NATIONAL REGISTERBULLETIN

Technical information on the the National Register of Historic Places:survey, evaluation, registration, and preservation of cultural resources

U.S. Department of the Interior• s ; ^ National Park Service

Cultural ResourcesNational Register, History and Education

Guidelines for Identifying, Evaluating, andRegistering Historic Mining Properties

The mission of the Department of the Interior is to protect and provide access toour Nations natural and cultural heritage and honor our trust responsibilities totribes.

The National Park Service preserves unimpaired the natural and culturalresources and values of the National Park System for the enjoyment, education,and inspiration of this and future generations. The Park Service cooperates withpartners to extend the benefits of natural and cultural resource conservation andoutdoor recreation throughout this country and the world.

This material is partially based upon work conducted under a cooperativeagreement with the National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officersand the U.S. Department of the Interior.

Cover Photo: This photograph of Lead Historic District in South Dakotaillustrates the complex array of mineral extraction facilities, mills, workerhousing, and tailings piles which typify the industrial nature of many historicmining properties. (Scott Gerloff)

NATIONAL REGISTERBULLETIN

GUIDELINES FOR IDENTIFYING,EVALUATING, AND REGISTERING HISTORIC

MINING PROPERTIES

BYBRUCE J. NOBLE, JR.

ANDROBERT SPUDE

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIORNATIONAL PARK SERVICE

NATIONAL REGISTER, HISTORY AND EDUCATIONNATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES

1992,Revised 1997

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ii

Acknowledgments iii

I. Introduction 1

II. Historic Contexts for Mining 3Sources of Historic Context Information 4

III. Identification 6Survey and Documentation 6

Preliminary Research... 7Field Survey 7Property Analysis 9

Identifying Property Types 9Extraction 10Beneficiation 11Refining 12Engineer-Designed Complexes 13Mining Landscapes 13Related Property Types 14

IV. Evaluation 15Applying National Register Criteria to Mining Properties 15

Criterion A 15Criterion B 17Criterion C 17Criterion D 17

Criteria Considerations 18Integrity 19

Location 19Design 20Setting 20Materials 21Workmanship 21Feeling 21Association 21

V. Documentation and Registration 22Section 7: Description 23Section 8: Significance 24SectionlO: Boundaries 25

VI. Selected Bibliography 26Sample Periodicals and Journals 26Books 26

VII. Glossary 29

VIII. National Register Bulletins 31

PREFACE

Mining activity comprises an impor-tant component of our nation's heritage.Native Americans engaged in theextraction and processing of preciousmetals long before initial contact withEuropeans. Stories of abundant mineralwealth ranked high on the list of factorsthat first attracted Europeans to theNorth American continent. The questfor mineral wealth continues in contem-porary America. Many centuries ofmining activity have left a legacy ofhistoric mining sites that now existthroughout the entire United States.

The opulent Victorian architecturecharacteristic of some successfulnineteenth-century mining towns hasgalvanized interest in preserving andrestoring these communities. Thedecaying industrial sites where the

actual mining occurred have receivedconsiderably less attention. However,the industrial mining sites often face thegreatest threats today. Massive earthmoving efforts associated with modernmining, along with programs to reclaimabandoned mine lands, can harm theremnants of historic mining activity. Inaddition, many mining sites have fallenvictim to the combined effects ofneglect, abandonment, vandalism, andsevere weather.

The threats faced by these properties,along with the complex task of under-standing the significance of deterioratedsites associated with our industrialheritage, suggest the timeliness of abulletin on evaluating and nominatinghistoric mining properties to theNational Register of Historic Places.

The National Register evaluationprocess offers a framework for assessingthe significance of mining sites, whilelisting in the National Register will helpassure that significant mining sites arerecognized and protected when pos-sible. The ultimate goal of this bulletin isto provide a body of information tosupport Federal, State, and local effortsto manage historic mining propertieswith a sense of stewardship predicatedupon recognition of the importance ofthese properties in our nation's history.

Lawrence E. AtenChief, Interagency Resources DivisionNational Park ServiceDepartment of the Interior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to offer specialthanks for the assistance of the Miningand Inventory and Monitoring Pro-gram, Division of Cultural Resources,Alaska Regional Office, National ParkService NPS) and Don L. Hardesty ofthe University of Nevada-Reno. Repre-sentatives of the Mining Inventory andMonitoring Program, especially LoganHovis and Ann Kain, provided exten-sive material regarding placer miningthat has been used throughout the bulle-tin. Don L. Hardesty authored materialrelating to the evaluation of miningproperties under Criterion D and pro-vided additional important informationconcerning the archeological dimen-sions of mining properties. We aregrateful for these valuable contributions;.

Helpful written comments were pro-vided by many individuals. These in-clude Douglas H. Scovill, AnthropologyDivision, NPS; Edwin Bearss, HistoryDivision, NPS; Blaine Cliver and KayWeeks, Preservation Assistance Divi-sion, NPS; Patricia L. Parker and Donna

Seifert, Interagency Resources Division,NPS; Kathy McCraney and AnnJohnson, Rocky Mountain Region, NPS;Ann E. Huston, Western Region, NPS;Gretchen Luxenberg, Pacific NorthwestRegion, NPS; Dana E. Supernowicz,Eldorado National Forest; Pamela A.Conners, Stanislaus National Forest;William T. Civish, Division of Recre-ation, Cultural and Wilderness Re-sources, Bureau of Land Management;jay C. Ziemann, Arizona State Parks;Katherine M. Huppe and Chere Jiusto,Montana State Historic PreservationOffice; Dan Deibler and Bill Sisson,Pennsylvania Historical and MuseumCommission; Jeffrey A. Twining, TexasHistoric Commission; Joan M.Antonson, Alaska Office of History andArcheology; Barbara Norgren, Colo-rado Historical Society; Loretta E.Pineda, Colorado Mined Land Recla-mation Division; and Patrick E. Martin,Michigan Technological University.Interns Nicole Warren and Tanya Veltprovided photographic research assis-

tance. Kira Ramakrishna wrote severalphoto captions. The contributions of allthe individuals listed above provided atremendous boost to efforts to compileand clarify the final draft of the bulletin.

This publication has been preparedpursuant to the National Historic Pres-ervation Act of 1966, as amended,which directs the Secretary of the Inte-rior to develop and make availableinformation concerning historic proper-ties. Guidelines for Identifying, Evaluat-ing, and Registering Historic Mining Prop-erties was developed under the generaleditorship of Carol D. Shull, Chief ofRegistration, National Register of His-toric Places. Antoinette J. Lee, historian,is responsible for publications coordina-tion and Patty Sackett Chrisman, histo-rian, provides technical support. Com-ments on this publication may be di-rected to Keeper, National Register ofHistoric Places, National Park Service,1849 C Street, N.W., Washington, D.C.20240.

in

I. INTRODUCTION

The United States has ranked amongthe world's leading nations in theproduction of gold, silver, copper, iron,lead, coal, oil, zinc, molybdenum,uranium, and other metals. Thesetreasures from the earth have also mademajor impacts on the settlement anddevelopment of many regions, fromAppalachia to Alaska. Precious metalshave created unimaginable fortunes,while unwise investment has caused theloss of millions of dollars. Largesegments of the population have beeninfluenced by the work of prying ore,rock, or coal from the bowels of theearth. The purpose of this bulletin is toassist in the recognition of significantmining properties worthy of listing inthe National Register of Historic Places.1

Some of this country's spectacularlysuccessful mining operations havealready been documented and recog-nized. For example, Virginia City,Nevada; the Sloss blast furnaces atBirmingham, Alabama; Butte, Montana;the Elkins coke works at Bretz, WestVirginia; Kennecott, Alaska; and theCalumet and Hecla Mine in Calumet,Michigan, are designated NationalHistoric Landmarks. Many additionalmining properties are listed in theNational Register of Historic Places.However, throughout the nation, manysignificant mining properties have yet tobe documented, evaluated, and listed inthe National Register. Many of theseremaining resources are small, butimportant, elements of historic miningactivity such as a ditch, a shaft opening,a road, or a collection of prospect pits.As a result, this bulletin will not focuson mining camps and their architecture,but instead will emphasize the identifi-cation, evaluation, and registration ofthe frequently overlooked miningproperties and industrial tracts.

Mines and industrial tracts encom-pass a range of types of historical andcultural properties. They vary from ironworks, to precious metal mills, todredges and their associated outbuild-ings. They include mercury furnacesfrom the Mexican-era in the West; anearly twentieth century nickel refinery

in Perth Amboy, New Jersey; Russiancoal mines in Alaska; the expansive openpits of the Iron Range of Minnesota; coaltipples in Appalachia; and copper minesof the Southwest. Although the variousmetals require different technologies toextract economically valuable metalfrom ore, there are many similarities inextraction, beneficiation (the initialprocess of upgrading ore), and refining.Oil and gas fields, however, requireunique technologies developed for theextraction of fossil fuels. This differencemeans that the extractive industries of oiland gas are not examined in detail,although this bulletin will give generaldirection for their evaluation.

The transient nature of miningactivity has left a legacy of historicproperties that pose challenges to ourtraditional rules for evaluating signifi-cance and integrity. Many miningstructures were built for temporary useand quickly abandoned once the miner-als had been exhausted. The resourceshave subsequently experienced decadesof neglect, aggravated by vandalism andsevere weather. In other cases, miningactivities were short-lived. Hamilton,Nevada, for example, witnessed awhirlwind of silver rush activity in 1869,but the mines failed and the town fadedto a ghost town within a decade (Jack-son, 1963). The significance of suchproperties will have to be based on theirarcheological potential and not on theirpresent lack of standing structures.

The need for guidance in evaluatingmining resources is pressing because of amarked increase in activities thatthreaten historic mining resources.These activities include the recentupswing in coal mining and preciousmetal mining which can impact historicmining areas. In addition, mine reclama-tion and clean-up efforts often threatenhistorically significant mines. Althoughwell-intended, these clean-up activitiescan contribute to the loss of significantresources.

The National Register of HistoricPlaces provides an important tool forevaluating and protecting miningproperties. Utilizing uniform criteria to

evaluate significance and employingestablished integrity standards, theNational Register process provides avaluable yardstick for measuring thehistorical significance of mining proper-ties. Thus, the National Register is thebest means for determining the signifi-cance of historic mining properties inthe United States. In addition toproviding an incentive for preservationby recognizing resources that warrantpreservation, listing affords a measureof protection from Federal undertakingsand can help to identify propertiesworthy of Historic Preservation Fundgrant assistance, tax incentives, andother forms of assistance. The bulletinwill also provide an approach forcomplying with Federal laws such asthe Surface Mining Control and Recla-mation Act of 1977 that help protectproperties listed in the National Regis-ter.

National Register listing also givescredibility to State and local efforts topreserve mining resources based ontheir continuing contribution to acommunity's identity. The documenta-tion contained in surveys and nomina-tions of these historic mining properties— especially those that are neglected orthreatened — is the key to their betterprotection and management. Thisinformation has a variety of uses,including public education; planning bylocal, State, or Federal agencies; orpublication. The purpose of thisbulletin is to guide Federal agencies,State historic preservation offices,Certified Local Governments, preserva-tion professionals, and interestedgroups and individuals through theprocess of identifying, evaluating, andregistering historic mining properties tothe National Register.

This bulletin outlines a generalapproach to the identification, evalua-tion, and registration of historic miningproperties throughout the United States.A broad range of mining activities wereconducted in different regions of thecountry. Although this bulletin may notprovide specific details about everyform of mining and every type of

mining property, the general processdiscussed in this bulletin will assistwith the nomination of a great diversityof mining properties.

The focus of this bulletin is historicmines or associated properties con-structed specifically for the extraction ofminerals or to support the extraction,benefication, and refining of minerals.

In addition, this bulletin may also assistwith the identification, evaluation, andregistration of properties associatedwith non-metallic mining. Examplesinclude clay mining (associated withbrick making), salt mining, salt petremining, and rock and gravel quarrying.For the purposes of this bulletin, theword "mineral," when used in the con-

text of extracted matter, includes coal.General instructions for preparing

National Register nominations areavailable in two National Register bul-letins: How to Complete the NationalRegister Registration Form, and How toComplete the National Register MultipleProperty Documentation Form.

This photo of Virginia City, Nevada illustrates characteristic features of mining towns such as headframes, tailingspiles, and exploration pits. Representing one of the United States' most successful mining operations, the Virginia CityHistoric District was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1966. (Jim Reinheiler)

II. HISTORIC CONTEXTS FORMINING

Mining camps have been the focus ofmany mining-related National Registernominations. Too often, however,raining areas are evaluated for theirarchitectural resources without fullyconsidering the role once played byindustrial features like mines and mills.In many cases, the industrial featuresassociated with mining receive scantattention because they lack any remain-ing buildings, structures, or objects. Thetransient nature of mining propertiesand the frequency with which mineshave been abandoned means that manymining resources occur either as simpleearthen protuberances or as subsurfacevoids. Historic machinery is scavengedfrom isolated mining locations, often tobe displayed in distant museums.Present-day mining can obliteratehistoric mining features.

A single mining district may containfeatures dating to several distinctmining periods. Understanding thecultural resources in a former miningarea can be complicated by the repeat-ing boom and bust periods within asingle mining district. Each boomperiod occurred with the rise of metalmarket prices or by the introduction ofnew technologies. These boomsbrought new equipment and machinerywhich is either superimposed over orplaced alongside the remains of previ-ous mining activity.

Along with changes caused bymarket price fluctuations or evolvingtechnologies, the metals sought bynineteenth-century prospectors tendedto change over time as local conditionsimproved, caused usually by a drop intransportation, labor, or fuel costs. MostWestern prospectors initially soughtgold, then moved to silver, and finallyto base metals. For example, the Buttemines were first located during thegreat Montana gold rush of the 1860s.After the decline of the readily acces-sible placer gold, the local economyslumped until a fresh discovery madeButte a huge silver producer in the late1870s. Silver mining collapsed in 1893,

but by then the copper mines on ButteHill had come into production (Malone,1981). Other early Western miningtowns witnessed! similar, though lessphenomenal, histories as silver minesbecame tungsten mines and gold minesbegan by yielding gold before latermoving or to produce zinc and lead.The mining of iron, coal, and other basemetals also relied on favorable eco-nomic conditions, all tied to cheap labor,fuel, and transportation.

The preceding discussion demon-strates that the initial evaluation ofmining properties can pose challenges.These challenges result partly from thefact that the industrial features associ-ated with mining have not always beenfully appreciated. In addition, many ofthe industrial features which typifymining properties have either txxmdemolished or seriously damagedthrough neglect. Finally, evolvingtechnologies and changes in the types ofminerals being mined can createsituations where resources dating to avariety of periods may be containedwithin a single mining district.

The potential complexities of evaluat-ing diverse and enigmatic miningproperties can be addressed by identify-ing historic contexts. The identificationof historic contexts should emphasizethose contexts associated with extanthistoric properties likely to be encoun-tered during field surveys. By followingthis practice, historic contexts will helpto unravel the separate threads ofmining history which may exist within asingle geographic area.

A historic context can be described asa particular theme that is furtherdeliniated by a time period and ageographic area. (For example, "SilverProduction in Butte, Montana, 1879-1893/') Identifying historic contexts willserve a variety of purposes. They canprovide locational information that willassist with the identification of miningproperties in the field. Furthermore, anindividual property associated with agiven historic context can be compared

with other properties related to thatcontext to reach decisions about therelative significance of related proper-ties. In addition, initial historic contextdocumentation identified at this earlypoint will expedite the nominationprocess by allowing for eventualincorporation of this documentationinto the narrative of a nomination.

With regard to historic contexts formining areas, the theme component ofthe context will revolve around someaspect of mining history. These themesshould not be defined too narrowly. Inaddition to considering mining technol-ogy, research done to develop themesshould consider transportation, watersystems, habitation, labor, the role ofethnic groups, and the role played byprominent figures in the miningindustry. In some cases, themes mayinvolve mining as one component of amore general overview of acommunity's industrial and economicdevelopment.

In defining an appropriate timeframe, a historic context (or series ofcontexts) should attempt to span theperiod from the time of a miningregion's initial discovery to the point ofits abandonment or decline. Althougheach mining district will have its ownunique history, districts will experiencea series of similar phases during thecourse of their development. Generallyspeaking, each district will have: 1) adiscovery phase, 2) a development orboom phase, 3) a mature phase orphases emphasizing production, andthen 4) a bust or decline phase. Thesephases may recur if a new technology isdiscovered to work the lower-grade oreor if other developments occur, such asthe advent of uses for discarded ores orthe new availability of cheaper transpor-tation, fuel, or labor. Awareness ofthese common phases may help todetermine the appropriate time periodsfor mining district historic contexts.

The geographic component of ahistoric context can relate to pDliticalboundaries which define the extent of a

The Sloss Blast Furnaces, dating from 1881, are among the oldest extant blastfurnaces in the Birmingham, Alabama iron andsteel district. The complex is representative of Alabama's preeminence in pig-iron production in the early twentieth century,and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1972. (Historic American Engineering Record).

town, county, State, or Federal landmanagement unit (i.e., a national parkor national forest). The geographicdefinition may simply be the miningdistrict boundaries established during aminers' meeting and duly recorded inthe county courthouse. The US Geologi-cal Survey (USGS) has also drawnboundaries for mining districts that mayclearly define the geographic extent ofhistoric mining activity. In addition, forover a century USGS has publishedbulletins which include maps of miningregions. In the East, State geologicalsurvey reports and maps serve the samepurpose. These maps may also assistwith the development of historiccontexts.

In conclusion, historic contexts mustbe identied to allow for confidentevaluations of a historic miningproperty's significance. Because mostmining properties are either in ruins ormere imprints on the landscape, theycan pose difficult integrity questions.

Significance must be determined basedon an understanding of an area's historybefore making decisions about NationalRegister eligibility. In some cases,significant historic properties may beentirely overlooked without a properhistoric context. Even ruinous proper-ties can be significant if they yieldinformation valuable in historicalarcheology, especially if the propertycontains remains of engineering worksthat help to illustrate the broaderhistoric context of technological innova-tion and diffusion. For example, thenomination of the Dubuque, Iowa, leadmines was based on a written historiccontext and on archeological evidencethat revealed a great deal about miningand smelting technology in the early1800s. The nomination of these leadmines occurred in spite of the fact thatno standing structures remained at thelocation of this previously active miningdistrict.

SOURCES OFHISTORICCONTEXTINFORMATION

Identifying historic contexts related tomining activity should begin with aninvestigation of existing contexts. StateHistoric Preservation Officers (SHPO)represent one possible source of existinghistoric context documentation. Inparticular, statewide historic preserva-tion plans, previously completedmultiple property submissions, andother information maintained by SHPOsmay contain material concerning historicmining properties. Other possiblesources of existing information includeFederal agencies (particularly Federalland-managing agencies) and academicinstitutions. Background investigations

may reveal that a number of mining-related historic contexts have alreadybeen developed for a given area. If so,these existing contexts may providevaluable assistance to the researcher.

A number of other sources may assistwith the development of historiccontexts. The USGS has publishedmining-district maps showing geologicformations and minerals throughout theUnited States. In addition, descriptionsof mining districts are contained in aseries of USGS bulletins, monographs,professional papers, and other publica-tions. These sources supply informationon ore deposits. Some mining districts,especially in the West and Alaska,received thorough evaluation andmapping by the USGS. These evalua-tions led to the publication of reportsthat describe mines, prospects, andcompany activities, as well as geo-graphic and cultural information.

In the East and the Midwest, wherethe USGS was less active, State geologi-cal bureaus provided similar publica-tions and maps on mining regions. Coalmining areas in Pennsylvania, WestVirginia, and Kentucky, for example,were extensively mapped by the State.Early information on lead mining can befound in the reports of the State geologi-cal offices of Missouri, Wisconsin, andIowa. Information on the early copperindustry can be found in Michigangeological reports.

Information in these geologicalreports, which often included economichistories, can be crosschecked withcorporate descriptions in the MinesHandbook (after 1905) and The MineralIndustry (after 1892). Other usefulgovernment reports include the annualreports of the U.S. Mining Commis-sioner, 1866-1876, the reports of theDirector of the Mint, and the Bureau ofMines annual report (later called theMinerals Yearbook). These reports,particularly the bulletins and informa-tion circulars of the USGS and Bureau ofMines, frequently include specific dataon lode and placer mining techniquesand equipment as well as discussions ofindividual mines and mining districts.The Bureau of Mines also publishedtechnical reports on mine safety andtechnology.

Other records of the Federal govern-ment will have potential research value.With regard to mining in the West,specific information about mineownership can be found in the mineralpatent records of the Bureau of LandManagement (BLM). Created througha merger of the Grazing Service and theGeneral Land Office in 1946, BLMoffices will also contain records ofmineral patents issued by the GeneralLand Office. Deed records housed inthe local county courthouse mayprovide an additional source of mineownership information. If litigationoccurred, extensive files may be foundin the Department of Justice records inthe National Archives in Washington,DC. If minerals were produced formilitary purposes, the records of theSecretary of War should be consulted.

State and local histories may containinformation on mines and mining in aparticular locality. In addition, someSlates published annual reports issuedby State geological surveys, mineinspectors, mining commissioners, ordepartment of mines. Records of Statecorporation commissions, which maycontain articles of incorporation andannual reports, can help to explaincorporate involvement in miningenterprises.

Period journals and newspapersprovide a panoply of promotionalinformation about a mine. Bothsuccessful and unsuccessful miningcamps and towns frequently hadnewspapers that touted each mine orprospect. Individual mines and miningcompanies produced annual reportsand distributed other forms of litera-ture. The productive ones publishedannual reports which might includephotographs and diagrams thattypically described the extent of bothworks and machinery. Althoughmining town newspapers and companyliterature can provide fascinating localcolor, these sources must be used withcaution based on their inclination toaccentuate the positive and downplaythe negative.

In some cases, mining activity waswell documented by early photogra-phers. Archives, museums, and othersources should be contacted for histori-

cal photographs to assist with historiccontext research. Photographs of mineequipment and mill machinery for aspecific mine may not exist, but contem-porary photographs of nearby minesand mills document the material cultureand industrial facilities of a particularmining region.

In the West, early mining districtrecord books can serve as an importantsource of historic context material. Insome cases, these record books docu-ment the formation of miners' commit-tees that established district laws andrecorded the tenuous ownership ofmineral deposits. (After the passage ofthe 1872 Mining Law, only a patentissued by the Federal governmentwould legally secure ownership.) Ahypothetical example of the value ofthese early records might involve aprospect pit discovered in an 1860s golddistrict, but abandoned after the firstrush. Lacking these records to providehistoric context information that linksthe property with the early gold rushera,, the evaluation may be based solelyon the marginal integrity that theproperty exhibits today. Such anevaluation would overlook the prospectpit's critical association with a signifi-cant period in mining history.

Oral histories can also serve as animportant source of historic contextinformation. Individuals living nearhistoric mining areas may offer valuableinformation about resources in a givenlocale. In some cases, previous oralhistory studies will already havedocumented these stories either on tapeor in print. In other cases, researchersmay have to seek out individualscapable of providing valuable perspec-tives concerning local mining proper-ties.

There are many books and othersources of information on the history ofmining. (See Section VI for a listing ofmining history references.) Thesestudies help provide a general under-standing of mining history. Thedifficult task is to combine the historiccontext information in these sourceswith the guidance provided in otherNational Register publications and usethese materials to conduct successfulfield evaluations and prepare nomina-tions for actual mining properties.

III. IDENTIFICATION

SURVEY ANDDOCUMENTATION

The National Register bulletin en-titled Guidelines For Local Surveys: ABasis for Preservation Planning, providesadvice regarding appropriate fieldworkpractices. Although this bulletin ad-dresses questions about where and howto survey, specific questions about min-ing-related resources are not defined.Therefore, the following commentsoffer guidance specifically focused onsurveying historic mining properties.

Perhaps most importantly, surveysof historic mining areas should be con-ducted with caution. Because miningproperties are often located in remoteareas, such as rugged mountain slopesor in steeply banked canyons, hikingtrails may provide the only access.Given this situation, those involvedwith mining area surveys should beprepared to encounter rigorous condi-tions when conducting fieldwork.

Mines present special hazards withpotentially lethal consequences. Fieldpersonnel should be trained in, familiarwith, and able to recognize mining-related dangers prior to conductingfield work. All explosives encounteredshould be considered extremely dan-gerous. Blasting caps are just as dan-gerous as "stick" powder. Explosivescan be found in any part of a miningarea, not just in the vicinity of the pow-der magazine. The ground aroundmine openings is frequently unstable;unguarded and obscured shafts, raises,and stope openings are hazards toavoid. Covered mine openings shouldnot be considered safe. Unless propertraining has been completed, oneshould not enter the underground por-tion of a mine. The hazards associatedwith surveying historic mines are realand should not be ignored.

In the West, many historic mines arelocated on public lands. The oppositesituation prevails in the East wheremost historic mines will be on privatelyowned lands. Regardless of the geo-

graphic locale, owner consent shouldalways be obtained before venturingonto privately-owned mine lands.

After ascertaining that conditions aresafe and contacting the owners, beginthe survey by defining the limits of thearea to be investigated. This could bethe entire mining district or just onemining claim whose boundaries arerecorded in the mining deed records inthe county courthouse or in the mineralpatent records of BLM. If a mine opera-tion extended over several claims, pat-ented or unpatented, the survey areashould encompass the full extent ofclaims associated with the mine. In thecase of large mining corporations, own-ership could extend over hundreds ofclaims. Other sources that will assist indefining the limits of a survey areainclude oral histories, company records,industrial directories, and USGS andState geologic maps and surveys.

The relationship between the claimsand the topography can differ dramati-cally between hard rock and placermining districts. Placer claims willusually be oriented to the drainagepatterns while lode claims will followthe geologic structure as it was under-stood at the time the claims were lo-cated. Claims may also overlap andhomestead, townsite, and other landclaims may cover the same ground asplacer and lode mineral claims. Knowl-edge of the historic development of anarea should be acquired before conduct-ing field work. This will ensure appro-priate boundaries for the field survey.

Because many mining propertiescontain few standing buildings or struc-tures and disconnected parts of machin-ery scattered throughout the area, thefield surveyor should use the previ-ously gathered historic context informa-tion to determine the type of mine at

hand. This step is impor-tant because, for example,a placer mine will havedifferent features than ahard rock mine or mill.Hard rock mines tend tohave more fixed structuresthan placer mines. Moreimportant, placer minesurface equipment doesnot necessarily stay in oneplace. Over time, placermine excavation and pro-cessing plants are movedalong a creek as the streambed is dug up and theauriferous material

The California State ParksDepartment has placedwarning signs around theindustrial buildings andmine openings at BodieState Park, California.Researchers should be awareof dangers associated withsurveying mining properties.(Robert Spude)

washed through the sluice box. Onsome creeks, the equipment associatedwith a placer mine may be foundabandoned in place miles from where itwas first used.

Furthermore, the fieldwork shouldresult in thorough mapping of anyevidence of earth-moving activity. Thiswould include the mapping of wasterock and tailings piles. Dumps andtailing piles will often indicate thelocations of removed or obscuredfeatures and will provide clues aboutthe type of activity that created them.Coal mine waste gobpiles on the Illinoisprairie or placer mine dredge tailings inCalifornia may be the only indicationsthat major mining industries onceoperated in these areas.

Outlying support features should bemapped as well. For example, if aheadframe stands over a shaft, not onlyshould the headframe be described, butalso the hoist house. The dams, flumes,and penstock supplying water to placermines are as important as the campserected to house the miners. Machineryshould be described, especially itsfunction and manufacturer (if these canbe readily determined). Sanborn fireinsurance maps and patent maps fromBLM may provide descriptions anddetails on mines and structures thatdate to the time when the mine was inoperation, as would any map preparedby companies owning the property. Ifavailable, these maps should be com-pared to the resources evident today.

Mill drawings may be available fromcompany records. If not, examples ofmills are in standard plan books, minemachinery catalogs, contemporary mineengineering books, or advertisements insuch journals as Coal Age, Mining andScientific Press, The Colliery Engineer andEngineering and Mining Journal. Re-gional journals are also helpful, but arerare until the 1890s. Field analysis ofmills, especially outlines of foundationsand tailings, will help describe theadaptations of general plans for thespecific location.

A process flow chart is essential inunderstanding the metallurgy in use atmills. Flow charts were prepared for allmills, but few are extant. Thus, thor-ough mapping and noting of machineryin place is needed in order to recon-struct the flow chart diagram. Similarly,mapping of landscape features andremaining equipment can be used toreconstruct operations at placer, hardrock, and coal mines. While usually lesscomplex, flow charts at coal and placermines are equally useful to the under-standing of mining operations.

Mining property surveys shouldinclude preliminary research related tothe mine, the actual field survey ofphysical remains, and property analysisdesigned to reanimate the operationalsystem which once functioned at amine. This three step process is espe-cially important in cases where thecontemporary mining property lackshistoric buildings and structures.

PRELIMINARY RESEARCH

As discussed previously, preliminaryresearch is begun during the initialprocess of preparing historic contexts.However, in most cases, new informa-tion will be produced to refine historiccontexts both immediately before andduring the field survey. Thus, theongoing nature of preliminary researchwill help to flesh out the historiccontexts, develop new contexts, andprovide further input to the field surveyprocess. In turn, information derivedfrom the survey will lead to furtherrefinements in the historic contexts.

When conducting preliminaryresearch, it is critical to engage in aliterature search that yields informationabout the type of extraction,beneficiation, or refining process thattook place in a given area. Preliminaryresearch into the history of resourcesassociated with mining activity plays animportant role in preventing erroneousfield interpretations: bituminous coal isprocessed differently than anthracite; agold mill is different than a silver mill.At minimum, read the USGS or Stategeological bureau report on the miningarea prior to beginning field work.

Remember too that technology changedas did the terms used to describemining. Use technical publicationscontemporaneous with the period ofmine operation: a 1930s technicaldescription of a gold mill will differgreatly from a description in an 1880spublication.

Other sources to consult include thefollowing: census records, tax assess-

Hardrock Minesused shafts totap ore bodies;headframessupported therope or wirecable thathauled workersand ore.Woodenheadframes, likethis one at theBullion-Beckmine in Eureka,Utah, werereplaced bysteel at the turnof the century.(RobertSpude)

ment records, company books, personaldiaries, community plats, cartographicsources, iconographic and pictorialmaterials, professional and technicaljournals, governmental publications,newspaper accounts, dry directories,oral histories, and local informants.Information recorded during field workshould use mining nomenclature fromthe period of operation and for theregion. A West Virginia coal tipple anda Nevada mine headframe and ore binmight do essentially the same thing —store coal or ore pulled from the mine— but mining glossaries will help fieldcrews get their descriptions correct. Usethe appropriate glossaries and technicalpublications for the area and era. (SeeSection VII for a partial glossary ofmining terms.) Initial historic contextsdeveloped at this point should remainflexible enough to allow for the incorpo-ration of new materials that may resultfrom visiting the property or complet-ing additional research.

FIELD SURVEY

With the preliminary researchdocumentation in hand, the fieldinventory of physical remains can begin.

7

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CONCENTRATION

FLOW SHEET/ ^ Grizzlies2 2 Buchanan jaw crushers: I3"x24", 250 rpm; 3'/g" opening3. Cobbing magnet4 2 Conveyors: Jumbo 3 Bonanza - 22"width, 5 ply5 Ore bin 4OO ton; 32'width; 32' length; 20'depth6 Stevens - Adamson apron feeder7 Conveyor: 40' length; 32"width; 5 ply, 60 fpm8 Conveyor 52' length; 32" width; 5 ply, 60 fpm9 Trommel: 4'diameter • 27"-/lmm; 30"- l"mesh, 16rpm10 Sorting conveyor. 40' length; 32" width, 5 ply, 5O fpm11 Symons disc crusher. 36"; 335 oscillations, 135 rpm; /"opening12. 2 Elevators: 58' length; 18" width; 10ply, 380 fpm, 54 cups13 4 Vibrating screens14. Tray I or rolls. 54" x 20", 83 rpm15 2 Hancock jigs. 195 rpm, '/8" lift;

of pocket, 3'-7'/2" width of pocket16. 2 Harz jigs. 265 rpm; ^"stroke, 4mm screen17. Drag dewaterer. 32'length, 30"width; ,>o 830 chain, 3 r/g" in li.18 Richards hindered settling classifier; 6 spigots; 30'water head19. Chip trommel: 5' length; 3' diameter; 16 rpm; 4mm screen20 Wilfley table: /5//e'stroke, W m 12"slope, 258rpm21. Piat-0 table /3/,6" stroke, %" in 12"slope, 304 rpm

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28. Dorr pump29 Drag dewaterer30 Ball mill. 4'x 4', 30rpm31 Esperanza classifier32 Frenier pump33 12 Plat-0 slime tables, each 305 rpm,34 Frenier pump: 48"x 6"35. Frenier pump. 48"x 6"36. 4 Plat-0 slime tables:

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37. 2 spigot classifier38 Byron Jackson centrifugal pump- 2"x 9"39. Wilfley centrifugal pump-. 4"40 Frenier pump: 48"x 6"41 4 Table concentrate tanks: 9'diameter-, 5' height42 2 Conveyors: 25'length; 22" width; 5 ply, 14 fpm; 5%''in 12" slope43 Drag dewaterer (from Hancock jig concentrate/ 26'length,

40" width, 3 7/e" in 12" slope; 12 fpm44 Bin: I/O ton capacity45 Drag dewaterer (from bull jig concentrate}: 26'length; 14" width,

3 ?/B" in 12" slope; 12 fpm46 Bin. 140 ton capacity47 High grade ore bin

tgif>—r/»g andi Adair Anderson a David C Andtrson. 198$

KENNECOTT COPPER CORPORATION; CONCENTRATION MILL FLOW SHEET 1938

WRANGELL-ST. ELIAS NATIONAL PARK ond PRESERVE AL/

The flow sheet for the Kennecott Concentrator in Kennecott, Alaska is one of the few extantprocess flow charts which were once prepared for all mill sites. These diagrams are essential tounderstanding the technology employed in the mills. (Nanan and David Anderson, Delineators,Historic American Engineering Record)

.

Placer gold mines were once numerous in the West Some employed floatingdredges, such as the Sumpter Valley Gold Dredge in Baker County, Oregon, todredge up gravel and wash gold dust and nuggets from the waste. Dredgestypically deposited large tailings piles along stream beds. (Oregon State HistoricPreservation Office)

The physical remains of mines mayinclude standing buildings, structures,and other architectural remains; ma-chinery; archeological remains; andlandscape features such as mine wasterock dumps, mill tailings, water deliv-ery systems, open pits, and roads.Archeological remains, which may bethe most abundant, typically includeprospects, privy pits, wells, cellar holes,building foundations and platforms,dugouts, domestic and industrial trashdumps, isolated artifacts, collapsedheadframes, machine pads and plat-forms, depressions, roads, ditches,pathways, and bulldozer cuts.

The methods used to locate thephysical remains of mines may includeaerial photography, pedestrian survey,remote sensing (such as radar profilingor proton magnetometry), and simpleprobes. For preliminary mapping andassessment purposes, low-level aerialphotography is an excellent way todocument the physical remains ofmining properties. A systematicprogram of pedestrian survey, however,is essential. Planning for scale is criticalsince the physical remains of miningproperties may cover a large geographi-cal area. Historic placers, which canextend for miles, call for inventiveapproaches to field mapping anddocumentation. For example, usingsmall-scale aerial photography andtransparent overlays to record linear

features and apparently isolatedelements as well as the location of largerconcentrations of features can oftenmake sense out of apparent chaos.Superimposed historic maps on contem-porary maps can help identify featuresand further detail the chronological andindustrial development of an area.Recording methods should includephotography, the preparation ofarchitectural plans and elevations,sketches of machinery and other objects,narrative description, and the prepara-tion of scaled maps.

Field surveys also should includemethods for assessing the integrity andsignificance of the physical remains.Determining whether archeologicaldeposits have a buried component may,for example, require probing or remotesensing. The suitability of the physicalremains for conveying a sense of time,place, and historical patterns or themesshould be considered. The surveyorshould also record observations aboutthe extent to which the physical remainsare repositories of information, includ-ing the presence or absence of artifactsthat carry information needed to answerimportant research questions aboutmining technology or community.Mining resource surveys will oftenrequire multi-disciplinary approaches tosurvey, using the talents of archeolo-gists, historians of technology, land-scape architects, architects, and mining

engineers as well as assistance fromgeologists or practicing miners orindividuals with first hand knowledge ofthe area.

PROPERTY ANALYSIS

Beyond field identification of indi-vidual physical remains, the greatestchallenge connected with miningproperty inventories involves the issueof property analysis. In this case,property analysis refers to the need tolink the now disparate physical remainsto the former reality of working minesand related social systems. What nowappears to be disconnected and geo-graphically isolated buildings, land-forms, machinery, and archeologicalfeatures once worked together toaccomplish ore extraction orbeneficiation.

Identifying the activities and the timeperiods represented by the physicalremains is a key problem. Abandonedmining properties, for example, typicallyare reoccupied and may include build-ings, machinery, landforms, and archeo-logical remains from more than one timeperiod. The new episodes of mining cutthrough the physical remains of oldermining activities, making it difficult tointerpret the engineering and othertechnological systems from earlier timeperiods. Sorting the physical remains bytime period and activity into separatetechnological or social systems may behelpful. The location of the Tenabo Millin central Nevada, for example, whichwas built in 1886 to process gold andsilver ore, includes the mostly archeo-logical remains of two separatebeneficiation technologies: the Russellprocess in the original mill and thecyanide process installed in 1908.Evidence of both technological systemscan be seen when viewing the extantphysical remains today, but the earlierRussell process technology has beenlargely destroyed by the later cyanideoperation (Hardesty, 1988).

IDENTIFYINGPROPERTY TYPES

Mining properties may contain agreat variety of resources representingthe mineral-extraction process. Evalua-tion of these complex properties can beorganized by noting that the processingof ore into metal includes the followingthree basic functions: extraction of theore from the earth; beneficiation, which

Smelters, such as this one at the Ohio-Colorado Smeltingand Refining Company in Salida, Colorado, represent onetype of benefidation plant.

upgrades the ore's value; and refining,which enhances the value of the ore/metal even further until it achieves anearly pure state.

All three functions may occur withinone mining property, such as at someWestern or southern Appalachian goldmines, or may be miles apart, such asiron, copper, or lead smelters locatedgreat distances from mines. Although auniversal description of mineral proper-ties will not address all individual cases,the following provides a general guide todefining historic mining property typesbased on these three fundamental stagesof mineral processing:

EXTRACTION

The property types associated withmine extraction sites can be generallyclassified into two categories reflectingthe evolution of a mine: prospecting/mine exploration property types andmine development or exploitationproperty types. The distinction can beapplied to hard rock, placer, and coalmines.

Prospecting/MineExplorationProperty Types

These propertytypes are associ-ated with thesearch for orebodies. Hand-dugprospect pits,power-shoveltrenches, bulldozercuts, and drillholes, for example,are the physicalremains associatedwith four differentpatterns of mineexplorationtechnology. Someadditional explana-tion will help tounderstand theorigin of typicalexplorationactivity.

Mining is aspeculativeindustry. Todiscover metal,many test pits orprospects must bedug. According tothe 1872 MiningLaw, holding anunpatented claimrequires a miner to

do annual assessment work that mightinclude digging another prospect hole inorder to retain possessory title bydemonstrating that a claim is still active.If a mining district has a producing mine,speculators employ a process sometimesknown as grubstaking that involvespaying prospectors to seek outcrops ofore and to excavate exploratory shafts oradits. In return, the prospector promisesthe speculator a percentage of any profitsearned. In big speculative ventures incoal, iron, or copper areas, investorsmight pay crews to test lands they haveoptioned for purchase. In placer mines,pits as well as trenches may be foundacross streambeds or on benches whereplacer miners sought gold at bedrock,often without luck.

Given this sort of activity, holesabound in mining areas. These holes arenot truly mines, but prospects. Individu-ally, these prospects may appear to lacksignificance. However, prospects areoften associated with the phase of aregion's mining history that witnessedrampant speculation or boom and bust.Entire mining camps have arisen based

not on actual metal production, but onthe speculative investment in prospects.Thus, isolated holes — shafts or adits —may qualify as separate property types.In addition, a combination of researchand field work may reveal a pattern ofprospect holes on the land that offersphysical evidence of the speculativephase of mining development in a givenregion.

These prospect holes may acquireadditional significance if historicalarcheological evidence associated withan adjacent camp or equipment is found.If the material culture possesses suffi-cient integrity, it will help the archeolo-gist in reconstructing the unwrittenhistory of the mining property. Addi-tionally, the prospect hole may havesignificance if it is associated with any ofthe following: the first settler of an area,a prominent miner with whom no otherproperties are associated, or to prehis-toric or aboriginal mining.

Mine Development and ExploitationProperty Types

These property types are associatedwith the definition and extraction of anore body. Typically found at suchlocations are the physical remains ofhoisting works such as headframes andhoist engines; excavations such as openpits or shafts or adits; ventilationsystems such as air shafts or blowers;power systems such as steam boilers orelectric generator houses; drainagesystems such as Cornish pumps; waterdelivery systems; ore bins or tipples;transportation systems such as shortlinerailroads or ore cart runways; andmaintenance and administrative facili-ties such as blacksmith shops, assaylaboratories, offices, and worker'shousing. These structures and systemsare described in the nine-volume MiningLibrary published by McGraw-Hill in the1910s. Their eight-volume Library onCoal Mining series does the same for thatindustry.

Hard rock mines were opened withshafts or adits (tunnels). The ore wasremoved from large openings calledstopes. Creation of these large openingsrequired the use of new support tech-nologies such as square-set timberingand, later, concrete supports. A hoistand head frame over a shaft used a cableand bucket or cage to hoist ore; ahorizontal adit had a level or slightlyinclined rail system to tap the vein. Anopen pit or surface pit used earth-moving machinery to remove overbur-den and to extract ore. At the mine

10

surface, waste rock was dumped andore was stored in bins to await shipmentto processing plants.

Coal mines were different from hardrock mines in that coal was usuallyready for market after minimallyseparating it from waste rock by wateror gravity (or both) and dumping it intobins for shipment. This all occurred in atipple, located at or near the mineentrance. The development of thedistrict around St Qair, Pennsylvania,was characteristic of the anthraciteregions of Appalachia in the nineteenthcentury. At the mine, coal was extractedby pit, shaft, or other standard methods,and then broken, cleaned, and sized at asurface plant called a breaker (used tocrush the hard anthracite coal). Mineowners then loaded coal into railroadcars bound for the markets of Philadel-phia or nearby industries (Wallace,1988). There was no furtherbeneficiation or refining. Some bitumi-nous coal was converted to coke by abaking process in beehive shaped ovens,which removed impurities. Coke ovenswere beneficiation plants, in the strictestsense, used to improve coal to meet theheat requirements of industry.

Placer gold mines, abundant in theWest, required a different technologythan either hard rock or coal mines. Forexample, a placer gold mine systemmight include dams, penstocks, flumes,ditches and holding ponds for water;moved gravels and rock piles; sluiceboxes or long toms; hydraulic nozzles;camp buildings; support structures; and,if used, dredges and their supportfacilities. Placer mines can extend formiles along a streambed.

As technology changed, placermining operations might also coverearlier operations, new tailing pilescovering old workings. In the placermines of Virginia City, Montana, goldminers in the 1860s first used simplesluice boxes and then hydraulic plantsto extract gold nuggets and dust. After1890, the Conrey Placer Mining Com-pany used floating gold dredges onAlder Gulch to dredge gravel and washthe gold dust and nuggets from thewaste, while also covering earlier minedebris. The gold was purified andmelted into bars at an assay lab on siteand shipped to the U.S. Assay Office inHelena. There was no further process-ing needed to sell the mine product to

Open mines may befound from coast tocoast, wherever rockoutcrops exist. Asurvey of existingliterature and a filesearch should beconducted prior to fieldevaluation. This mineadit is located on theTantiusquesReservation inSturbridge,Massachusetts.(Wolfgang Lowy)

the purchaser, theFederal government(Spence, 1989).

The technicalliterature on placermining is vast; see, forexample, August J.Bowie, HydraulicMining, 1878; RobertPeele, Mines Handbook,1918 ed.; Charles Janin,Gold Dredging in theUnited States, 1918; and the bibliographyin Rodman Paul, California Gold.

BENEFICIATION

Except for coal, placer gold, or therare cases involving placer silver,platinum, or copper, most minerals areextracted from the ground in an impureand excessively bulky state and need tobe upgraded before shipment to arefinery. Beneficiation—the upgradingof ore to increase its value—is accom-plished in a processing plant.2

Beneficiation is a broad category, whichincludes many metallurgical processes.

The history of metallurgy is complexand rapid changes occurred during thenineteenth and twentieth centuries.Thus, one must be aware of changingprocesses used for metal beneficiation aswell as the machinery developed tocrush, concentrate, and separate metalfrom waste rock. Fortunately, thevarious processes used in connectionwith beneficiation property types aredetailed in published textbooks. Forexample, Charles R. Hayward's AnOutline of Metallurgical Practice (1929,revised 1940) describes over fifty

different processes for extracting metals.The complexity of beneficiation

property types results, in part, from theway that the technology of millingsystems responded to the increasingsophistication of mining practices. Atthe Oro Belle mine in the BradshawMountains of central Arizona, to dte anexample involving gold, the firstprospectors of the 1860s used thedonkey-powered arrastra to crush theore and then used mercury to amalgam-ate the gold. In the early 1870s, a groupof miners built a steam-poweredarrastra. In 1888, the new owners builta standard ten-stamp mill to crush theore. The sand-like ore then washedacross copper plates where mercurycaptured or amalgamated with thegold. This mill was eventually ex-panded to include concentration tables,which produced a concentrate of lead,zinc, and gold, which was shipped toColorado smelters. By the early 1890s,the cyanide process was introduced atthe plant. This evolution was typical.Thus, a property might have an overlayof several technologies. Similar changesoccurred in silver mills, lead and zinc

1 Benefication, in its strictest definition, indudes every phase of upgrading mineral value, from the mine face to the refineryproduct. However, in its common use, the meaning of beneficiation is restricted to the processing of ore in a mill or concen-trator, or otherwise preparing the ore for refining. In the Iron Range of Minnesota, concentrators were called "benificiationplants".

11

A coal tipple consists ofthe tracks, trestles, andscreens where coal isprocessed and loaded.Coal tipples are goodexamples of MineDevelopment andExploitation propertytypes. Pictured is theKay Moor tipplelocated along the NewRiver in Kay Moor,West Virginia.(National Park Service)

Cyanide leaching tanks at the Hirshey Mine in the Chugach National Forest incentral Alaska represent beneficiation processes employed widely in the UnitedStates in the early twentieth century. (US. Forest Service)

concentrators, and copper concentratorsduring the nineteenth and twentiethcentury.

In general, the development ofconcentration mills changed throughtime to reduce the amount of skilledlabor required for each ton of oreprocessed. In the book Cradle to Grave,Larry Lankton discusses the evolution oftechnology and its impact on LakeSuperior copper mining labor and strife.It is important to link the evolution ofmining technology to the impact it hadon management, labor, business,politics, and communities, besides theobvious role it had in the history ofscience and technology.

Iron, copper, lead, zinc, and otherbase metal ores commonly were crushedand received initial beneficiation inconcentrators that were first based upongravity and then upon flotation pro-cesses. Understanding which processwas used will help the field teamdetermine what type of crushers and/or

12

separation machines were used. Thiswill also help with architectural descrip-tion since mills were designed aroundthe interior machinery metallurgy notthe reverse.

Smelters represent another type ofbeneficiation plant. A smelter mayaccept high-grade ore directly from amine or receive the concentrate from amill for further reduction by heat. Theheat and fluxes of the smelting processremoved further impurities and up-graded the ore into a form known as amatte. Early smelters were small scaleand operated either adjacent to, or inproximity to, the actual mines. Astransportation networks evolved andfuel, space, water, labor and otherfactors came into play, smelters wererelocated away from mines. The earlyplants used simple log-, charcoal-, orcoal-fueled fires to melt ores into a mattethat was still not pure, but rich enoughin content to ship to refineries andmanufacturers.

Given the evolution of the smeltingprocess, an early nineteenth- centuryPennsylvania iron "plantation," a mid-century Midwest lead smelter, and an1860s - 1880s Colorado silver-leadsmelter would all be located near themines. By the end of the century, neweconomies of scale and fuel demandswere removing the plants from themines to distant locales. In the process,the industry became identified with thelarge conglomerates created at the turnof the century such as Anaconda incopper, the American Smelting andRefining Company (ASARCO) in silver-lead (Marcosson, 1949; Marcosson, 1957),and U.S. Steel. Smelters either operatedas independent corporations that boughtores from a number of producers or aspart of an integrated system linkingmine, mill, and smelter. Large smelterswere built at rail centers and near fuel—at Pittsburgh; Pueblo, Colorado; El Paso;and the Salt Lake Valley—to serve manymining districts.

Certain smelting companies, like theCambria Iron Co. at Johnstown, Pennsyl-vania, and the United Verde CopperCompany at Jerome, Arizona, provideexamples of the evolution in the direc-tion of high-capacity smelters. Eachmining company began with smallfurnaces with a capacity of a few tonsper day; within three decades of initialoperations, the firms had mammothplants reducing thousands of tons of ironor copper ore. Cambria included cokingovens to prepare coal, iron furnaces,roller mills that produced railroad railsand iron wire all in a one mile longcomplex (Brown, 1989).

The above discussion reflects thecomplex nature of beneficiation as theprocess evolved over time. The broadoverview provided is intended as ageneral introduction to the subject thatwill assist with the identification ofproperty types associated withbeneficiation.

REFINING

Refineries convert metal into a state ofpurity suitable for industrial use,manufacturing, or for commercialexchange. US. mints and U.S. assayoffices refined the gold and silveramalgamated from mills. Althoughprivate banks, express offices, and assayoffices might also contain the necessaryfurnaces to refine the metal, after 1866Congress required them to sell theirproduct to the U.S. mints. (Prior to 1866,several private assay offices minted goldcoins for regional use as specie.) By the

assay offices were operated by the Bu-reau of the Mint. These offices servedthe local mines by buying gold andhelped the local economy by providinggold coins for the specie-short frontiereconomy, from the southern Appala-chian gold fields to Alaska.

Base metals used by industry wererefined at the larger smelters of theWest or in Eastern refineries that of-fered access to international metal mar-kets. Refineries were like smelters andoperated in concert with them. TheEureka, Nevada, refinery, one of theearliest in the West, is discernable fromthe adjacent smelter by location and byarcheological evidence. Refineriesmight also be associated with manufac-turing works in Eastern cities, wherethe refinery might also be used to createblended metals called alloys. The greatworks of the New York City area andChicago provided an array of metalsand alloys to manufacturers. In gen-eral, field survey will be easier for refin-ery property types because of theamount of technical literature publishedabout these large-scale, capital-intensiveproperties.

In addition to defining propertytypes based on the three mineral pro-cessing stages, other historic miningproperty types exist. These propertytypes include engineer-designed com-plexes, mining landscapes, and relatedproperties.

ENGINEER-DESIGNEDCOMPLEXES

The ideal mining situation was thebonanza mine that had its own concen-tration mill on site; a smelter to reducethe product into nearly pure metal; atramway or railroad haulage systemconnecting the entire works; and aninfrastructure of power house and lines,company housing, store, and office.This situation most often existed in ironand copper camps. For example, by theend of the 1890s the Arizona CopperCompany had an integrated complexdesigned by mining engineers. Thiscomplex included shaft houses withhoists that lifted the ore to ore bins,narrow gauge trains that collected andhauled the ore to concentration mills,and railroads that hauled the ore fromthe concentration mills to thecompany's smelter at Clifton, Arizona.

Most larger mines were part of anengineer-designed system. They wereintricate industrial operations withevery component ideally working inharmony to reduce costs, increase pro-

Stamp Mills such as this one, located at the Reed Gold Mine in NorthCarolina, crushed gold ore into a sand-like consistency which was thenwashed across copper plates where mercury was amalgamated with the ore.The amalgamation process was widely employed in the United States until theearly twentieth century, when it was replaced by the cyanide process. (VirgilSmithers)

duction, and maximize profits. Espe-cially after the 1890s, mining engineersdeveloped standard systems for mineoperation. The Mines Handbook by Peeleet al. describes in detail most of thecomponents of the mine engineers'system. This system, which integratedmassive operations to produce econo-mies of scale, corresponded with therise of big business in America. Mas-sive operations created phenomenalprofits, which often went into biggerplants. These engineer-designed com-plexes help define the twentieth-cen-tury operations at Minnesota's ironranges, the copper mines of the FarWest, the lead and zinc of the tri-stateregion of the Mississippi Valley (Illi-nois, Wisconsin, and Iowa), and the biggold mines of Cripple Creek, Colorado,and the Homestake of Lead, SouthDakota.

On the other hand, smaller mineoperations may have been designed bya skilled craftsman during the nine-teenth century or before, or by an engi-neer, especially after the turn of thecentury. Yet, these are rarities. Thelead district in the tri-state region of theupper Mississippi Valley, for example,is dotted with small mine pits whereminers extracted abundant lead depos-its during the antebellum period. Thesepits reflect a lack of system in mining aswell as a lack of common knowledgeabout geology, ore deposits, and min-ing. Engineer-designed complexes

reflect the development in the profes-sional skills of mine engineering andallowed for the development of mas-sive industrial corporations.

MINING LANDSCAPES

The National Register bulletin onGuidelines for Evaluating and Document-ing Rural Historic Landscapes defines arural historic landscape as "a geo-graphical area that historically hasbeen used by people, or shaped ormodified by human activity, occu-pancy, or intervention, and that pos-sesses a significant concentration, link-age, or continuity of areas of land use,vegetation, buildings and structures,roads and waterways, characteristic ofopen-pit mining landscapes found inplaces such as Bingham Canyon inUtah and the Mesabi Range in Minne-sota, and and natural features." Giventhe extent to which mining activityrepresents a human activity that modi-fies the natural features of the earth,many mining properties will qualify ashistoric landscapes.

Landscapes may represent the mostdramatic visual images of mining.Mining landscapes evoke images oftime, place, and historical patternsassociated with past mining epochs.Mining landscapes might include rav-aged landscapes denuded by nine-teenth-century hydraulic mining in theMother Lode region of California,

13

barren strip-mining landscapes of WestVirginia, gaping holes in the earthdredging landscapes in Alaska charac-terized by mounded tailings piles lininggreat stretches of creek and river beds.In addition to the visual impact of themining landscape, the land forms cre-ated by mining provide clues to pastactivity. Spoil piles often indicate thelocation of adits and shafts, and placertailings can help define the methodsused to mine a stream even if few arti-facts are present.

Mining landscapes can be character-ized and distinguished by historic pat-terns of land use such as strip-mining,hydraulic mining, or open-pit mining;the spatial organization or layout of thelandscape; characteristic natural andcultural landforms such as mine wasterock dumps, mill tailing flows, andcanyons; roads and pathways; vegeta-tion patterns related to land use such assecondary growth of plants on minewaste rock dumps; distinctive buildingsand structures such as headframes orcyanide mills or coal tipples; clusters ofbuildings and structures such as thoseat mines or urban settlements; andsmall-scale features such as mine claimmarkers or fences. Landscapes can bedescribed and evaluated by utilizingthe methodology applied to rural his-toric landscapes (see Guidelines forEvaluating and Documenting Rural His-toric Landscapes.) In most cases, mininglandscapes will be defined as historicdistricts for the purposes of NationalRegister nomination.

RELATED PROPERTY TYPES

Mining properties may includebuildings, structures, or systems thatsupport mine operations such as entirecommunities complete with stores,schools, and other properties. For ex-ample, housing and support facilitiessuch as employee homes, machineshops/blacksmith shops, and powerhouses may be located on mining prop-erty. Rail haulage and road systemsmay also appear. McGill, Nevada;Madrid, New Mexico; and Calumet,Michigan are examples of one-timemajor mining towns that include hous-ing and support facilities, along withthe usual commercial and service in-dustries. These related property typesshould be recorded as components ofthe overall mining operation.

In remote placer districts, such as inparts of Alaska, isolated mining camps— tent frames and small cabins —that once provided shelter frequently

14

The Federal Lead Company's mill in Missouri Mines State Park nearBonne Terre, Missouri is an example of a large scale concentrationplant. This facility upgraded ore into a concentrate for shipment to thesmelter at Herculaneum on the Mississippi River. (Robert Spude)

Tailings piles, such as the ones at the Socorro Mines in Catron County,New Mexico, can be important landscape features that contribute to thesignificance of a mining property. (Chris Wilson)

remain as monuments to the tenacity ofearly prospectors and miners. Waterpipelines and ditches (like the FairhavenDitch across Bering Land Bridge Na-tional Preserve) snake around the con-tours of hills for miles, often far fromany other evidence of mining activity.Small mining camps may contain a lim-ited number of buildings and structures:one or two cabins or tent frames and afew outbuildings such as a shed, severaldog houses, and a cache. These smallcamps, while important as mining prop-erty types, are often associated with anumber of other activities includinghunting, trapping, and woodcutting.

Potentially significant mining-relatedproperties can also be located in placesdistant from the actual mine locations.These properties include mine unionhalls, hydro-electric plants, school ofmines laboratories, courthouses, andmine promoters' homes. Althoughimportant to the history of mining,these properties require little discussionin this bulletin. They can be evaluatedand nominated according to standardpractices outlined in How to Complete theNational Register Registration Form andHow to Complete the National RegisterMultiple Property Documentation Form.

IV. EVALUATION

APPLYINGNATIONALREGISTERCRITERIA TOMININGPROPERTIES

To be eligible for listing in theNational Register of Historic Places, amining property must be significant inAmerican history, architecture, engi-neering, or culture and possess integrityof location, design, materials, workman-ship, feeling, and association. Inaddition, the mining property mustmeet one or more of the four NationalRegister criteria:

A. be associated with events thathave made a significant contributionto the broad patterns of our history;or

B. be associated withthe lives of personssignificant in our past;or

C. embody thedistinctive character-istics of a type,period, or method of

The Ross Furnace inWestmoreland County,Pennsylvania is one ofseveral hundred charcoaliron furnaces whichremained in use inWestern Pennsylvanialong after they had beenphased out in the easternpart of the State. Thisfurnace was abandonedin the 1850s. (Diane B.Reed)

construction, or that represent thework of a master, or that posses highartistic values, or that represent asignificant and distinguishable entitywhose components may lack indi-vidual distinction; or

D. have yielded, or may be likely toyield, information important inprehistory or history.

CRITERION A

Under Criterion A (association with"events that have made a significantcontribution to the broad patterns ofhistory") a mining property may qualifyfor listing in the National Registerthrough its connection with historicthemes. Applicable areas of significance(listed in National Register Bulletin 16A)include the following:

Agriculture: Some early miningproperties were operated as part ofplantations or haciendas which in-cluded the production of food stuffs forworkers and wood for furnaces.

Hopewell Furnace National HistoricSite, a restored iron plantation inPennsylvania, exemplifies this type ofearly mining operation, as do presentlyunevaluated Mexican-era mines of theSouthwest around Tubac, Arizona.

Business: The development of bigbusiness has been associated withextractive industries generally, and oiland the iron and steel industriesspecifically. The captain of industry orrobber baron, depending on the view ofthe writer, is exemplified by suchfamilies as the Rockefellers, theDouglases of Arizona, and theGuggenheims.

Commerce: Mining properties suchas the Julien Dubuque lead mines ofIowa produced minerals for exchangeand barter. Other commerce-relatedmining activities may include thoseproperties associated with attempts tocorner certain metals markets, such asJay Goulds' effort to corner gold in the1860s and the Secretan syndicatesattempt on copper in the 1880s. Virtu-ally all successful mines helped toincrease commerce and trade.

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Community Planning and Develop-ment: Company towns often werefound adjacent to mines, especially inthe base metal and coal industries.Some town planning was unique suchas Phelps-Dodge's mission-style com-pany towns at Ajo, Arizona, and atTyrone, New Mexico.

Conservation: Mining has oftenbeen viewed as the antithesis of conser-vation. Major disputes over resourceconservation have been caused by theattempts of corporations to exploit orebodies. An example would include the

speculation in the mines of Nevada.The history of monetary processes isclosely tied to the precious metal indus-try. The Panic of 1893 was caused bythe demonetization of silver; its impactwas the near total collapse of the West-ern silver mining industry.

Education: Schools of mines playeda significant part in the development ofpublic education, especially in the Westwhere training was needed to operatemines and mills. These colleges oftenhad laboratories or educational minesin mining districts. A number were

Mining properties such as the Mariscal Mine in Big Bend National Park inTexas may be eligible for listing in the National Register under Criterion D.The processing plant and the waste rock piles at the Mariscal Mine may yieldsignificant information about mining technology. (David G. Battle)

Ballinger-Pinchot feud which involvedefforts to develop an Alaskan coal fieldintended to provide fuel for a proposedsmelter for working Kennecott copperores. This plan violated the conserva-tion philosophy espoused by U.S. ForestService Chief Gifford Pinchot and led toa controversy that eventually causedserious fractures both in President Will-iam H. Taft's cabinet and in the Republi-can party.

Economics: The accumulation ofphenomenal wealth from a few minescaused massive speculation in the in-dustry as well as in the stock markets ofthe world. The brief economic panic of1907, for example, is associated with thefinancial machinations of Butte's copperkings and the collapse of rampant

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located in mining districts, such as atFairbanks, Alaska; Houghton, Michi-gan; and Butte, Montana. In certaininstances, schools even owned andoperated mines. Examples includeHarvard University's ownership of theConrey Placer Company of Montana.

Engineering: After 1890, many min-ing complexes featured componentsdesigned by mining engineers. Thiswould include water and transportationsystems built to serve mining opera-tions. Noteworthy examples of miningengineering would fall under this areaof significance. The ascendance of themining engineer over the skilledcraftsperson was a gradual process.Many mining properties can demon-strate the nature of the change and

provide evidence of the intermediatesteps in the process of change.

Ethnic Heritage: Alibates Flint Quar-ries National Monument in Texas andPipestone National Monument in Minne-sota offer examples of extractive technol-ogy and resource use by American Indi-ans. American Indians worked in theCalifornia gold fields, Arizona coppermines, and Alaskan mines. Spanish andMexican mining predates Americanmining in the Southwest; Mexican-Americans played an important role inthe early development of mining in theformer Spanish provinces. Immigrationof ethnic groups from the mining regionsof Europe and Latin America may beevident at mining properties. The goldmining districts of the West attractednumerous Chinese laborers as well.

Exploration/Settlement: This area ofsignificance applies to mining propertiesthat represent exploration or early settle-ment. This includes properties associ-ated with the prospecting, discovery,and development of a region. The goldrushes in California, the Rocky Moun-tains, and in Alaska a half century laterare strongly associated with early settle-ment of their respective regions.

Invention: Mining properties may berelated to the discovery of a new metal-lurgical process, the introduction of newmachinery, or to the development ofnew methods of transport and powertransmission. An example would be thelong-distance power transmission plantat Tellufide, Colorado.

Industry: Mining properties may berelated to the technology and process ofmanaging materials, labor, and equip-ment to produce goods and services,such as refineries that converted metalinto a state suitable for industrial use,manufacturing, or commercial exchange.Iron and copper plants, engineer-de-signed complexes that often had concen-tration mills, smelters, railroad haulagesystems, and infrastructures of powerhouses and lines, company housing,stores, and offices, are other types ofmining properties with associations tothe industry area.

Labor: Mining properties may berelated to mine accidents, miners strikes,unions, and other aspects of labor his-tory. The tragedy at Ludlow, Colorado,or the bloody mine wars of West Vir-ginia are two examples of labor contro-versies.

Law: Mining properties may be re-lated to the development of mineral lawor to localities connected with significantlitigation which caused the reinterpreta-tion of mineral law. For example,Nevada's history is closely associated

with mining law, especially the evolvinglegal perspectives related to the MiningLaw of 1872.

Literature: Mining properties may berelated to literary figures such as MarkTwain, Jack London, Bret Harte, RexBeach, Mary Halleck Foote, and otherwriters who lived in Western miningcamps and used their experiences as abasis for their writing. Many of theMuckrakers or mining critics wroteabout frauds in the extractive industriesor published accounts of mining safetyproblems. One such critical examinationof mining appears in Upton Sinclair'sKing Coal

Military: Mining properties may berelated to military intervention duringminers strikes, military efforts to protectminers working in dangerous frontierconditions, and military expeditionswhich acted to stimulate interest in aparticular area's mineral resources.

Politics/Government: Mining prop-erties may be related to the developmentof mining districts or miners' meetingsheld to formulate laws for a district.Other properties with associations to thepolitics/government area may be relatedeither to political debates over federalregulations, like the silver issue of the1870s-1890s, or to the political aspira-tions of such individuals as the Westernbonanza kings. These bonanza kingsinclude California's George Hearst,Colorado's Simon Guggenheim,Montana's William A. Clark, Nevada'sJames G. Fair, and others who used theirmining wealth for political ends.

Science: Mining properties may berelated to important developments ingeology, metallurgy, and other aspectsof mining engineering. For example,early geologist Douglass Houghton andscientist Charles T. Jackson aided in thedescription and development of Mid-west mineral deposits.

Social History: Mining propertiesmay be related to corporate efforts toprotect the well-being of workersthrough the construction of companyhospitals and libraries, sponsorship ofhumanitarian endeavors, and other as-pects of social history.

CRITERION B

Under Criterion B (association with"persons significant in our past") a min-ing property will possess significance ifdirectly related to a historically signifi-cant person. Examples would includeproperties linked to the following as-pects of a person's historical significance:Herbert Hoover's mine engineering

career before he entered politics, finan-cier Bernard Baruch's rise to powerthrough mine speculation dealings, Gen-eral Sherman's early years as a Califor-nia gold dealer, or bonanza king HoraceTabor's association with the Matchlessmine in Leadville, Colorado. Applicablethemes under Criterion B may includeexploration/settlement, invention, law,literature, politics/government, andlabor. (For additional information aboutCriterion B, see the National Registerbulletin on Guidelines for Evaluating andDocumenting Properties Associated withSignificant Persons.)

CRITERION C

Under Criterion C, a mining propertypossesses significance if it embodies "thedistinctive characteristics of a type, pe-riod, or method of construction, or rep>resents the work of a master, possesseshigh artistic values, or represents a sig-nificant and distinguishable entitywhose components may lack individualdistinction." Mining properties are ofteneligible for National Register listingwithin the following categories:

Architecture: Mining properties havean architecture of their own, especiallythe industrial complexes of mills, hoisthouses, and smelters. Innovations in theuse of metal and concrete have receivedbroad application in the realm of mining.The multitude of gables and roof slopeshas inspired other architectural develop-ments. Noteworthy vernacular architec-ture is sometimes evident in mine build-ings constructed by particular ethnicgroups, such as the Cornish influenceseen in Central City, Colorado.

Engineering: The field of miningengineering and its derivatives, such asmetallurgical engineering, witnessedtremendous progress in the last centuryand a half. Mining properties often pro-vide excellent illustrations of the changesin methods of mining technology overtime. The work of master engineers,such as Daniel Jackling's design for theopen pit at Bingham Canyon, Utah, havesignificance based on their design andengineering innovation.

CRITERION D

Under Criterion D, a mining propertyis significant if it contains informationimportant in prehistory or history. Eli-gible resources which may provide suchinformation include standing buildingsor structures; surviving machinery; land-forms such as mill tailings or mine wasterock dumps; or less visible physical

remains such as privy pits, trash dumps,prospect pits, collapsed headframes,building foundations, roads, and ma-chine pads or anchor piers. Applicationof Criterion D to mining properties re-quires the development of a good re-search design that not only identifies theresearch questions that are important tomining-related scholarship or sciencebut also the information that is neededto answer the research questions. Theinformation value of what remains canbe evaluated within a systematic frame-work based on the following: develop-ing research questions, identifying datarequirements, and assessing theproperty's information content.

Research Questions

The research questions used underCriterion D should be important andderived from a scholarly field, or combi-nation of scholarly fields, such as historyof technology, historical archeology,archeology, anthropology, geography,architectural history, or landscape archi-tecture. Among others, questions aboutvariability and change in mining tech-nology, mining society and culture, andmining landscapes should be consid-ered. The conditions under which inno-vations in mining technology take placeand are accepted or rejected (e.g., Basalla1988), for example, or the impact ofchanges in mining technology upon theworkplace (e.g., Dix 1988, Lankton 1991)are likely to be important. Similarly,questions about community formation(e.g., Hogan 1990), the miner's domestichousehold, the spatial organization ofmining settlements, the production andconsumption of commodities in themining frontier marketplace, ethnicityand ethnic relations, gender, and socialstructure are likely to be important toscholarship on mining society and cul-ture. And yet another group of ques-tions that may be important to the appli-cation of Criterion D have to do with thecharacteristics and evolution of mininglandscapes (Francaviglia 1992).

Identifying Data Requirements

"Critical information" assessment isthe next step in Criterion D evaluation.The type of information needed to an-swer each of the questions identified inthe research design must be stipulated.Questions about mining technology, forexample, might require informationabout variability and change in architec-tural arrangements, the spatial arrange-ment of work-related activities, thearrangement and type of machinery,

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and landforms. Similarly, the informa-tion needed to answer questions aboutthe mining frontier marketplace mayinclude the consumer behavior of aminer's domestic household, retail andwholesale store inventories, transporta-tion costs, and factory production.

Field Assessment of InformationContent

The last step in evaluating the sig-nificance of a mine under Criterion D isfield assessment. How does one knowthat a property contains critical infor-mation? First of all, it is necessary tomake an inventory of what remains atthe property that can provide informa-tion. The remains containing informa-tion may be buried or visible on thesurface and may take the form of iso-lated artifacts, archeological featuressuch as trash dumps or privy pits orwells, standing buildings and struc-tures, machinery, or landforms such asmill tailings or mine waste rock dumps.Next, assess the quantity and quality ofinformation contained in the remains atthe property. Domestic trash dumps,for example, often contain artifactscarrying information about the con-sumer behavior of domestic house-holds, household organization, gender,ethnicity, and social structure.

CRITERIACONSIDERATIONS

Ordinarily cemeteries, birthplaces, orgraves of historical figures; propertiesowned by religious institutions or usedfor religious purposes; structures thathave been moved from their originallocations; reconstructed historic build-ings; properties primarily commemora-tive in nature; and properties that haveachieved significance within the past 50years shall not be considered eligible forthe National Register. However, suchproperties will qualify if they are integralparts oi districts that meet the criteria orif they fall within the following catego-ries:

A. a religious property derivingprimary significance from architec-tural or artistic distinction or histori-cal importance; or

B. a building or structure removedfrom its original location but whichis significant primarily for architec-tural value, or which is the survivingstructure most importantly associ-

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ated with a historic person or event;or

C. a birthplace or grave of a histori-cal figure of outstanding importanceif there is no other appropriate siteor building directly associated withhis or her productive life; or

D. a cemetery which derives itsprimary significance from graves ofpersons of transcendent importance,from distinctive design features, orfrom association with historicevents; or

E. a reconstructed building whenaccurately executed in a suitableenvironment and presented in adignified manner as part of a resto-ration master plan, and when noother building or structure with thesame association has survived; or

F. a property primarily commemo-rative in intent if design, age, tradi-tion, or symbolic value has investedit with its own historical significance;or

G. a property achieving significancewithin the past 50 years if it is ofexceptional importance.

Examples of historic mining proper-ties that generally will not qualify forlisting in the National Register includemining resources that are less than fiftyyears old, reconstructed mining townsthat provide a contemporary portrayalof the frontier mining era, and collec-tions of mining artifacts removed fromtheir original locations and placed inmuseum collections. However, some ofthese properties may qualify for theNational Register when they fall withincategories A through G listed above.Examples include the following:

Moved Properties—Relocated prop-erties generally do not qualify for theNational Register. Under ordinarycircumstances, this requirement placesfew constraints on the nomination ofmining resources since they are notinherently moveable. However, certaincomponents of mining properties aresubject to relocation. For example, ashack used to store blasting powdermay be small enough to have beenmoved from an inactive mining prop-erty to an active one. In addition, allmanner of mining equipment is por-table. Such equipment, classified asobjects for National Register nomina-tion purposes, would include ore carts,stamp mill batteries, drilling imple-

ments, tram cars, steam engines, waterwheels, flotation tanks, and many otherpossibilities.

In general, if buildings, structures, orobjects associated with mining activityare moved to other mining locations,these resources can be eligible as con-tributing features of a mining propertyprovided that the most recent relocationoccurred over fifty years ago. In addi-tion, the moved resource must contrib-ute to the significance of, and fall withinthe period of significance of, the miningproperty to which it was moved. Ifbuildings, structures, and objects aremore than fifty years old, but weremoved less than fifty years ago, theseresources will not contribute to thesignificance of the property. Althoughrecently moved resources may not con-tribute to a property's significance, themining property may still be eligible ifit is predominately greater than fiftyyears old and retains integrity. Build-ings, structures, and objects removedfrom their original locations and placedin museums for public display will notbe eligible.

Resources Less than 50 Years Old—A historic mining resource achievingsignificance within the past 50 years canbe listed in the National Register if it isexceptionally important. To qualify, amining resource must be associatedwith important recent themes or devel-opments (such as World War II) thatscholarly or professional research hasrecognized as having a significant im-pact on the history of mining activity.

For example, certain less-than-50year-old uranium mines may be eligiblefor the National Register. Congresscreated the Atomic Energy Commission(AEC) following the conclusion ofWorld War II. Shortly afterwards, theAEC acted to stimulate uranium pro-duction by offering discovery and de-velopment bonuses. This practice fos-tered a uranium mining boom thatcontinued until the bonus programexperienced severe cutbacks in 1958. Ifsufficient scholarly documentation hasbeen produced to demonstrate thatparticular uranium mines played excep-tionally important roles in the develop-ment of the nation's nuclear capabili-ties, these mines may be eligible forlisting in the National Register eventhough they are less than 50 years old.Establishing exceptional importancewill require that such mines be com-pared with other uranium mines hav-ing similar associations and qualities inorder to identify the strongest candi-dates for National Register listing.

INTEGRITYIntegrity is the ability of a property

to convey its significance. To be listedin the National Register, a propertymust not only be shown to be signifi-cant under the criteria, but it also musthave integrity. The National Registerrecognizes seven aspects or qualitiesthat, in various combinations, defineintegrity. The seven aspects of integrityconsist of the fol-lowing: location,design, setting,materials, work-manship, feeling,and association.To retain historicintegrity, a prop-erty will alwayspossess several,and usually most,of the aspects.

When assessingthe integrity of amining property, itis important toremember that theNational Registerwill accept signifi-cant and distin-guishable entitieswhose componentsmay lack indi-vidual distinction.As discussed else-where in this bulle-tin, the passage oftime, exposure to aharsh environ-ment, abandon-ment, vandalism,and neglect oftencombine to causethe deterioration ofindividual miningproperty compo-nents. For ex-ample, buildings may have collapsed,machinery may have been removed,and railroad tracks may have been sal-vaged. However, the property may stillexhibit a labyrinth of paths, roads, shaftopenings, trash heaps, and fragments ofindustrial activity like standingheadframes and large tailings piles.Although these individual componentsmay appear to lack distinction, the com-bined impact of these separate compo-nents may enable the property to con-vey the collective image of a historicallysignificant mining operation. In es-sence, the whole of this property will begreater than the sum of its parts.

In such cases, a mining property maybe judged to have integrity as a systemeven though individual components ofthe system have deteriorated over time.

Because most historic mining prop-erties will be abandoned and in poorrepair, special care must be taken whenevaluating integrity. The integrity of amining property cannot be judged inthe same fashion as the integrity of abuilding. In some cases, buildings andobjects related to mining will have been

different mining properties during itslifespan, relocated historic miningequipment (i.e., equipment over fiftyyears old) can retain integrity undercertain conditions. For example, 100-year-old mining equipment may havebeen moved to a newer mine that firstwent into operation seventy years ago.Although this equipment is not in itsoriginal location, it can contribute to thesignificance of the property since it hasbeen in place for over fifty years.

Numerous small mining camps sprang up during the boom years in the Mining West.Independence was founded during Colorado's silver rush, but was abandoned by 1900. Towns likeIndependence once dotted the West, but most have deriorated because of neglect. In spite of itsdeterioration, Independence, and other mining properties like it, may retain integrity as asignificant and distinguishable entity whose components lack individual distinction. (William E.

relocated and many original construc-tion materials will be gone. The follow-ing sections explain how the sevenaspects of integrity relate to historicmining properties.

LOCATION

Integrity of location means that amine or mill remains in its originallocation. A place where mining onceoccurred is not inherently moveable,but components used to conduct min-ing or milling can be moved. Becausemachinery was often moved to several

In other cases, a mine may be his-toric (i.e., over fifty years old) andequipment at the mining location maybe historic (i.e., over fifty years old), butthe equipment may have been movedto the location less than fifty years ago.Historic equipment which has been at amining property for less than fifty yearswill not contribute to a property's sig-nificance. However, this equipmentwill not necessarily detract from theproperty's integrity provided that theequipment generally serves to comple-ment the setting.

Machinery moved explicitly for thepurposes of display in a museum, park,

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or other interpretive site completelydivorced from the place of historicmining activity has lost integrity oflocation. Machinery moved to "artifactgardens" also lacks integrity.

DESIGN

As mentioned earlier, mines andmills evolve through time with theintroduction of new machinery ortechnology or the expansion of themining operation. This evolutionmeans that plants found in an unaltered

state are rare. Thus, contemporaryevaluation of a mill's integrity shouldnot only be based on its conformancewith an original construction plan, butalso on its ability to illustrate theproperty's evolution through time.However, in cases where the propertyhas undergone significant alterationsduring the past fifty years, the evolu-tionary process may result in a loss ofintegrity.

Mining operations were designed tofollow established mine engineeringpractices that involved the flow of orefrom the mine to the mill to the refinery.

The original setting of the Crystal Plant near Marble, Colorado is an integral part of thesignificance of the property. (J. Heyzvood)

The engineering flow chart is essentialin understanding the integrity of design.The lack of a minor feature in a systemshould not detract from its integrity,much in the same way that a missingcornice detail should not result in a lossof integrity for an entire house. How-ever, the cumulative number of missingcomponents must be taken into consid-eration.

When considering the cumulativeloss of features, the evaluator must besure to include buildings and machin-ery as well as the designed landscape,the moved earth, and piled stones or

debris. For example, whenevaluating a placer mine whichhas a historic hydraulic nozzlefound in place but lacking anyof the connecting system orevidence of canvas or metalpipes, take into considerationany earth works used to supportthe system. The pipe may bepiled nearby to avoid being splitby winter freeze or washed outby early spring flood. In thiscase, the hydraulic system maystill have integrity of designbecause the machinery andearth works were found as theywere meant to be in mid-winter.

Underground works weredesigned as part of the minesystem and, under someconditions, may receive consid-eration when establishingintegrity of design. However,the underground works may beinaccessible and need not beinspected for National Registerintegrity if the mine is unsafe.The majority of undergroundmines are extremely unstableand should never be enteredunless a State mining inspectionhas certified their safety. Thus,design integrity will generallybe limited to the ability toreconstruct the flow chart fromthe mine opening and beyond.

SETTING

Historic mines were indus-trial complexes that contained amultitude of functions. In manycases, the industrial featurestypical of a mining property arenot pleasing to the eyes ofcontemporary viewers. Forexample, use of dredges mayhave left unsightly tailings pilesthat stretch for miles alongstream beds. In other cases, a

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historic mining are may be- littered withabandoned machinery and dilapidatedbuildings and structures. The appear-ance createdby these vestiges of by-gone industrial activity represent im-portant aspects of setting that can actu-ally contribute to the integrity of a min-ing property.

Modern day instrusions can com-promise the setting. Attempts to artifi-cially empellish a mining property'ssetting can detract from the property'sintegrity. For example, the introduc-tion of false-fronted boom-town struc-tures can create an inappropriate set-ting that lacks historic authenticity.Other modern intrusions include recentmining activity activity that can com-promise integrity of setting through theintroduction of newer mass miningsystems that destroy the historic min-ing property or leave it isolated. Also,recent settlement or development asso-ciated with gambling initiatives in ahistoric mining location can have anegative impact on integrity of setting.

MATERIALS

Retaining integrity of materials re-quires evidence that sympathetic mate-rials have been used during the courseof previous repair or restoration ofmining properties. Thus, a mine tram-way with wooden supports shouldhave been repaired with in-kindwooden materials. Because mine struc-tures were often unpainted and ex-pected to deteriorate, previous restora-tion efforts should have used untreatedwood with the expectation that itwould eventually need to be replacedtoo. However, inappropriate paintingof mining properties will not automati-cally amount to a loss of integrity.

WORKMANSHIP

To the largest extent possible, miningproperties should retain evidence oforiginal workmanship. For example,the integrity of workmanship should bemaintained in cases where an under-ground mine is open to the public. Thiswould include preservation of suchfeatures as square-set timbering sys-tems, the protection of pipe lines andtrack, and retaining the feel of the con-fined working space.

FEELING

As abandoned industrial propertiesgenerally located in isolated areas, thesites of historic mining activity oftenevoke a strong sense o( feeling whenviewed by contemporary observers.Since mineral resources are non-renew-able, mines close when ore reserves aredepleted. Structures and equipment aresimply abandoned. The image of aban-donment has attracted more popularattention than active industrial opera-tions. The feeling of a deserted historicmine can help reflect the character ofthe boom and bust cycles of miningregions. The loss of this feeling of isola-tion and abandonment due to encroach-ing modern development can diminishthe integrity of a mining property.

ASSOCIATION

Integrity of association will exist incases where mine structures, machin-ery, and other visible features remain toconvey a strong sense of connectednessbetween mining properties and a con-temporary observer's ability to discernthe historical activity which occurred atthe location.

Three brief examples may help tosummarize the process of applyingintegrity standards to mining proper-tie*?. The first example involves thoserare cases where a mining propertyconsists of a complete mining systemincluding shafts, transportation facili-ties, extant mill buildings, worker hous-ing, and other aspects of the overallsystem. In such cases, the propertywould have integrity.

In the second, more typical, example,a mining property would lack visiblebuildings or contain only buildings thathad been altered extensively. However,the property would have associatedfeatures like mine shafts, headframes,tramways, house and mill foundations,tailings piles, trash dumps, cemeteries,privies, and other isolated objects. Al-though buildings may be lacking or in adeteriorated state, this property wouldhave integrity as long as key aspects ofthe mining system remain visible.

In a third case, visible buildingsmight remain extant, but the buildingsmay have been totally altered and thefundamental components of the miningsystem may have been destroyed bymodern development. This propertywould have lost integrity.

The important principle inherent ineach of these three examples is that theintegrity of mining properties will fre-quently hinge not so much on the con-dition of the extent buildings, but ratheron the degree to which the overall min-ing system remains intact and visible.This method of evaluating integrityrequires a holistic outlook that compre-hensively considers all the componentparts of a mining system. If clearphysical evidence of a complete systemremains intact, deterioration of indi-vidual aspects of the system may noteliminate the overall integrity of theresource.

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V. DOCUMENTATION ANDREGISTRATION

How to Complete the National RegisterRegistration Form and How to Completethe National Register Multiple PropertyDocumentation Form contain specificinstructions for completing individualand multiple property nominations.The following discussion will focus onspecial considerations related to thenomination of mining properties. Thisdiscussion begins with a brief overviewof the different nomination formats andthe circumstances under which oneformat may be employed instead ofanother.

The National Register lists indi-vidual properties, including districts,sites, buildings, structures, and objects.Multiple property submissions containgroups of properties, which are relatedby common historical associations orphysical characteristics and which arenominated under a single "cover docu-ment."

The National Register RegistrationForm (NPS Form 10-900) should beused for the nomination of individualdistricts, sites, buildings, structures,and objects related to mining. Thisformat is used in situations involvingthe nomination of an individual stand-ing structure or building such as asingle powder shack, mill, orheadframe. However, individual min-ing resources generally do not exist inisolation. Based on the premise thatindividual mining resources will usu-ally serve as single elements of largermining systems, only a relatively smallpercentage of mining resources will benominated as individual buildings orstructures.

Given the prevalence of miningsystems, the historic district is a com-mon framework for nominating a con-centrated assemblage of related miningresources to the National Register. TheNational Register defines a district asfollows: "A district possesses a signifi-cant concentration, linkage, or continu-ity of sites, buildings, structures, orobjects united historically or aestheti-cally by plan or physical development."This definition aptly describes many

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mining properties. Most potentiallyeligible mining properties do not con-sist only of a single resource, but ratherwill include a discrete historical areacontaining a grouping of functionallyrelated resources that all played a partin the extraction, refinement, and pro-duction of minerals. Historic districtsare nominated on the National RegisterRegistration Form.

A discontiguous district may berelevant to the nomination of miningproperties. A discontiguous district iscomposed of two or more definablesignificant areas separated by nonsig-nificant areas. According to the Na-tional Register Bulletin on How to Applythe National Register Criteria for Evalua-tion A discontiguous district is mostappropriate where

• elements are spatially discrete;

• space between the elements is notrelated to the significance of the dis-trict; and

• visual continuity is not a factor inthe significance."

These three factors could apply tomany mining properties. Given thelarge-scale nature of certain miningactivities, elements of many miningsystems will be separated by spacesunrelated to the significance of the dis-trict. Among many possibilities,discontiguous districts may be mostappropriate for the nomination of min-ing properties involving linear systemslike tramways, ditches, and flumes.Ditch and flume systems, for example,may have periodically terminated bydumping water into streams. Watermay then be diverted back into thesame system several miles downstream.In this case, the stream itself may not beincluded in the district, but the ditchesand flumes would be elements of adiscontiguous system.

In another example, an aerial tram-way originally built to transport copperore to a smelter several miles away

might be nominated as a discontiguousdistrict containing both the tramwayand the smelter. Although first built asa linear system, many elements of thesystem may have lost integrity today.All the tram towers may have beenremoved and the entire tram route maybe covered with forest growth notpresent during the period of historicsignificance. However, the coppermine, the smelter, and several tramtower pads may remain clearly visibletoday. These elements of the originaltram system could be nominated as adiscontiguous district. A discontiguousdistrict is nominated on a NationalRegister Registration Form.

The Multiple Property Documenta-tion Form (NPS Form 10-900-b) is usedto document a group of significantproperties linked by a common historiccontext. The Multiple Property Docu-mentation Form is not used to nominateproperties, but provides a historicaloverview, defines property types re-lated to the overview, and outlines thesignificance and registration require-ments for the property types. Indi-vidual properties associated with thehistoric context are nominated on aNational Register Registration Form.An example might involve several goldmines dispersed across a given county,all of which produced ore for refine-ment at a mill located some distanceaway from each of the mines. The his-toric significance of the mines and themill could be outlined in a historic con-text titled "Gold Production in GrandCounty, 1874-1893." In terms of prop-erty types, all the mines can be classi-fied as an extraction property type andthe mill could be categorized as abeneficiation property type. The regis-tration requirements for property typesestablish a benchmark for definingeligibility for listing.

The historic context documentationpertaining to "Gold Production inGrand County" and related propertytype information is included on theMultiple Property DocumentationForm. Within the multiple property

framework, separate nominations foreach of the individual mines, the mill,and any historic districts must beprepared using registration forms (NPSForm 10-900). The advantage of thisapproach is that one "cover document"can be used to expedite the documenta-tion and nomination of a number ofseparate properties.

Because mining properties are oftenlarge and complex resource types,several historic contexts may be re-quired to convey the overall significanceof a mining property. However,nominations can be submitted before allassociated historic contexts have beendocumented. Once a single historiccontext has been documented on aMultiple Property DocumentationForm, related property nominations canbe prepared and are submitted to theNational Register. When other historiccontexts are documented and propertynominations completed, these can besubmitted to the National Register at alater date as amendments to the originalMultiple Property DocumentationForm. Thus, the multiple propertyformat offers a flexible mechanism fornominating groups of mining propertiesover a period of time.

Situations will arise where individu-als involved in the preparation ofnominations will ask whether a historic

district nomination is most appropriatefor a given mining property or whethera multiple property nomination oughtto be undertaken. A multiple propertysubmission will usually be appropriatein cases where separate mining re-sources are related by a commonhistoric context or theme, but arespatially separate. An example wouldinvolve several mine properties associ-ated with a mill where all the ore withina mining region was brought forrefinement. In spite of the obvioushistoric association between the minesand the mill, it may be that the transpor-tation systems leading from the minesto the mill have lost their historicidentity over the years. Anotherpossible scenario would involve a casewhere the same hypothetical mill islocated so far away from the miningproperty that creating a historic districtis not justified. In these situations,nominators should adopt the multipleproperty format.

A district nomination generally willbe appropriate in cases where all of theelements of an intact mining system arelocated within a contiguous geographicarea. The size of such an area mightvary from a small parcel of less than oneacre, which includes a few buildingsand a mine shaft opening, to a broadexpanse extending over a thousand

acres and including mines, mills,tramways, flumes, roads and otherrelated pieces of machinery and equip-ment. In addition, all the elements ofthe district must retain their historicassociations with one another.

Whether preparing individualproperty nominations or multipleproperty nominations, the NationalRegister Registration Form plays a role.Several sections of the registration formare of particular importance whennominating mining properties. Thesesections include #7 (description),#8 (significance), and #10 (boundaries).Each of these elements of the individualform will now be examined in greaterdetail.

SECTION 7:DESCRIPTION

The description section of an indi-vidual registration form should beginwith an introductory paragraph thatbriefly describes the property, notes itsmajor physical characteristics, andassesses its physical integrity. Addi-tional paragraphs should support theintroductory paragraph and provide amore detailed description of the prop-erty. This additional material should

As a potential sourceof information abouttechnologicalinnovation, miningmachinery should bediscussed in thedescription section ofa National Registernomination. Thisball mill at theSocorro Mines inCatron County, NewMexico was used inthe cyanideprocessing of ore.(Chris Wilson)

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i .

During the nineteenth century immigrants from mining regions throughout the world arrived in the new mining fields ofAmerica. Among these immigrant groups were the Cornish, who used their homeland building techniques to establishcommunities such as the upper Mississippi River lead district town of Mineral Point, Wisconsin, shown here. Ethnic groupcontributions to the development of a mining area should be described in the significance section of a nomination. (StateHistorical Society of Wisconsin)

also discuss the property's historic andcurrent condition, and identify and dateof any alterations, additions, or otherchanges that have affected the historicevolution and integrity of the property.

Other specific issues that should beaddressed in describing mining proper-ties will include discussion of thefollowing:

• Natural features that contributed tothe original decision to conductmining activity in the area.

• Any landscape modificationsassociated with historic miningactivity (i.e., tailings piles, gob piles,etc.).

• Deterioration due to vandalism,neglect, lack of use, or severeweather, and the effect it has had onthe property's historic integrity.

• Original and other historic machin-ery still in place.

• Linear systems within the propertysuch as canals, ditches, railroads,railroad beds, roads, and tramwaysincluding their approximate lengthand width and the location ofterminal points.

If the mining property is nominatedas a historic district, the descriptionsection also should discuss whether ornot all the individual components of theresource contribute to the significanceof the historic district. In determiningwhether district resources are contribut-ing or noncontributing, considerspecific information about each re-source including its period of signifi-cance, function, association, informationpotential, and physical characteristics.All resources should be keyed ascontributing or noncontributing on asketch map submitted with the form.

SECTION 8:SIGNIFICANCE

The statement of significance shouldbegin with a paragraph summarizingthe significance of the mining property.This paragraph should explicitly discusshow the property meets the NationalRegister criteria, including the criteriaconsiderations, and how it represents allperiods and areas of significanceindicated on the form. The openingparagraph should be followed by adiscussion of the property's historiccontext. Additional facts directlypertaining to the property's eligibilitymay be included to establish aproperty's significance, integrity, orability to meet one or more criteriaconsiderations.

Questions tend to arise about therequired length of the historic context

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documentation. In general, the NationalRegister does not mandate that aparticular amount of documentationshould accompany each nomination.Sufficient information should beprovided to justify the significance andeligibility of the nominated properties.However, the length of the contextstatement will vary depending upon thenomination format.

The multiple property formatrequires that historic context material beincluded in the multiple propertydocumentation form. This means thatindividual nominations submitted aspart of a multiple property packageneed only include a description, a briefhistoric context statement pertinent tothat property, and an indication of howthe nominated resource meets theregistration requirements establishedfor measuring the significance of theproperty type. However, propertiesnominated without a multiple propertycover form will have to contain suffi-cient context information within thenomination to support registration.

When explaining the significance ofmining properties, the following typesof questions should be addressed:

• How do the extant vestiges ofmining functions or processes relateto the broader mining or technologi-cal development of the locality,region, State, or nation?

• How important were the entrepre-neurs, engineers, laborers, ethnicgroups, and others who contributedto the development of the miningoperation?

• How do the remaining buildings,structures, sites, objects, and historicdistricts reflect significant miningproduction processes?

• How did the mining operation(s)impact or influence other activities

within a region or locale, such asexploration, settlement, and/or othercommercial development-relatedactivities?

• How is evidence of historic miningactivity reflected in the archeologicalrecord?

SECTION 10:BOUNDARIES

All mining property boundariesshould be plotted on USGS topographicmaps. These maps will be includedwith the nomination documentation.Because of the complexity of manymining properties, a separate sketchmap (preferably drawn to a scale of 1inch equals 200 feet) may help to clearlyidentify both the boundaries and theresources within those boundaries.Resources within sketch map bound-aries should be labeled as contributingor non-contributing. These resourcesshould also be cross-referenced to thedescription section (Section 7) of thenomination.

Mining property boundaries shouldhe selected to encompass, but notexceed, the full extent of the resourcesmaking up the property. Boundaries fora single parcel of land should encom-pass the significant concentration ofbuildings, sites, structures, or objectswhich comprise the mining property.Byproducts of mining activity, such astailings piles, should be included withinproperty boundaries.

In nominations involvingdiscontiguous historic districts, aseparate boundary should encompasseach discontiguous element of thedistrict. Each discontiguous elementshould be plotted on a USGS map, eventhough several maps may sometimeshave to accompany the nomination. Ifnecessary, separate sketch maps may be

submitted for each discontiguouselement.

In some instances, legally recordedmineral patent applications will help todetermine the appropriate boundariesfor a mining property. Such materialcan help to develop verbal boundarydescriptions and to accurately plot thelocation of mining properties on theUSGS maps that must accompany eachNational Register nomination. Ifavailable, these patent applications maybe found in county courthouses, stategeological offices, or in Bureau of LandManagement offices.

The above-ground portion of amining property will often be consider-ably smaller than portions of theproperty located beneath the surface ofthe earth. Because of the potentialdangers involved, field investigatorsshould not attempt to verify this fact byexploring underground mines. Under-ground investigation should only beattempted in those very rare cases whena State mining inspector has certifiedthat a mine is safe to enter. As a generalrule, however, exploration of under-ground mines should be avoided.

In some cases, written records maycontain information about the extent ofan underground mine. If so, thisknowledge should be utilized whendetermining the above-ground bound-aries of the property. Such informationshould be used to define above-groundboundaries that encompass the extent ofthe underground reaches of the mine.This will help to protect the full extentof the mining property by assuring thatdevelopment projects only occuroutside the property boundaries. Inaddition, such measures will help toensure that new development does nottake place in areas where groundsubsidence is likely to occur. In manycases, however, boundaries will relateonly to the mining resources visible onthe surface of the ground.

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VL SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

SAMPLEPERIODICALS ANDJOURNALSThe following are examples of periodi-cals and journals thai: were in printduring the ninteenth and early twenti-eth centuries that discuss events,technology, and personalities involvedwith mining during that era. This list isby no means exhaustive, but willprovide general guidance to research-ers. The periodical and journal titles arecommonly used but may have changedover time.

Coal Age; Engineering and MiningJournal New York City; Mining andScientific Press, San Francisco; LosAngeles Mining Review; Iron Age,Radnor, Pennsylvania; Black HillsMining Review, Deadwood, SouthDakota; Mining Reporter, Denver; SaltLake Mining Review, Salt Lake City; TheSchool of Mines Quarterly, New YorkCity; Transactions of the AmericanInstitute of Mining Engineers, New YorkCity.

BOOKSAbbe, Donald R. Austin and the Reese

River Mining District, Nevada'sForgotten Frontier. Reno: University ofNevada Press, 1985.

Alanen, Arnold R. "Documenting thePhysical and Social Characteristics ofMining and Resource-Based Com-munities/' AFT Bulletin, v. XI (1979),pp. 49-68.

Axford, H. William. Gilpin County Gold,Peter McFarlane 1848-1929, MiningEntrepreneur in Central City, Colorado.Chicago: The Swallow Press Inc.,1976.

Barker, Leo R. and Ann E. Huston, eds.Death Valley to Deadwood; Kennecott toCripple Creek, Proceedings of theHistoric Mining Conference January 23-27,1989, Death Valley NationalMonument. San Francisco: NationalPark Service, 1990.

Basalla, George. The Evolution of Technol-ogy. New York: Cambridge Univer-sity Press, 1988.

Bowie, Augustus ]., A Practical Treatiseon Hydraulic Mining in California, 8thEdition. New York: D. VanNostrand, 1898.

Brown, Ronald C. Hard Rock Miners: TheIntermountain West, 1860-1920.College Station: Texas A & MUniversity Press, 1979.

Brown, Sharon A. Historic ResourceStudy, Cambria Iron Company. Den-ver: National Park Service, 1989.

Cash, Joseph H. Working the Homestake.Ames: The Iowa State UniversityPress, 1973.

Christiansen, Paige W. The Story ofMining in New Mexico. New MexicoBureau of Mines & Mineral Re-sources, Scenic Trips to the Geologi-cal Past No. 12. Socorro: University ofNew Mexico Press, 1974.

Cleland, Robert Glass. A History ofPhelps Dodge, 1834-1950. New York:Alfred A. Knopf, 1952.

Deetz, James. In Small Things Forgotten.Garden City, NY: Anchor Books,1977.

Dix, Keith. What's a Coal Miner to Do?The Mechanization of Coal Mining.Pittsburgh: University of PittsburghPress, 1988.

Eller, Ronald D. Miners, Millhands, andMountaineers, Industrialization of theAppalachian South, 1880-1930. Knox-ville: The University of TennesseePress, 1982.

Elliott, Russell R. Nevada's Twentieth-Century Mining Boom, Tonopah,Goldfield, Ely. Reno: University ofNevada Press, 1966.

Fatout, Paul. Meadow Lake, Gold Town.1969. Reprint. Lincoln: University ofNebraska Press, 1974.

Fay, Albert H. A Glossary of the Miningand Mineral Industry, U.S. Bureau ofMines Bulletin 95. Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office, 1920.

Fell, James E., Jr. Ores to Metals, TheRocky Mountain Smelting Industry.Lincoln: University of NebraskaPress, 1979.

Francaviglia, Richard V. Hard Places.Reading the Landscapes of America'sHistoric Mining Districts. Iowa City:University of Iowa Press, 1992.

Gibson, Arrell M. Wilderness Bonanza,The Tri-State District of Missouri,Kansas, and Oklahoma. Norman:University of Oklahoma, 1972.

Graebner, William. Coal Mining Safetyin the Progressive Period. Lexington,Kentucky: University Press ofKentucky, 1976.

Greene, Linda W. and John A. Latschar,Historic Resource Study, A History ofMining in Death Valley NationalMonument. 4 vols. Denver: NPS,1981.

Greever, William S. The Bonanza West,the Story of the Western Mining Rushes,1848-1900. Norman: University ofOklahoma Press, 1963.

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Hardesty, Don L. The Archeology ofMining and Miners: A View from theSilver State. Special PublicationSeries, No. 6. Ann Arbor, Michigan:The Society for Historical Archeol-ogy, 1988.

Hayward, Carle R. An Outline ofMetallurgical Practice. New York: D.Van Nostrand Company, 1929. (Oneof many textbooks on metallurgy.)

Hogan, Richard. Class and Community inFrontier Colorado. Lawrence: Univer-sity Press of Kansas, 1990.

Holliday, J.S. The World Rushed In, theCalifornia Gold Rush Experience. NewYork: Simon and Schuster, 1981.

Hunt, William R. North of 53, the WildDays of the Alaska-Yukon MiningFrontier. New York: MacmillanPublishing Company, 1974.

Hurtado, Albert L. Indian Survival on theCalifornia Frontier. New Haven,Connecticut: Yale University Press,1988.

Jackson, W. Turrentine. Treasure Hill,Portrait of a Silver Mining Camp.Tucson: The University of ArizonaPress, 1963.

Janin, Charles. Gold Dredging in theUnited States. Bureau of Mines,Bulletin No. 127, Washington D.C.:Government Printing Office, 1918.

Jensen, Vernon H. Heritage of Conflict,Labor Relations in the NonferrousMetals Industry up to 1930. Ithaca,New York: Cornell University Press,1950.

King, Joseph E. A Mine to Make a Mine:Financing the Colorado Mining Indus-try, 1859-1902. College Station: TexasA & M University Press, 1977.

Lankton, Larry. Cradle to Grave. Life,Work, and Death at the Lake SuperiorCopper Mines. New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 1991.

Lingenfelter, Richard E. Death Valley andthe Armargosa, A Land of Illusion.Berkeley: University of CaliforniaPress, 1986.

The Hardrock Miners, A Historyof the Mining Labor Movement in theAmerican West, 1863-1893. Berkeley:University of California Press, 1974.

Long, Priscilla, Where the Sun NeverShines, A History of America's BloodyCoal Industry. New York: ParagonHouse, 1989.

Lord, Eliot. Comstock Mining and Miners.1883. Reprint. Berkeley: Howell-North, 1959.

Malone, Michael P. The Battle for Butte,Mining and Politics on the NorthernFrontier, 1864-1906. Seattle: Univer-sity of Washington Press, 1981.

Molloy, Peter M. The History of MetalMining and Metallurgy: An AnnotatedBibliography. New York: Garland,1986.

Marcosson, Isaac F. Anaconda. NewYork: Dodd, Mead & Company,1957.

Metal Magic, the Story of theAmerican Smelting & Refining Com-pany. New York: Farrar, Straus andCompany, 1949.

McGrath, Roger D. Gunfighters, High-waymen & Vigilantes, Violence on theFrontier. Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1984.

Mulholland, James A., A History ofMetals in Colonial America. Univer-sity, Alabama: University of AlabamaPress, 1981.

Niebur, Jay E. and James Fell, ArthurRedman Wilfley, Miner, Inventor, andEntrepreneur. Western BusinessHistory Research Center, ColoradoHistorical Society, nd.

Parker, Watson. Deadwood, the GoldenYears. Lincoln: University of Ne-braska Press, 1981.

Gold in the Black Hills.

- The Far West and the Great

Norman: University of OklahomaPress, 1966.

Parsons, A. B., ed. Seventy-Five Years ofProgress in the Mineral Industry 1871-1946, New York: American Instituteof Mining and Metallurgical Engi-neers, 1947.

Paul, Rodman W. California Gold, theBeginning of Mining in the Far West.Lincoln: University of NebraskaPress, 1947.

- Mining Frontiers of the Far West

Plains in Transition, 1859-1900. NewYork: Harper & Row, 1988.

Peele, Robert, editor. The MiningEngineers Handbook. New York, 1918,various editions.

Rickard, T. A. The Stamp Milling of GoldOres. New York: The ScientificPublishing Company, 1898.

Ringholtz, Raye C. Uranium Frenzy,Boom and Bust on the Colorado Plateau.New York: W. W. Norton & Co.,1989.

Rohrbough, Malcolm J. Aspen, TheHistory of a Silver Mining Town. NewYork: Oxford University Press,1986.

Sinclair, Upton. King Coal. New York:Macmillan, 1918.

Smith, Duane A. Horace Tabor, His Lifeand the Legend. Boulder, Colorado:Pruett Publishing Company, 1981.

- Mining America, The Industryand the Environment, 1800-1980.Lawrence: University Press ofKansas, 1987.

Rocky Mountain Mining Camps,the Urban Frontier. Lincoln: Univer-sity of Nebraska Press, 1967.

Smith, Grant H. The History of theComstock Lode 1850-1920. Universityof Nevada Bulletin, Vol. XXXVII, No.3. Geology and Mining Series No. 37.July 1,1943.

Spence, Clark C. The Conrey PlacerMining Company, A Pioneer Gold-Dredging Enterprise in Montana, 1897-1922. Helena: Montana HistoricalSociety Press, 1989.

Mining Engineers & theAmerican West: The lace Boot Brigade,1849-1933. New Haven: Yale Univer-sity Press, 1970.

"Western Mining," in MichaelP. Malone, ed., Historians and theAmerican West. Lincoln: University ofNebraska Press, 1983.

Sprague, Marshall. Money Mountain, theStory of Cripple Creek Gold. Boston:Little, Brown, and Co., 1953. Reprint.New York: Ballantine Books, 1971.

1848-1880. New York: Holt,Rhinehart and Winston, 1963.

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Spude, Robert L. "Mineral Frontier inTransition: Copper Mining inArizona, 1880-1885," New MexicoHistorical Review (January 1976), pp.19-34.

Spude, Robert L. S. and SandraMcDermott Faulkner. Kennecott,Alaska, Historic American EngineeringRecord Recording Project. Anchorage:National Park Service, 1987.

Suggs, George. Colorado's War onMilitant Unionism. Norman: Univer-sity of Oklahoma Press, 1972.

Temin, Peter. Iron and Steel in Nine-teenth-Century America: An EconomicInquiry. Cambridge: MassachusettsInstitute of Technology, 1964.

Trimble, William Joseph. The MiningAdvance into the Inland Empire.Madison: University of Wisconsin,1909. Reprint. Fairfield, Washington:Ye Galleon Press, 1986.

Twain, Mark (Samuel Clemens).Roughing It. 1872. Reprint. NewYork: The New American Library,Inc., 1962.

Voynick, Stephen. Leadville, a Miner'sEpic. Missoula: Mountain PressPublishing Company, 1984.

Walker, David A., Iron Frontier, theDiscovery and Early Development ofMinnesota's Three Ranges. St. Paul:Minnesota Historical Society, 1979

Walker, Joseph E. Hopewell Village, TheDynamics of a Nineteenth Century Iron-Making Community. Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,1966.

Wallace, Anthony F. C . St. Clair, ANineteenth-Century Coal Town'sExperience with a Disaster-ProneIndustry. Ithaca, New York: CornellUniversity Press, 1988.

Wells, Merle W. Gold Camps & SilverCities, Nineteenth Century Mining inCentral and Southern Idaho. Boise:Idaho State Historical Society, 1983.

Wyman, Mark. Hard Rock Epic, WesternMiners in the Industrial Revolution,1860-1910. Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1979.

Young, Otis E., Jr. Western Mining, anInformal Account of Precious MetalProspecting, Placering, Lode Mining,and Milling on the American Frontierfrom Spanish Times to 1893. Norman:University of Oklahoma Press, 1970.

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VII. GLOSSARY

This glossary provides a quickoverview of terms used in the text. Fora comprehensive glossary of miningterms see Albert H. Fay, A Glossary of theMining and Mineral Industry, U.S. Bureauof Mines Bulletin 95, Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office, 1920edition and Paul W. Thrush, comp., ADictionary of Mining, Minerals and RelatedTerms, US Bureau of Mines, SpecialPublication, Washington, D.C.: Govern-ment Printing Office, 1968.

Adit: A horizontal passage driven fromthe surface for working orunwatering a mine.

Amalgamation: The process of bring-ing particles of free gold or silver incontact with mercury. The mostcommon practice was to pass a slurryof crushed gold ore over large copperplates that had been coated withmercury or, in the case of silver, mixa slurry of crushed silver ore in metalpans containing mercury.

Arrastra: A primitive mill using acircular path of cobblestones withretaining walls on either side. Heavydrag stones were drug over themixture of ore and mercury using ahorse, water wheel, or steam forpower. As the ore was crushed thefree gold was amalgamated. Theamalgam was dug from between thecobblestones.

Assay: The content, type, or quality ofmetal in an ore was tested or "as-sayed" by an experienced assayerusing various methods including fireassay or acid tests. Assay officesoften purified precious metals priorto shipment to the mint.

Base Metal: Copper, lead, zinc, andother common industrial metals.

Beneficiation: The initial process ofupgrading ore.

Blast Furnace: An upright shaft furnacein which solid fuel was burned withan air blast to melt the ore and fluxes,and obtain a separation between themetal and the slag.

Bucket: In mining, an enlarged metal orwooden bucket used to haul matterout of a mine shaft. Sometimes usedto carry miners.

Breaker: A machine used to break coal,particularly anthracite, prior toshipment. In time, the entire surfacecrushing and separating plant at ananthracite coal mine was called abreaker.

Cage: A vehicle riding on guides in theshaft, that was moved up and downby the hoisting engine, and was usedfor hauling men, supplies, and ore.

Coke: The product obtained from fixedcarbon and incombustible materialafter strongly heating bituminouscoal out of contact with air, anddriving off the volatile constituents.

Concentrator/Concentration: A deviceor process for reducing the values inan ore into a smaller bulk in order todiminish the expense of shipping andfurther treatment. Sluicing of placerground was the earliest form. Hand-sorting of ore to obtain a highergrade was probably the most com-monly used. In concentrating millsthe ore was crushed, screened to theproper size, and then passed overvibrating tables to separate theheavier metals from the gangue.Concentrator was the name given tothe surface plants which concen-trated ore into a concentrate prior toshipment to smelters.

Cornish Steam Pump: A very earlymine pump that was invented byWatt for the Cornish tin mines inEngland. The pump consisted of asteam engine that operated a walking

beam. The other end of the beam wasconnected to a wooden timber thatextended to the bottom of the shaft.The end of the timber was connectedto a piston with check valves so thewater was lifted on top of the piston.If the shaft was greater than 300 feetdeep, an additional pump had to beinstalled, and the water in the lowersection was pumped up into a sump.The top section then pumped thewater from the sump to the surface.Additional walking beams wereinstalled to act as counterweights toovercome the weight of the timberand the water column.

Cyanide Process/Cyanidation: Thedissolving of gold and silver by theuse of a solution of alkaline cyanide.The process was invented in Scotlandin 1887, first successfully used inSouth Africa and New Zealand in1890, and in the United States atMercur, Utah in 1892. The practiceconsisted of fine grinding of the entiretonnage in a roller, tube, rod, or ballmill. The crushed ore passed toleaching tanks. A solution of sodiumor potassium cyanide was placed inthe tank with the ore. The ore thengave up the silver or gold mineral intothe solution. The gold was retrievedin zinc boxes (or other methods ofprecipitation) where the preciousmetals were precipitated. Theprecipitate was smelted and refinedinto gold and silver bullion.

Dredge: A floating placer mine opera-tion where buckets scooped upgravels that were then screened,sorted, and sluiced. Gold stayedonboard in the sluice boxes whilewaste gravels and sand were washedback into the creek or sent by con-veyer to stacks in the creekbed behind.The dredge was developed in NewZealand in the 1880s and first success-fully worked in the United States atthe Bannack District, Montana in 1895.

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Flotation: The separation of mineralsfrom each other and from wastematter by inducing (through the useof reagents) relative differences intheir abilities to float in a liquidmedium. The process will separate allmetallic sulphides or elementalmetals. If necessary, differentialflotation can be used on complex ores.In such an ore, each sulphide mineral,such as copper, lead, and zinc, can beseparated from the others. Firstpatented by Carrie Jane Everson ofDenver on August 4,1886, the processwas ignored until perfected inAustralia at the turn of the century.The first successful plants in theUnited States were at Butte where in1911 the process was introduced atthe Butte & Superior zinc-lead mineand at the Inspiration Copper Mine atMiami, Arizona in 1915.

Flume: An inclined channel, usuallymade of wood, for conveying water.

Grubstake: An agreement between theminer and a business owner wherebyfood, clothing, ammunition, andmining supplies would be furnishedin exchange for a negotiated percentof return on the miner's earnings.

Headframe: A timber or steel structureover the shaft that supports thesheave and hoisting rope and isbraced to withstand the pull of thehoisting engine.

Hoist Any engine with a drum onwhich the hoisting rope is wound.

Hydraulic mining: The excavating of abank of gold-bearing gravel by a jet ofwater that was discharged through anozzle under great pressure. Thenozzle was known as a "monitor" or a"giant." The gravel was carried awayby the water and transported throughsluices with riffles to catch the gold.Hydraulic mining was perfected inCalifornia by 1853.

Long Tom: An open box 12 feet longthat is 15 inches wide at the upperend and 30 inches wide at the lower,or discharge, end. The lower end isclosed, but has a screen in the bottomof the last two feet. The holes in thescreen are one-half inch wide. Underthe screen is another inclined box atleast 36 inches wide and 6 feet longwith riffles in the bottom. Both boxesare usually 12 inches deep. Waterenters at the upper end and washes

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the gravel through the screen. Theslurry drops into the lower box andthe heavy metal is collected in theriffles.

Matte: The metallic mixture that resultsfrom smelting sulphide ores.

Mill tailing: See tailing.

Mine Face: The end of a tunnel, drift orexposed ore body.

Open cut; open pit: A method ofmining the ore in which the workingsare open to the surface.

Ore: The portion of a deposit contain-ing valuable minerals that can bemined at a profit.

Ore bin: A metal or wooden structureused to store ore prior to shipment.

Placer mining: The extraction of heavyminerals from alluvial gravel byremoving the detrital material withrunning water and trapping thevalues in riffles.

Precious metals: Usually designated asgold, silver, and platinum.

Prospect: A mineral property, the valueof which has not been proven.

Raise: A vertical or inclined opening orpassageway connecting one mineworking area with another at ahigher level.

Russell Process: A metallurgicalprocess perfected in the mid-1880s atPark City, Utah for the extraction ofsilver via lixiviation.

Shaft: A vertical or steeply inclinedaccess passage from the surface into amine. It is usually sunk from thesurface by mining in a downwarddirection. The interior is timbered sothat each entity has its own passage-way or compartment—cage, skip,manway, or pipe.

Sluice: A series of inclined troughs,each of which are about 12 feet longand 12 inches square, called sluiceboxes. These were coupled togetherto form a continuous trough 24 to 72feet long. Devices known as riffleswere placed in the bottom of thesluice. As the gravel was washedthrough the trough, the heaviermetals were retained by the riffles.

Smelting: The chemical reduction of ametal from its ore and certain fluxesby melting at high temperatures. Thenon-metallic material floated on top ofthe heavier metallic constituents in themolten state and remained in thatposition when it cooled and hardened.

Stamp Mill: The ore to be treated byamalgamation is usually ground in astamp mill. A stamp consists of avertical steel stem with an iron foot orshoe that is lifted by a cam anddropped onto previously crushed ore.Five stamps in a row are usuallyincluded in one battery.

In the case of gold ore, the dischargefrom the battery flows over amalgam-ating plates. These are copper platesusually about the width of the battery(approximately 5 feet) and 10 to 12feet long. The copper sheets have asilver plating and are coated with athin film of mercury which adheres tothe silver. This allows them to catchthe particles of gold. Silver ore passesfrom stamps to pans for amalgam-ation.

Stamp milling was developed inEurope during the Middle Ages andimproved in California in the 1850s.The process was used throughout theprecious metal mining regions of theUnited States until amalgamation wasreplaced by the cyanide process in theearly twentieth century.

Stope: An opening in the undergroundworkings of a mine from which ore ismined. The width and height of thestope are determined by the size of theore body.

Strip Mine: See open cut; open pit.

Tailing: The gangue and other refusematerial resulting from washing,concentrating, or treating ground orethat is discharged from a mill.

Timbering: The operation of settingtimber supports in a mine.

Tipple: The tracks, trestles, and screensat a coal mine where the coal isprocessed and loaded.

Tramway: An established system ofroads, rails, or cables over which ore ismoved from the mine to the mill.

Waste Rock Dump: The uneconomicalrock that was mined and disposed ofin the vicinity of a mining operation.

VIII. LIST OF NATIONALREGISTER BULLETINS

The BasicsHow to Apply National Register Criteria for Evaluation *

Guidelines for Completing National Register of Historic Places Form

Part A: How to Complete the National Register Form *

Part B: How to Complete the National Register Multiple Property Documentation Form

Researching a Historic Property *

Property TypesGuidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Historic Aids to Navigation *

Guidelines for Identifying, Evaluating and Registering America's Historic Battlefields

Guidelines for Evaluating and Registering Historical Archeological Sites

Guidelines for Evaluating and Registering Cemeteries and Burial Places

How to Evaluate and Nominate Designed Historic Landscapes *

Guidelines for Identifying, Evaluating and Registering Historic Mining Sites

How to Apply National Register Criteria to Post Offices *

Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Properties Associated with Significant Persons

Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Properties That Have Achieved Significance Within the Last Fifty Years

Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Rural Historic Landscapes *

Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Traditional Cultural Properties *

Nominating Historic Vessels and Shipwrecks to the National Register of Historic Places

Technical AssistanceContribution of Moved Buildings to Historic Districts; Tax Treatments for Moved Buildings; and Use of Nomination

Documentation in the Part I Certification Process

Denning Boundaries for National Register Properties*

Guidelines for Local Surveys: A Basis for Preservation Planning *

How to Improve the Quality of Photographs for National Register Nominations

National Register Casebook: Examples of Documentation *

Using the UTM Grid System to Record Historic Sites

The above publications may be obtained by writing to the National Register of Historic Places, National Park Service, 1849 C Street, NW,Washington, DC. 20240. Publications marked with an asterisk (*) are also available in electronic form on the World Wide Web atwww.cr.nps.gov/nr, or send your request by e-mail to nrref erence@nps.gov.

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