular

women in real life it was an abstract idea of the nation in a concrete form

That is the female figure became an allegory of the nation.

During the French revolution the artists used the female allegory (or symbols) to portray ideas like Liberty, Justice and Republic.

Similar female allegories were used by the artists of the 19th century to represent the nation.

In France, nation was christened as Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a people’s nation.

Statue of Marianne with red cap, the tri colour and the cockade, were erected at public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity.

Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps as well.In Germany, Germania became the allegory of German

nation.In visual representation, she is shown wearing a crown of

oak leaves, as the German oak stand for heroism

Meanings of the Symbol

Broken ChainsBreastplate with

eagle

Crown of oak leavesSwordOlive branch around

the swordBlack, red and tri

colour

Rays of the rising sun

Being freedSymbol of German

empire- strengthHeroismReadiness to fightWillingness to make

peaceFlag of the liberal

nationalists in 1848, banned by the Dukes of the German states

Beginning of a new era

Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans after 1875?

The tensions in the Balkans area finally caused for the First World War- Discuss

The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the area called the Balkans

This region comprised modern- Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia- Heregovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montengro whose inhabitants were known as Slavs.

Large part of the Blakans was under the control of Ottoman Empire

The idea of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman empire made this region very explosive

Beginning of the 19th century, the Turkish empire became very weak and came to be known as the ‘Sickman of Europe’

During that time most of the European nations got the independence

It inspired the Balkan people and they demanded for independence and political rights on nationality and used history to prove that they had once been independent and had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers.

As a result, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict

The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of others.

Matters were further complicated because the Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry

During that period, there was a intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military might.

The Russia, Germany, England- Austro- Hungary tried to hold the power over the Balkan area.

This finally led for the First World war

How the Nationalism related with Anti-Imperialist Movement

Many countries in the world which had been colonised by the European powers in the 19th century began to oppose imperial domination

The anti- imperialist movements that developed everywhere were nationalist, in the sense that they all struggled to form independent nation states, inspired by a sense of collective national unity and fought against imperialism

The European idea of nationalism, developed by the other region their own way

But the idea of societies should be organised in to nation states came to be accepted as natural and universal

Short Note on Count Carmillo de Cavour

The real credit of the unification of Italy goes to Cavour, who became the Prime Minister of Sardinia in 1852 A.D

He believed that Italy would never be able to free herself without external help

So he set about the task of securing foreign aid necessary for achieving his objective.

So with the help of France, he succeeded in defeating Austrian forces in 1859 and got Lombardy for Sardinia

Before he died, he had unified the whole of Italy under sardinia with the lone exception of the Papal territories of Venitia and Rome

He popularly known as “the Bismarck of Italy”

Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the 19th century after the Vienna Congress in 1815

BelgiumBy the settlement of Vienna, Belgium was annexed to

Holland so that a powerful state could be set up in the north east borders of France.

This union was unnatural, it lasted only 15 yearsThe people of both countries differed in language and

religionThe people of Belgium- Catholics and manufactures and

Holland were mainly Protestants and agriculturists and wanted a free trade.

Practically all the officials in the government machinery were the Dutch and heavy taxes were imposed on Belgium

The people of Belgium suffered a lot in this unnatural union

Their demand for separate constitution was refused the King William.

As a result of the July revolution in 1830, the people in Belgium got the inspiration and they started the revolt for independence

The Prime Minister of England, Lord Palmerton, had sympathy with Belgium and called a conference in London in 1831.

In this conference, England, France, Russia, Prussia and Austria recognised the independence of Belgium

PolandThe Vienna congres divided the kingdom of Poland to

Austria, Russia and PrussiaThe Czar of Russia, Alexander I, carved out an

independent kingdom of Poland and himself became ruler

He granted lot of concessions, but the Polish people wanted a free nation from the Foreign rule.

After his period, his brother Nicohilas I was a weak and arbitary ruler.

The polish peoples, they got the inspiration from July revolution and they fought for independence

The people from France, England and Germany had sympathies with the Poles and they gave the support

The Russian army smashed their movementThe accession of Alexander II in 1855,

aroused the hopes of the Poles and they revolted in 1863 A.D

The European countries came forward to help the Poles and they were badly defeated.

Poles never revolted again their freedom