Nasa_Tech_Brief_09_2012

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Welcome to your Digital Edition ofNASA Tech Briefs, Imaging Technology,

and Photonics Tech Briefs

Included in This September Edition:NASA Tech Briefs Imaging Technology Photonics Tech Briefs

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Special SectionMars Science Laboratory: NASA

Begins a New Era of Exploration

Special SupplementSoftware Tech Briefs

Photonics Tech Briefs

Imaging Technology

September 2012 www.techbriefs.com Vol. 36 No. 9

Imaging Technology, September 2012 www.techbriefs.com 87

The past decade has seen an ex-plosion of observations from air-borne and satellite-based multi-

and hyperspectral sensors, as well asfrom synthetic-aperture radar andLiDAR. Distilling useful informationfrom this wealth of raw data is the do-main of geospatial analysis, the collec-tion of analytical, statistical, and heuris-tic methods for extracting informationfrom georeferenced data. This informa-tion is important in serving the needs ofa diverse set of industries including envi-ronmental conservation, oil and gas ex-ploration, defense and intelligence, agri-culture, coastal monitoring, forestry,and mining.

3D visualization techniques play animportant role in geospatial analysis.The ability to represent the 3D nature ofa geospatial data product on a 2D com-puter screen — including the ability tomanipulate the data product in a 3D co-ordinate system — is essential; it en-hances a user’s ability to explore thedata, aiding in discovery and insight intofeatures of the data that may not be ap-parent from a 2D view.

Representing 3D in Computer Graphics

In computer graphics, a typical con-vention is to specify a right-handed 3D

coordinate system such that when aviewer is facing the display, +x is directedto the right, +y is directed up, and +z isdirected out of the display, toward theviewer. Points — and 3D objects, whichare treated as groups of points — withinthis 3D coordinate system are repre-sented by homogeneous coordinates,which are formed by adding a fourth co-ordinate to each point. Instead of beingrepresented by a triple (x,y,z), eachpoint is instead represented by a quadru-ple (x,y,z,w). Homogeneous coordinatessimplify coordinate transformations(i.e., translation, rotation, and scaling)by allowing them to be treated as matrixmultiplications.

To view an object from a 3D coordi-nate system on a 2D display, a view vol-

ume, a projection plane, and a viewportare needed. The view volume is a subsetof the 3D coordinate system; for simplic-ity it is often a unit cube centered at theorigin. This is where the action takesplace: Any object within the view volumeis visualized; any object that falls outsidethe view volume is not. Objects can bescaled, rotated, and translated to fitwithin the view volume.

Objects within the 3D view volume aremapped into a 2D projection using a pla-nar geometric projection, usually someform of perspective or parallel projec-tion. The projection is defined by raysthat emanate from a point, the center ofprojection, and pass through every pointof the object to intersect with the projec-tion plane. The contents of the projec-

3D Visualization inGeospatial AnalysisA visualization of collapsed, damaged, and standing structures after the 2010 Haiti earthquake, constructed from a LiDAR point cloud. (Image credit: Exelis VIS; created with E3De™)

3D Visualization inGeospatial Analysis

Figure 1. Flat (left) and Gouraud (right) shading of a surface. (Image credit: Exelis VIS; created withIDL™)

Photonics Solutions for the Design Engineer

September 2012

Supplement to NASA Tech Briefs

Digital Imaging Systems for Ballistics Testing ...........IIa

Photovoltaic TrackingControl Systems ...............4a

Glass Solder Approach for Fiber-to-Waveguide Coupling.........................8a

General MACOS Interface for Modeling Controlled Optical Systems ...........8a

ASIC Readout Circuit Architecture for Large Geiger Photodiode Arrays....................8a

Product of the Month/New Products ..........11a

A properly designed and controlled photovoltaic

tracking system can capture up to 40 percent more energy from

each panel than fixed racks. The key to achieving optimum energy production and

reliability from such a system is selectingthe right hardware and control algorithm.To learn more about photovoltaic tracking

control systems, read the applications article on page 4a.

(Image courtesy of Sedona Solar Technology)

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Special SectionMars Science Laboratory: NASA

Begins a New Era of Exploration

Special SupplementSoftware Tech Briefs


Imaging Technology

September 2012 www.techbriefs.com Vol. 36 No. 9

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42 Technology Focus: Test & Measurement42 Lightweight, Miniature Inertial Measurement System

42 Optical Density Analysis of X-Rays Utilizing Calibration Toolingto Estimate Thickness of Parts

44 Beat-to-Beat Blood Pressure Monitor

46 Measurement Techniques for Clock Jitter

48 Fuel Cell/Electrochemical Cell Voltage Monitor

49 Anomaly Detection Techniques With Real Test Data From aSpinning Turbine Engine-Like Rotor

52 Measuring Air Leaks Into the Vacuum Space of Large LiquidHydrogen Tanks

52 Antenna Calibration and Measurement Equipment

56 Manufacturing & Prototyping56 Lightweight Metal Matrix Composite Segmented for

Manufacturing High-Precision Mirrors

58 Plasma Treatment To Remove Carbon From Indium UV Filters

60 Electronics/Computers60 Telerobotics Workstation (TRWS) for Deep Space Habitats

62 Single-Pole Double-Throw MMIC Switches for a MicrowaveRadiometer

63 On Shaft Data Acquisition System

64 Flexible Architecture for FPGAs in Embedded Systems

66 Materials & Coatings66 Resin-Impregnated Carbon Ablator: A New Ablative Material

for Hyperbolic Entry Speeds

67 Self-Cleaning Particulate Prefilter Media

68 Polyurea-Based Aerogel Monoliths and Composites

70 Mechanics/Machinery70 Modular, Rapid Propellant Loading System/Cryogenic

Testbed

70 Compact, Low-Force, Low-Noise Linear Actuator

72 Loop Heat Pipe With Thermal Control Valve as a VariableThermal Link

74 Process for Measuring Over-Center Distances

76 Bio-Medical76 Developing Physiologic Models for Emergency Medical

Procedures Under Microgravity

76 Improving Balance Function Using Low Levels of ElectricalStimulation of the Balance Organs

77 Hands-Free Transcranial Color Doppler Probe

78 Portable Intravenous Fluid Production Device for Ground Use

4 www.techbriefs.com NASA Tech Briefs, September 2012

September 2012 • Vol. 35 No. 9

8 UpFront

10 Who’s Who at NASA

12 NASA Patents

54 Technologies of the Month

102 NASA’s Innovative Partnerships Office

103 Advertisers Index

814

40

F E A T U R E S

S O L U T I O N S

D E P A R T M E N T S

97 Product Focus: Sensors

98 New Products/Software

N E W F O R D E S I G N E N G I N E E R S

S P E C I A L S U P P L E M E N T S

14 Special Section: Mars Science Laboratory —NASA Begins a New Era of Exploration

40 Application Briefs

104 NASA Spinoff: Nanomaterials in Hair Care Products

(Solutions continued on page 6)

1a – 14aPhotonics Tech BriefsFollows page 52 in selected editions only.

Software Tech BriefsSelected editions only; available

online at www.techbriefs.com/software

Speed2Design RacingTechnology PosterCourtesy of Littelfuse

Follows page 16 in selected editions only.

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78 Portable Intravenous Fluid Production Device for Ground Use

80 Adaptation of a Filter Assembly to Assess Microbial Bioburdenof Pressurant Within a Propulsion System

80 PMA-Linked Fluorescence for Rapid Detection of ViableBacterial Endospores

82 Physical Sciences82 Vision-Aided Autonomous Landing and Ingress of Micro

Aerial Vehicles

83 Whispering Gallery Mode Optomechanical Resonator

84 Self-Sealing Wet Chemistry Cell for Field Analysis

85 Multiplexed Force and Deflection Sensing Shell Membranesfor Robotic Manipulators

86 Books and Reports86 Mars Technology Rover with Arm-Mounted Percussive Coring

Tool, Microimager, and Sample-Handling EncapsulationContainerization Subsystem

86 Fault-Tolerant, Real-Time, Multi-Core Computer System

87 Imaging Technology87 3D Visualization in Geospatial Analysis

91 The GigE Vision Interface Standard: Transforming MedicalImaging

94 New Products

6 NASA Tech Briefs, September 2012Free Info at http://info.hotims.com/40437-757

Contents continued

This artist’s concept shows the Mars ScienceLaboratory rover, Curiosity, using its ChemCam toinvestigate the composition of a rock surface.ChemCam fires laser pulses at a target and views theresulting spark with a telescope and spectrometersto identify chemical elements. The laser is in aninvisible infrared wavelength, but is shown here asvisible red light for purposes of illustration. Curiositylanded on the Red Planet last month to begin a two-year mission of exploration. Learn more aboutthe mission and the unique instruments onboardCuriosity in the special section beginning on page 14.

(Image: NASA/JPL-Caltech)

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This document was prepared under the sponsorship of the National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration. Neither Associated Business Publications Co., Ltd. nor the United StatesGovernment nor any person acting on behalf of the United States Government assumes anyliability resulting from the use of the information contained in this document, or warrants thatsuch use will be free from privately owned rights. The U.S. Government does not endorse anycommercial product, process, or activity identified in this publication.

Permissions: Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the internal orpersonal use of specific clients, is granted by Associated Business Publications, provided thatthe flat fee of $3.00 per copy be paid directly to the Copyright Clearance Center (222 RoseWood Dr., Danvers, MA 01923). For those organizations that have been granted a photocopylicense by CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. The fee code for users of theTransactional Reporting Service is: ISSN 0145-319X194 $3.00+ .00

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NASA’s most advanced Mars rover, Curiosity, touched down on the Red Planet at 1:32 amEDT on August 6, ending a 36-week flight and beginning a two-year investigation. Theone-ton rover landed in Gale Crater at the foot of Mount Sharp, a mountain three milestall and 96 miles in diameter. During its mission, Curiosity will investigate whether theregion ever offered conditions favorable for microbial life.

Said NASA Administrator Charles Bolden, “Today, the wheels of Curiosity have begun toblaze the trail for human footprints on Mars. Curiosity is now on the surface of the RedPlanet, where it will seek to answer age-old questions about whether life ever existed onMars — or if the planet can sustain life in the future.”

Our special Mars Science Laboratory section begins on page 14, and includes informationon the scope of the mission, details on the science and technology of Curiosity, and aninterview with Doug McCuistion, Director of the Mars Exploration Program, and MichaelMeyer, lead scientist for the Mars Exploration Program and Program Scientist for MSL.


UPFRONT

When you think of what types of technologies are developed within NASA, the term“game-changing” often comes to mind. Now, NASA has created a new office that focuseson these technologies. The Game Changing Development (GCD) Program Office atLangley Research Center (Hampton, VA) seeks to identify and rapidly mature innova-tive/high-impact capabilities and technologies. The GCD Program Office is headed bySteve Gaddis, program executive at the Office of the Chief Technologist. Find out moreabout the GCD Program in this month’s Who’s Who at NASA interview with Steve on page10. Watch a video about the new program on Tech Briefs TV at www.techbriefs.com/tv/gcdprogram.

Linda BellEditorial Director

NASA’s “Game-Changing” Technologies

Spacecraft 3D Spacecraft 3D uses animation to

show how spacecraft can maneuverand manipulate their outside com-ponents. Presently, the app featurestwo NASA missions: the CuriosityMars rover and the twin GRAILspacecraft Ebb and Flow currentlyorbiting the Moon. Spacecraft 3D isamong the first augmented-realityapps for Apple devices. Augmented-reality provides users a view of areal-world environment where ele-ments are improved by additionalinput. Spacecraft 3D uses the iPhoneor iPad camera to overlay informa-tion on the device's main screen. Theapp instructs users to print an aug-mented reality target on a standardsheet of paper. When the device'scamera is pointed at the target, thespacecraft chosen by the user materi-alizes on screen.

Spacecraft 3D also has a featurewhere you can take your own aug-mented-reality picture of the roveror GRAIL spacecraft. You can evenmake a self-portrait with a space-craft, putting yourself or someoneelse in the picture. The detailed com-puter models of the spacecraft usedin Spacecraft 3D originally were gen-erated for NASA's "Eyes on the SolarSystem" Web application, a 3D envi-ronment full of NASA mission datathat allows anyone to explore thecosmos from their computer.

To download the free Spacecraft 3Dapp for iPhone and iPad, visit http://itunes.apple.com/us/app/spacecraft-3d/id541089908?mt=8

> App of the MonthNASA Begins an Era of Curiosity

The October issue of NASA TechBriefs will include special coverageon Imaging, Cameras, and DisplayTechnologies, as well as our OEMSupplier Guide on Sensors.

> Next Month in NTB

NASA/JPL ground controllers react to learning the Curiosity rover had landed safely on Mars. (NASA/Bill Ingalls)

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www.techbriefs.com NASA Tech Briefs, September 2012

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Who’s Who at NASA

Steve Gaddis runs thenewly created Game

Changing Tech nologyDevelopment ProgramOf fice. Gaddis leads theprogram’s efforts todevelop innovative tech-nologies that will revolu-tionize space exploration.

NASA Tech Briefs: What is a “gamechang ing” technology?

Steve Gaddis: When we say “gamechanging,” we’re looking for cross-cut-ting infusion technologies that can beused in more than one place. We’relooking for aggressive schedules andshort development cycles (two or threeyears), 50% improvement in perform-ance, and 50% or more reduction inmanufacturing costs or lead times.

We currently have seven principalinvestigators (PIs), and their expertisecovers a broad spectrum, from compos-ites, nanotechnology, power systems,solar arrays, and electric propulsion, tomanufacturing and additive manufac-turing in particular. We’re looking at x-ray navigation, optical communication,and next-generation high-speed com-puting. We have 30-plus projects in theworks that are fully funded.

NTB: What steps are taken when work-ing with this kind of technology?

Gaddis: If a PI decides that [an idea]is something that fits within our portfo-lio and priorities, the investigator thenbrings a “new start” proposal to ourboard for review. We look at certain cri-teria: Is it really “game changing?” Whyshould we invest in this now? One of themajor questions is whether there is anend-item customer that would be inter-ested in this technology within NASA oranother federal agency.

Hopefully, the end of the story is thatwe have a formal agreement with thecustomer, they meet all the metrics, and

we do a technology infusion, or hand-off. Some other NASA directorate orprogram like TDM (Technology Dem -onstration Missions), Human Explora -tion and Operations Mission Direct -orate (HEOMD), or Science MissionDirect orate (SMD) then takes it on. Yousee that the technology was developedand used, and doesn’t go on a shelfsomewhere.

NTB: Which one of these technologieswill we see in action?

Gaddis: We’re demonstrating hyper-sonic inflatable technology that can beused to do aerodynamic decelerationson a planet with atmospheres, such asMars or Venus. We’re also within abouteight months of demonstrating a 5.5-meter composite cryogenic tank. We’redoing all this work out of autoclave. It’llbe a huge impact not only for NASA, butfor even companies like Boeing,SpaceX, and Orbital. We’re also devel-oping legs for Robonaut on ISS.

NTB: How important is private indus-try to making this happen?

Gaddis: It’s part of the vision of ourChief Technologist, Mason Peck, that weproperly disseminate our findings sothat folks in the aerospace field —whether it’s Lockheed, Boeing, SpaceX,Sierra Nevada, or some smaller corpora-tion that’s interested in getting into thefield — can use this information andapply it to what they have going on intheir companies. We want to partnerwith private industry. We talk to privateindustry on a regular basis, and we teamup with them wherever it makes sense.

To learn more about the Game ChangingTechnology Development Office, read a fulltranscript, or listen to a downloadable pod-cast of the interview, visit www.techbriefs.com/podcast. For more information, [email protected] or go to gameon.nasa.gov.

Steve Gaddis, Program Executive, Office of the Chief Technologist, Game Changing Division, Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA

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For more information on the inventions described here, contact the appropriate NASA Field Center’s Innovative Partnerships (IP) Office.

See page 102 for a list of office contacts.

Over the past three decades, NASA has granted more than 1000 patent licenses in virtually every area of technology. The agency has a portfolio of thousands of patents and pending applications available

now for license by businesses and individuals, including these recently patented inventions:

Solar Cell Circuit and Methodfor Manufacturing Solar CellsU.S. Patent No. 7,732,706

Nick Mardesich, Jet PropulsionLaboratory, Pasadena, CA

While many multi-junction solar cellshave a relatively high efficiency com-pared to commercial, single-junctionsolar cells, a manufacturing techniquemust allow for multiple multi-junctioncircuits to be placed on one lightweightsilicon wafer. The process needs to pro-duce a high voltage, obviating the poten-tial for arcing across a solar cell circuitarray.

An improved technique for makingmulti-junction solar cell circuits allowsthe formation of integral diodes in thecells. The standard Ge wafer used as thebase for multi-junction solar cells isreplaced with a thinner layer of Ge or aII-V semiconductor material on a sili-con/silicon dioxide substrate. The mul-tiple multi-junction circuits can then bemanufactured on a single wafer, decreas-ing array assembly mass and simplifyingpower management. The solar cell com-ponents provide significant increases inpotential voltages per each wafer, andallow integral by-pass diodes to beformed directly into the substrate onwhich the solar cells are made.

Pressure Vessel withImproved Impact Resistance U.S. Patent No. 7,641,949

Thomas K. Delay, James E. Patterson,and Michael A. Olson, MarshallSpace Flight Center, AL

Advanced composite materials haveenabled the development of lightweight,thin-walled tanks and pressure vessels.The capability, however, of the pressurevessels to withstand degrading impactsmust be improved, particularly if thiscan be done with little or no appreciabledegradation in pressure vessel perform-ance and without any increase in weight.

A high-performance composite pres-sure vessel affords a significant improve-ment in low-velocity impact resistance.The pressure vessel is both light inweight and robust, and thus has obviousapplications in aerospace wherein thereare low margins of safety. A compositeoverwrapping material includes fibersdisposed in a resin matrix. For addedstrength or impact resistance, layers offabric (comprised of such fibers) areinterspersed between windings. Othervessel applications include use in thefield of filament-wound self-containedbreathing apparatus (SCBA) cylindersfor firefighters and hazmat personnel,wherein a more robust air cylinder of acomparable weight is desired.

Micro-LIDAR Velocity,Temperature, Density,Concentration SensorU.S. Patent No. 7,675,619

Paul M. Denehy and Adrian A.Dorrington, Langley Research Center,Hampton, VA

Conventional LIDAR tends to use asmall angle between the light source andthe detector, meaning the system is onlysensitive to the component of velocityapproximately in the direction of thelaser light propagation. Therefore, thereis a need for a sensor to detect multiplecomponents of velocity of a target objector gas. In addition to velocity, otherparameters such as temperature, density,and gas composition must be measured.

A small micro-LIDAR sensor collectsscattered light from multiple directions.The device has a plurality of optical fibersthat terminate on the sensor’s surface.One of the optical fibers is an illumina-tion fiber for emitting light. A plurality ofsecond optical fibers collects scatteredlight signals, and a light sensor processoris connected to the collection fibers.

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NASA Begins aNew Journey ofExploration

The spacecraft’s descent stage, while controlling its own rate ofdescent with four of its eight throttle-controllable rocket engines,begins lowering Curiosity on a bridle. The rover is connected to thedescent stage by three nylon tethers and by an umbilical, providinga power and communication connection. The bridle extends to fulllength, about 25 feet, as the descent stage continues descending.Seconds later, when touchdown is detected, the bridle is cut at therover end, and the descent stage flies off to stay clear of the land-ing site. (NASA/JPL-Caltech)

A t 1:32 a.m. EDT on August 6, NASA’s Mars ScienceLaboratory (MSL) touched down on the Red Planet,beginning a two-year mission of exploration and discov-

ery. The Curiosity rover is a mobile laboratory equipped with10 science investigations and a robotic arm that can drill intorocks, scoop up soil, and deliver samples to internal analyticalinstruments. (For detailed information on Curiosity’s instru-ments, see the feature beginning on page 28.)

Following a harrowing “seven minutes of terror” in whichCuriosity had to survive a dive that took it from 13,200 miles per

hour to zero, the rover touched down and immediately begansending back images from its landing spot in Gale Crater.

Said MSL project scientist John Grotzinger, “Curiosity is nota life-detection mission. We’re not actually looking for life. Wedon’t have the ability to detect life if it was there. What we arelooking for are the ingredients of life.”

MSL will study whether the Gale Crater area has evidence ofpast and present habitable environments. These studies will bepart of a broader examination of past and present processes inthe Martian atmosphere and on its surface.

“Tonight, on the planet Mars, the United States of America made history. The successful landing of Curiosity – the most sophis-ticated roving laboratory ever to land on another planet – marks an unprecedented feat of technology that will stand as a pointof national pride far into the future. It proves that even the longest of odds are no match for our unique blend of ingenuity anddetermination. Tonight’s success reminds us that our preeminence – not just in space, but here on Earth – depends on continu-ing to invest wisely in the innovation, technology, and basic research that has always made our economy the envy of the world.I congratulate and thank all the men and women of NASA who made this remarkable accomplishment a reality – and I eagerlyawait what Curiosity has yet to discover.”

- President Barack Obama, August 6, 2012

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Curiosity will rely on new technologi-cal innovations. For its landing, thespacecraft descended on a parachuteand then, during the final seconds priorto landing, lowered the upright rover ona tether to the surface, much like a skycrane. Now on the surface, the rover willbe able to roll over obstacles up to 29inches high, and travel up to 295 feetper hour. On average, the rover isexpected to travel about 98 feet perhour, based on power levels, slippage,steepness of the terrain, visibility, andother variables.

To make best use of the rover’s sci-ence capabilities, a team of scientistsand engineers will make daily deci-sions about the rover’s activities for thefollowing day. MSL is intended to be adiscovery-driven mission, with the sci-ence operations team retaining flexi-

bility in how and when the variouscapabilities of the rover and payloadare used to accomplish the overall sci-entific objectives.

Curiosity landed in a region where akey item on the checklist of life’srequirements has already been deter-mined: It was wet. Observations fromMars orbit during five years of assessingcandidate landing sites have made theseareas some of the most intensely studiedplaces on Mars.

While the possibility that life mighthave existed on Mars provokes greatinterest, a finding that conditions didnot favor life would also pay off withvaluable insight about differences andsimilarities between early Mars andearly Earth.

Learn more about Curiosity’s mission athttp://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl.

This full-resolution image shows part of the deck of Curiosity taken from one of the rover’s Navigationcameras looking toward the back left of the rover. On the left, part of the rover’s power supply is vis-ible. To the right of the power supply is the pointy low-gain antenna and side of the paddle-shapedhigh-gain antenna for communications directly to Earth. (NASA/JPL-Caltech)

Mars Science Laboratory

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NASA Tech Briefs, September 2012 www.techbriefs.com 17

Talking Mars

Michael Meyer, lead scientist for the Mars Ex -ploration Program and Program Scientist for MSL.

Doug McCuistion, Dir ec tor of the Mars Ex- p loration Program.

NASA Tech Briefs: What are the scienceobjectives for the Mars Science Lab -oratory?

Michael Meyer: The overarching goalof the Mars Science Laboratory androver Curiosity is to understand whetherMars has ever been, or is capable today,of supporting microbial life. So that’sanother way of saying we want to deter-mine the habitability of Mars. There areother things that can be discovered byCuriosity as it roves about, but that’s theoverall goal and how it was designed.

NTB: Why was Gale Crater selected asthe landing site?

Meyer: Over the past five years, the sci-ence team got together, people pro-posed what they considered were veryinteresting landing sites, and then therewere discussions about how interesting itis to everybody else. As we narrowed itdown, we also got into how safe it is,does the landing ellipse fit inside a goodplace, and are there rocks.

NASA Tech Briefs recently spoke with Doug McCuistion, Director of the Mars Exploration Program,and Michael Meyer, lead scientist for the Mars Exploration Program and Program Scientist for theMars Science Laboratory (MSL). We talked about what NASA hopes to find, the technologies usedonboard, and how the two-year mission is expected to progress.

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The science community had to be self-policing about whatit could actually do and what it could reasonably speculate.This is one of the things we really benefit from — the amountof information we got from having a Mars program. Weended up picking Gale Crater because it has Mount Sharp inthe middle — this huge mound that should have an extensivehistory of Mars starting from more than three billion yearsago to whatever Mars is like at present.

NTB: This is the first time since the Viking landings in 1976 thatNASA has used throttleable engines for landing a Mars space-craft. Why was this method chosen for MSL?

Doug McCuistion: The engines are a new design based on aheritage unit. Because of the throttleable nature and theamount of thrust we can get from these, they make a greatengine for orbiters for certain Mars orbit insertions as well. So,we’ll use these again, maybe next time on an orbiter.

There were a lot of things chosen because of the additionalmass of MSL. Airbags max out around 200 kg, so the airbagtechnology couldn’t handle a rover of this mass. So we had tocome up with a new technique. The concept was a larger para-chute to get more drag, and obviously a larger entry shell thatreduces our speed and also is volumetrically necessary. Butonce we got done with the parachute, the replacement for theairbags had to be something that could handle a 1,000-kg roverunderneath it, to be able to take out both horizontal and verti-cal velocities. So instead of putting the engines underneath itlike Viking, we decided to put the engines on top.

NTB: Curiosity is NASA’s largest and most complex rover.Other than size, how does it differ from Opportunity and Spirit?

McCuistion: It’s very different — probably the two biggestdifferences are the payload capability and the power source.Essentially, the plutonium 238-powered radioisotope thermalgenerator is a constant power source, regardless of time of day.We’re not dependent upon solar energy any longer. We’ve gota constant feed of power, with a constant output of about 110Watts. That gives us a great capability to charge batteriesovernight, to be able to rove farther, and to be able to lastlonger on the surface by design. That’s a fantastic capabilitybecause of the power source. For the instruments, we’ve gonefrom less than 6 kg of instruments to over 80 kg of instruments,comparing the MER (Mars Exploration Rover) rovers to theMSL rover.

Meyer: The key difference is that Curiosity is a roving analyt-ical laboratory. There are two instruments in the interior of therover that are major instruments. For Spirit and Opportunity,all of the instrumentation was remote and contact instruments,while Curiosity has two analytical instruments inside.

On the interior, we have an instrument called CheMin(Chemistry and Mineralogy), which is an x-ray diffraction/x-ray

Talking Mars

“The overarching goal of the Mars Science Laboratory and rover Curiosity is to understand whether Mars has everbeen, or is capable today, of supportingmicrobial life.”

- Michael Meyer

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fluorescence instrument that measures the distance betweenatoms. This is the same kind of instrument you’d have in a labo-ratory. Mineralogy is important because it tells you the environ-ment in which the rock was formed. The other instrument isSAM (Sample Analysis at Mars), and that’s a gas chromatographmass spectrometer. This gives you composition — it tells youwhat things are made out of. It’s not the elements, but also thesmaller compounds. SAM can also measure isotopes. In addi-tion, SAM has what’s called a tunable laser spectrometer (TLS),which is a spectrometer that can measure certain things to anextreme degree. It can measure carbon dioxide, water, and alsomethane, which is probably the one we’re most excited about.

The other instrument that’s unique is the ChemCam(Chemistry and Camera suite), which is a laser-induced break-

down spectrometer. It fires a laser, creates a plasma, and thenuses a spectrometer to look at the plasma and tell what thecomposition is. It’s a remote sensing instrument, so you don’thave to place the instrument against whatever you’re interest-ed in. You can do it within 7 meters of the rover.

NTB: Are there other minerals you’re looking for besides car-bon and methane?

Meyer: This mission is highly unusual in that we’ve alreadytargeted minerals that we see from orbit. We see sulfates andwe see clays, both of which are minerals that form in water,and they also represent slightly different environments. Claysform in a neutral environment with a pH around 7, while sul-

fates tend to form in more acidic envi-ronments and you also find them, atleast on Earth, in environments wherethe water is drying out. Those are goodindicators that we’re going to go to aplace where we have mineral depositsthat were laid down when Mars waswarmer and wetter, and mineraldeposits that were laid down when Marswas drying out. As you go further upMount Sharp, we’ll find things that areindicative of modern Mars, which iscold and dry.

NTB: What are the first steps inCuriosity’s commissioning phase?

McCuistion: After it does its healthcheck and everything’s working, itrecalibrates its thermal model to makesure it has the right energy budget formanaging things. It’s then going tomove into a mode of first-time events.The team will move it a little bit andthen say, “OK, we told it to move a foot— did it move a foot?” But these thingscome much later. Things won’t happenright away — this is all within the first30 days. For each instrument, the teamwill turn it on and see if it’s working,and put it through its own personalhealth check. They’ll make a measure-ment, see what the measurement says,and if it corresponds to what’s expect-ed. Pathfinder, Phoenix, and MERlanded on the surface and they wereexpected to live 90 to 120 days. So itwas, “We better get on with it, becausewe don’t have much time.” MSL isdesigned as a two-year mission. It’s along-life mission and it’s going to takea couple of months to really get thisrover fully commissioned before it’sfully op erational.

NTB: What is Curiosity’s expectedrange of travel?

McCuistion: Spirit and Opportunityhave proven to us that any predictions


Talking Mars

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are completely useless. From an engineering perspective,it’s how long the mechanical systems last. That’s really thelimiting factor. The power source will give us many, manyyears on the surface of nice, clean, consistent power. Therover is designed to be able to travel 20 kilometers. The rea-son for that is it’s designed to be able to get out of its land-ing ellipse. What that does is enable the mission to have agoal to go see something it can’t land on. And in fact, that’sMount Sharp. It has to be able to travel a good distance tobe able to get there.

NTB: Are the decisions of the science team as far as whereCuriosity will go each day determined according to what findingswere made the previous day?

McCuistion: Yes, this is actually unique and exciting at thesame time. There is a Science Operations Working Group andessentially, every day, they find out what the rover did yesterday— did it do what it was supposed to do, and did it find some-thing particularly exciting. They analyze the data and have adebate about what to do tomorrow. So filtering into the tacti-cal decision about what to do each day will be “are we still head-ed in the right direction to meet our strategic objective?”

NTB: Curiosity has a payload of 10 instruments. Can you brieflydescribe some of them?

Meyer: We’ll characterize the modern environment of Marsvery well. We have what’s basically a weather station con-

tributed by the Spanish. We’ll also bemeasuring neutrons and return of neu-trons from a neutron generator(Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons, DAN)that tells us how much water there is inabout the upper meter of the regolith,and that’s contributed by the Russians.We have an alpha particle x-ray spec-trometer (APXS) that is similar towhat’s on the Mars Exploration Roversthat gives us elemental compositionfrom contact. It’s provided by theCanadians.

The Mars Hand Lens Imager, MAHLI,is different in that it has its own lightsource, so it has a better magnificationfield to see things down to about 14microns. It can see at night so if thereare any fluorescent minerals, it will beable to detect those.

The MastCam is interesting in thatnot only is it stereo, but also it has a fil-ter wheel so it gives you different colors.We’ll finally resolve the debate about ifyou’re on Mars, what color would thesky be? It has a huge amount of memo-ry. It can take a high-resolution pictureof everything and then send backthumbnails. The science team can say,“We really like this rock,” and instead ofhaving to ask the camera to go look atthat rock and take a picture, you just askthe system to send you back the high-resolution picture of it. The picture’salready taken — it’s whether or not yourequest the data.


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Talking Mars

“People don’t realize theadvancements in surfacenavigation that are onlypossible because Spiritand Opportunity survived for so long.”

- Doug McCuistion

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© Maplesoft, a division of Waterloo Maple Inc., 2012. Maplesoft, Maple, and MapleSim are trademarks of Waterloo Maple Inc. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.

CONGRATULATIONSON THE SUCCESSFUL LANDING OF THE CURISOTY ROVER

Maplesoft salutes NASA’s JPL for its contributions to scientific research and advancement. We look forward to continuing Maplesoft’s partnership with JPL to enhance modeling and simulation in space exploration.

Curiosity also has a drill for sampling (PADS, PowderAcquisition Drill Sys tem). We’ll be able to get below the veneerthat’s on rocks and sample the interior of the rock. That will beparticularly useful for the analytical laboratory that’s in therover. It will be able to take those, determine mineralogy, andalso composition. Because we haven’t done that before, it mayprovide some real surprises.

NTB: Are there potential commercial applications for thesetypes of instruments?

McCuistion: We already have one example, which is theCheMin. It already has a commercial version called Terra. It’sa suitcase you can carry into the field to measure minerals. Iwould expect that, for instance, ChemCam (the laser-inducedbreakdown spectrometer) might be very useful. Some peoplemight be worried about carrying around a laser in a suitcase,but I can imagine that being a useful tool here on Earth.

Other things like SAM — there may be some commercialspinoffs just because of the efforts its gone through for minia-turization. It is taking a laboratory instrument that everybody’shappy with, and shrinking it down so that it fits in a box.

One of the things that’s unique about Curiosity is it will beable to measure organic compounds. One of the big surprisesfrom Viking was not finding any organic compounds. You expectto find at least some because you get them from meteorites, ifnothing else. So that’s going to be a big issue for Curiosity.

NTB: The Navcams and Hazcams enable Curiosity to navigateand see where it’s going. What other types of hazard avoidancemeasures are in place?

McCuistion: MSL has gained a lot from the Spirit andOpportunity rovers, and that’s in regard to autonomous soft-ware. Curiosity has a lot of software onboard that can actuallynavigate and recognize hazards autonomously and either navi-gate around them or decide it’s too complicated to do that,and just wait for Earth to help. The rover driver and navigationteams use the cameras on a regular basis to understand therover’s surroundings and identify safe paths of traverse. Themost important portion of that capability is the autonomoussoftware aboard that helps us with navigation.

The rover also has accelerometers and inclinometers in thesystem, so it understands what its own tilt and roll angles are.As Curiosity climbs Mount Sharp, and reaches limits of tilt androll, the inclinometers tell the system that it is at the limits so itdoes not roll. The whole rocker-bogie system has a design thatgoes all the way back to the Sojourner rover, and is an extreme-ly capable and flexible system.

Meyer: Just to add to what Doug said about software navi-gation, right now, you can take your images from a Mastcamor Navcam and plot out, safely, about 40 meters. And thenafter that, your imagery is too planar and you can’t reallydecide what would be the best path to go. So the rover itselfhas to decide that. One of the things that has been devel-oped from MER is navigation software that is able to takeimages as the rover goes along and say, “OK, that’s a big rock— turn to the left.” That’s why the Mars Exploration Rovershave been able to go up to 100 meters at a time. Curiositywill benefit from that.

McCuistion: That’s the advantage of the longevity of Spiritand Opportunity. I think people don’t realize the advance-ments in surface navigation that are only possible because Spirit

Talking Mars

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and Opportunity survived for so long; that we could build newsoftware tools, new concepts, new techniques, and then testthem, upload them, and use them. It’s been spectacular, notjust scientifically, but from an engineering perspective, whatSpirit and Opportunity were able to do and port into MSL.

NTB: The Radiation Assessment Detection (RAD) instrumentwas taking measurements during the trip to Mars. What has itfound that you didn’t know before?

Meyer: The RAD is designed for a broad spectrum of high-energy radiation measurement, and it was turned on about aweek after launch. It was turned off on July 13, getting ready forentry, descent, and landing. What’s interesting about RADmeasuring in transit is that it sees what might be seen by anastronaut on its way to Mars. One of the concerns about high-energy radiation is what radiation is shielded by the spacecraft,and also what radiation is generated by the spacecraft. High-energy particles impinging on the cruise stage actually generatesecondary particles that may be just as harmful, but of a differ-ent nature. RAD’s been able to measure those.

NTB: What have you already learned from MSL for future Marsmissions?

McCuistion: Scientifically, we’ve already got a data set fromRAD that we’ve never had before, which is the true radiationlevels, dosages, etc., that astronauts might see in space in tran-sit to Mars. From an engineering perspective, we’ve learned anenormous amount about how to build a system of this capacityand capability. The sky crane technique is a great technique for

being able to put larger and larger masses on the surface, andfrankly, as a feed-forward technology capability, you could fore-see this putting all kinds of different scientific systems on thesurface and potentially even re-supply for astronauts on thesurface sometime in the future. We have learned to shrinkinstruments dramatically, changing their footprints significant-ly, which will always pay off in future scientific missions,whether they are on Mars or some other location.

Guided entry is another one – the ability to shrink the land-ing ellipse so significantly that we can get into areas that wecouldn’t have imagined ten years ago. That opens up scienceportals that we can’t even fathom at this point. There are pret-ty exciting opportunities.

Meyer: With MARDI, the Mars Descent Imager, one of thebig debates was whether or not, because of thruster plume,you’ll get useful images. So who cares, other than the scientistswho have to figure out where you’re going? Well, one of thederived benefits of decent images would be for terrain recog-nition, which means in the future you could say, “I want to landright over here next to that rock,” and you can have the soft-ware look at the images and actually plan exactly where youwant to go. That will make a big difference when we do samplereturn or we send humans to Mars, when you want them toland next to where we put the foodstuffs.

McCuistion: The other thing is the heat shield material. Theheat shield material is called PICA (Phenolic ImpregnatedCarbon Ablator) and we adopted it for use when we saw whatkind of mass we were dealing with and what the heating rateswere. PICA was a lot safer and gave us a lot more margin. Thiswill be the first time it’s actually been used. PICA is a potentialheat shield material for human exploration in the future.

Talking Mars

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T D L S o n M A R S

We congratulate the entire NASA

team on the successful landing of its

Mars Rover “Curiosity”

Read about our contribution at

www.nanoplus.com/mars Picture: Courtesy of NASA / JPL Free Info at http://info.hotims.com/40437-776

The Technology of Curiosity

On April 14, 2004, NASA announced an opportunity forresearchers to propose science investigations for theMars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission. Eight months

later, the agency announced selection of eight investigations.In addition, Spain and Russia would each provide an investiga-tion through international agreements. The instruments forthese ten investigations make up the science payload on theCuriosity rover.

The ten instruments on Curiosity have a combined mass of165 pounds. Curiosity carries the instruments plus multiple sys-

tems that enable the science payload to do its job and sendhome the results. Key systems include six-wheeled mobility,sample acquisition and handling with a robotic arm, naviga-tion using stereo imaging, a radioisotope power source, avion-ics, software, telecommunications, and thermal control.

Curiosity is 10 feet long (not counting its arm), 9 feet wide,and 7 feet high at the top of its mast, with a mass of 1,982pounds, including the science instruments. Curiosity’smechanical structure provides the basis for integrating all ofthe other rover subsystems and payload instruments.

Curiosity examines a rock on Mars with a set oftools at the end of its arm, which extends about 7feet. Two instruments on the arm can study rocksup close. A drill can collect sample material frominside of rocks, and a scoop can pick up samples ofsoil. The arm can sieve the samples and deliver finepowder to instruments inside the rover for thor-ough analysis. (NASA/JPL-Caltech)

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MobilityCuriosity’s mobility subsystem is a

scaled-up version of what was used on thethree earlier Mars rovers: Sojourner,Spirit, and Opportunity. Six wheels allhave driver motors, and the four cornerwheels all have steering motors. Eachfront and rear wheel can be independ-ently steered, allowing the vehicle to turnin place, as well as to drive in arcs. Thesuspension is a rocker-bogie system,enabling Curiosity to keep all its wheels incontact with the ground, even on uneventerrain. Curiosity’s wheels are aluminumand 20" in diameter. They have cleats fortraction and structural support. Curvingtitanium spokes give springy support.

The rover has a top speed on flat,hard ground of about 1.5 inches per sec-ond. However, under autonomous con-trol with hazard avoidance, the vehicleachieves an average speed of less thanhalf that.

Arm and TurretThe Robot Arm (RA) is a five-degrees-

of-freedom manipulator used to placeand hold the turret-mounted devicesand instruments on rock and soil tar-gets, as well as manipulate the turret-mounted sample processing hardware.

This drawing of Curiosity indicates the location of science instruments and some other tools.(NASA/JPL-Caltech)

Technology of Curiosity

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The science instruments on the arm’s turret are the MarsHand Lens Imager (MAHLI) and the Alpha Particle X-raySpectrometer (APXS). The other tools on the turret are com-ponents of the rover’s Sample Acquisition/Sample Processingand Handling (SA/SPaH) subsystem: the Powder AcquisitionDrill System (PADS), the Dust Removal Tool (DRT), and theCollection and Handling for In-situ Martian Rock Analysis(CHIMRA) device.

The SA/SPaH subsystem is responsible for the acquisition ofrock and soil samples from the Martian surface, and the pro-cessing of these samples into fine particles that are then distrib-uted to the analytical science instruments SAM and CheMin.The SA/SPaH subsystem is also responsible for the placementof the two contact instruments, APXS and MAHLI, on rockand soil targets. SA/SPaH also includes drill bit boxes, theOrganic Check Material (OCM), and an observation tray,which are all mounted on the front of the rover, and inlet covermechanisms that are placed over the SAM and CheMin solidsample inlet tubes on the rover top deck.

The Powder Acquisition Drill System is a rotary percussivedrill to acquire samples of rock material for analysis. It can col-lect a sample from up to 2" beneath a rock’s surface. The drillpenetrates the rock and powders the sample to the appropriategrain size for use in SAM and CheMin. If the drill bit becomesstuck in a rock, the drill can disengage from that bit and replaceit with a spare. The Dust Removal Tool is a metal-bristle brush-ing device used to remove the dust layer from a rock surface orto clean the rover’s observation tray.

A clamshell-shaped scoop collects soil samples from theMartian surface. The other turret-mounted portion of this devicehas chambers used for sorting, sieving, and portioning the sam-

ples collected by the drill and the scoop. An observation tray onthe rover allows the MAHLI and the APXS a place to examinecollected and processed samples of soil and powdered rock.

PowerRover power is provided by a multi-mission radioisotope

thermoelectric generator (MMRTG) supplied by the U.S.Department of Energy. This generator is essentially a nuclearbattery that reliably converts heat into electricity. It consists oftwo major elements: a heat source that contains plutonium-238dioxide, and a set of solid-state thermocouples that convert theplutonium’s heat energy to electricity. It contains 10.6 poundsof plutonium dioxide as the source of the steady supply of heatused to produce the onboard electricity, and to warm therover’s systems during the Martian nights.

ComputingCuriosity has redundant main computers, or rover compute

elements. Of this “A” and “B” pair, it uses one at a time, withthe spare held in cold backup. So, at a given time, the rover isoperating from either its A side or its B side. Each computercontains a radiation-hardened central processor withPowerPC 750 architecture, a BAE RAD 750 processor operat-ing at up to 200 MHz speed. Each of Curiosity’s redundantcomputers has 2 gigabytes of flash memory, 256 megabytes ofDRAM, and 256 kilobytes of EEPROM. The MSL flight soft-ware monitors the status and health of the spacecraft duringall phases of the mission, checks for the presence of com-mands to execute, performs communication functions, andcontrols spacecraft activities.

NavigationTwo sets of engineering cameras on

the rover — Navigation cameras(Navcams) up high, and Hazard-avoid-ance cameras (Hazcams) down low —inform operational decisions both byCuriosity’s onboard autonomy softwareand by the rover team on Earth.Information from these cameras is usedfor autonomous navigation, engineers’calculations for maneuvering the roboticarm, and scientists’ decisions about point-ing the remote-sensing science instru-ments.

Each of the Navcams captures asquare field of view 45 degrees wide andtall, comparable to the field of view of a37-millimeter-focal-length lens on a 35-millimeter, single-lens-reflex camera.Curiosity has four pairs of Hazcams: tworedundant pairs on the front of the chas-sis, and two at the rear. The rover candrive backwards as well as forward, soboth the front and rear Hazcams can beused for detecting potential obstacles inthe rover’s driving direction. TheHazcams have one-time-removable lenscovers to shield them from potentialdust raised during the rover’s landing.

Mast Camera (Mastcam)Two two-megapixel color cameras on

Curiosity’s mast are the left and right



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Protecting IGBTs with AvagoOptical Isolation Amplifi ers

IntroductionInsulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) can fail when subjected to overloads and overvoltages. Isolation amplfi ers (iso-amps) can respond quickly to over-current and overload conditions when used on the output phases and the DC bus.

A typical block diagram of a power converter in an AC motor drivet consists of an inverter that converts the DC bus voltage to AC power at a variable frequency to drive the motor. IGBTs are expensive power switches that form the heart of the inverter. These power devices must operate at a high frequency and must be able to withstand high voltages.

Iso-amps such as the ACPL-C79A work with shunt resistors to accurately measure power converter current even in the presence of high switching noise. When used with a resistive divider, iso-amps work as precision voltage sensors to monitor the DC bus voltage. The microcontroller monitors the current and voltage information from the iso-amps and uses the data to calculate the feedback values and output signals needed to for fault management in the IGBTs and power converters.

Fault ProtectionHowever, the IGBT protection must be such that its cost doesn’t aff ect that of the motor drive system. IGBT gate drivers such as the ACPL-332J and current sensors with protection features can detect faults economically in this regard. They eliminate the need for separate detection and feedback components.

The Avago AdvantageTechnical Notes

Your Imagination, Our Innovation Sense Illuminate Connect

Figure 1: Block diagram of power converter in a motor drive

Over-current conditions in an IGBT can arise from a phase-to-phase short, a ground short or a shoot through. The shunt + iso-amp devices on the output phases and DC bus can, besides measuring current, detect such faults.

Typical IGBT short-circuit survival times are rated up to 10 μsec. So any protection must prevent this limit from being exceeded. Within 10 μsec, the circuit must detect the fault, notify the controller and complete the shutdown. Iso-amps use various methods to get these results.

For instance, the ACPL-C79A has a fast, 1.6 μsec response for a step input. That lets the iso-amp capture transients during short-circuits and overloads. The signal propagation delay from input to output at mid point is only 2 μsec, while it takes just 2.6 μsec for the output signal to catch up with input, reaching 90% of the fi nal levels.

Another example is the HCPL-788J, which responds quicklyto over-currents using a different approach. In addition to the signal output pin, it has a Fault pin that toggles quickly from High to Low level when over-current occurs. This iso-amp provides ±3% measurement accuracy.

In the fault feedback design, nuisance tripping can be an issue. This is a triggering of fault detection in the absence of any damaging fault condition. To avoid false triggering, the HCPL-788J employs a pulse discriminator that blanks out di/dt and dv/dt glitches. The advantage of this method is that

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Contact us for your design needs at: www.avagotech.com/evalkits

Avago, Avago Technologies, the A logo and LaserStream are trademarks of Avago Technologies in the United States and other countries. All other trademarks are the property of their respective companies.Data subject to change. Copyright © 2012 Avago Technologies

The Avago Advantage Technical Notes

rejection is independent of amplitude, so the fault threshold can be set to low level without risking nuisance tripping.

The circuit that detects faults quickly contains two comparators in the Fault Detection block to detect the negative and positive fault thresholds. The switching threshold is equal to the sigma-delta modulator reference of 256 mV. The outputs of these comparators connect to blanking fi lters with a blanking period of 2 μsec and then go to the Encoder block.

To ensure speedy transmission of the fault status across the isolation boundary, two unique digital coding sequences represent the fault condition, one code for negative, the other for affi rmative. Detection of a fault interrupts the normal data transfer through the optical channel and replaces the bit stream with the fault code. These two fault codes deviate signifi cantly from the normal coding scheme, so the decoder on the detector side immediately recognizes the codes as a fault conditions.

The decoder needs about 1 μsec to detect and communicate the fault condition across the isolation boundary. The anti-aliasing fi lter adds a 400 nsec delay to give a propagation delay of 1.4 μsec. The delay between the fault event and the output fault signal is the sum of the propagation delay and the blanking period (2 μsec) for an overall 3.4 μsec fault detection time.

The Fault output pin allows fault signals from several devices to be wire-ORed together forming a single fault signal. This signal may then be used to directly disable the PWM inputs through the controller.

Overload DetectionAn overload condition refers to a situation where the motor current exceeds the rated drive current, but without imminent danger of failure, as when the motor is mechanically over- loaded or is stalling because of a bearing failure

Inverters usually have an overload rating. The time period of the allowable overload rating depends on the time it takes before overheating becomes an issue. A typical overload rating is 150% of nominal load for up to one minute.

The ACPL-C79A accepts full-scale input range of ±300 mV and the data sheet specifi cations are based on ±200 mV nominal input range. Designers can choose the overload threshold at or in between either of the two fi gures. Usually the measurement accuracy of the overload current is less stringent than that of the normal operating current. Here, setting the threshold near 300 mV is a good choice. This allows full use of the iso-amp’s dynamic input range. However, a threshold set at 200 mV ensures accurate measurement of the overload current. Once the voltage levels are decided, the designer must choose appropriate sense-resistor value according to corresponding current level.

The HCPL-788J includes an additional feature, the ABSVAL output, which can be used to simplify the overload detection circuit. The ABSVAL circuit rectifi es the output signal, providing an output proportional to the absolute level of the input signal. This output is also wire OR-able. When three sinusoidal motor phases are combined, the rectifi ed output (ABSVAL) is essentially a DC signal representing the RMS motor current. This DC signal and a threshold comparator can indicate motor overloads before they can damage to the motor or drive.

Overvoltage DetectionThe DC bus voltage must also be continuously controled. Under certain operating conditions, a motor can act as a generator, delivering a high voltage back into the DC bus through the inverter power devices and/or recovery diodes. This high voltage adds to the DC bus voltage and puts a very high surge on the IGBTs. That surge may exceed the maximum IGBT collect- emitter voltage and damage them.

The miniature iso-amp (ACPL-C79A) is often used as a voltage sensor in DC bus monitoring applications. A designer must scale down the DC bus voltage to fi t the input range of the iso-amp by choosing R1 and R2 values to get an appropriate ratio.

Figure 2:In the HCPL-788J iso-amp, the diff erential input voltage is digitally encoded by a sigma-delta A/D converter and then fed to the LED driver, which sends the data across the isolation barrier to a detector and D/A.

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eyes of the Mastcam. These cameras have complementarycapabilities for showing the rover’s surroundings in exquisitedetail and in motion. The right-eye Mastcam looks through atelephoto lens with about three-fold better resolution thanany previous landscape-viewing camera on the surface ofMars. The left-eye Mastcam provides broader context througha medium-angle lens. Each can acquire and store thousands offull-color images. Each is also capable of recording high-defi-nition video.

The telephoto Mastcam is called Mastcam 100 for its 100-mil-limeter focal-length lens. The camera provides enough resolu-tion to distinguish a basketball from a football at a distance ofseven football fields. Its left-eye partner, called Mastcam 34 forits 34-millimeter lens, catches a scene three times wider on anidentical detector.

Chemistry and Camera (ChemCam)The ChemCam instrument consists of two remote sensing

instruments: the first planetary science Laser-InducedBreakdown Spectrometer (LIBS), and a Remote Micro-Imager (RMI). The LIBS provides elemental compositions,while the RMI places the LIBS analyses in their geomorpho-logic context.

ChemCam uses a rock-zapping laser and a telescope mount-ed atop Curiosity’s mast. It also includes spectrometers andelectronics inside the rover. The laser can hit rock or soil tar-gets up to about 23 feet away with enough energy to excite apinhead-size spot into a glowing, ionized gas called plasma.

The instrument observes that spark with the telescope andanalyzes the spectrum of light to identify the chemical ele-ments in the target. The telescope doubles as the optics forthe camera of ChemCam, which records monochromeimages. The telescopic camera, called the remote micro-imag-er, will show context of the spots hit with the laser. It can alsobe used independently of the laser for observations of targetsat any distance.

The spot hit by ChemCam’s infrared laser gets more thana million watts of power focused on it for five one-billionthsof a second. Light from the resulting flash comes back toChemCam through the telescope, then through about 20feet of optical fiber down the mast to three spectrometersinside the rover. The spectrometers record intensity at6,144 different wavelengths of ultraviolet, visible, andinfrared light.

Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS)The APXS on Curiosity’s robotic arm will identify chemical

elements in rocks and soils. A pinch of radioactive materialemits radiation that “queries” the target and an X-ray detector“reads” the answer. The instrument consists of a main electron-ics unit in the rover’s body and a sensor head mounted on therobotic arm. Measurements are taken by deploying the sensorhead towards a desired sample, placing the sensor head in con-tact or hovering, and measuring the emitted X-ray spectrumfor 15 minutes to 3 hours without the need of further interac-tion by the rover.

Curiosity’s mast features seven cameras: the Remote Micro Imager, part of the ChemCam suite; four black-and-white Navigation Cameras (two on the leftand two on the right); and two color Mast Cameras (Mastcams). (NASA/JPL-Caltech)

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This artist’s concept depicts Curiosity as it uses its ChemCam to investigate the composition of a rock surface. ChemCam fires laser pulses at a target andviews the resulting spark with a telescope and spectrometers to identify chemical elements. The laser is in an invisible infrared wavelength, but is shownhere as visible red light for purposes of illustration. (NASA/JPL-Caltech)

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Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI)MAHLI is a focusable color camera on

Curiosity’s turret. Researchers will use itfor magnified, close-up views of rocksand soils, and also for wider scenes ofthe ground, the landscape, or even therover. Essentially, it is a handheld cam-era with a macro lens and autofocus.

The investigation takes its name fromthe type of hand lens magnifying toolthat every field geologist carries for see-ing details in rocks. MAHLI has two setsof white light-emitting diodes to enableimaging at night or in deep shadow. Twoother LEDs on the instrument glow atthe ultraviolet wavelength of 365nanometers. These will make it possibleto check for materials that fluoresceunder this illumination.

This camera uses a red-green-blue fil-ter grid like the one on commercial dig-ital cameras for obtaining a full-colorimage with a single exposure. It storesimages in an 8-Gb flash memory, and itcan perform an onboard focus merge ofeight images to reduce from eight totwo the number of images returned toEarth in downlink-limited situations.

Chemistry and Mineralogy(CheMin)

CheMin is one of two investigationsthat will analyze powdered rock and soilsamples delivered by Curiosity’s roboticarm. It will identify and quantify the min-erals in the samples. CheMin uses X-raydiffraction, a first for a mission to Mars.It supplements the diffraction measure-ments with X-ray fluorescence capabilityto determine further details of composi-tion by identifying ratios of specific ele-ments present. X-ray diffraction works bydirecting an X-ray beam at a sample andrecording how X-rays are scattered by thesample at the atomic level.

A sample processing tool on therobotic arm puts the powdered rock orsoil through a sieve designed to removeany particles larger than 0.006” beforedelivering the material into theCheMin inlet funnel. Each sampleanalysis will use about as much materialas in a baby aspirin.

Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM)SAM is designed to explore molecular

and elemental chemistry relevant to life.SAM addresses carbon chemistrythrough a search for organic com-pounds, the chemical state of light ele-ments other than carbon, and isotopictracers of planetary change. SAM is asuite of three instruments: a Quad -rupole Mass Spectrometer (QMS), a Gas

Free Info at http://info.hotims.com/40437-782Free Info at http://info.hotims.com/40437-782NASA Tech Briefs, September 2012

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Technology of CuriosityChromatograph (GC), and a TunableLaser Spectrometer (TLS). The QMSand the GC can operate together in aGCMS mode for separation (GC) anddefinitive identification (QMS) oforganic compounds.

SAM’s analytical tools fit into amicrowave-oven-size box inside the frontof the rover. While it is the biggest of theten instruments on Curiosity, this tightlypacked box holds instrumentation thatwould take up a good portion of a labo-ratory on Earth.

SAM’s sample manipulation systemmaneuvers 74 sample cups, each aboutone-sixth of a teaspoon in volume. Thechemical separation and processing laboratory includes pumps, tubing, car-rier-gas reservoirs, pressure monitors,ovens, temperature monitors, and othercomponents.

Rover Environmental MonitoringStation (REMS)

REMS records six atmospheric param-eters: wind speed/direction, pressure,relative humidity, air temperature,ground temperature, and ultravioletradiation. All sensors are located aroundthree elements: two booms attached tothe rover Remote Sensing Mast (RSM),the Ultraviolet Sensor (UVS) assemblylocated on the rover top deck, and theInstrument Control Unit (ICU) insidethe rover body.

Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD)

RAD will monitor high-energy atomicand subatomic particles reaching Marsfrom the Sun, distant supernovas, andother sources. These particles constitutenaturally occurring radiation that couldbe harmful to any microbes near the sur-face of Mars or to astronauts on a futureMars mission. RAD is an energetic particleanalyzer designed to characterize the full

spectrum of energetic particle radiation atthe surface of Mars. RAD’s measurementswill help fulfill MSL’s key goals of assess-ing whether Curiosity’s landing regionhas had conditions favorable for life andfor preserving evidence about life.

Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons (DAN)

DAN is an active/passive neutron spec-trometer that measures the abundanceand depth distribution of H- and OH-bearing materials in a shallow layer ofMars’ subsurface along the path of therover. DAN can detect water bound intoshallow underground minerals alongCuriosity’s path. It shoots neutrons intothe ground and measures how they arescattered, giving it a high sensitivity forfinding any hydrogen to a depth of about20" directly beneath the rover.

Mars Descent Imager (MARDI)During the final few minutes of

Curiosity’s flight to the surface of Mars,the Mars Descent Imager (MARDI)recorded a full-color video of theground below. MARDI is a fixed-focuscolor camera mounted to the fore portside of the rover, even with the bottomof the rover chassis. The camera tookimages at 5 frames per second through-out the period of time between heatshield separation and touchdown.Throughout Curiosity’s mission onMars, MARDI will offer the capability toobtain images of ground beneath therover for tracking of its movements orfor geologic mapping.

Learn more about Curiosity’s scienceinstruments at http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/mission/science. View the latest videos ofthe Mars Science Laboratory and Curiosityrover on Tech Briefs TV at www.techbriefs.com/tv/mars. Get the latest newson the MSL mission at www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/msl/.

Live Webinar on Engineering Curiosity

Join us on September 27 at 2 pm Eastern time for a free live webinar withRob Manning, Mars Science Laboratory Chief Engineer. Find out from Robhow he and his team addressed the unique engineering challenges ofdesigning and building NASA’s largest and most complex rover, Curiosity.

To register, visit www.techbriefs.com/Webinar116

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ATI Industrial Automation congratulatesthe NASA Mars Curiosity team on a hugelysuccessful landing. We look forward tocontributing our Force/Torque SensingTechnology to the success of futuremissions.www.ati-ia.com/company/NewsArticle.aspx?id=711301777

FUTEK was commissioned byNASA JPL to design and devel-op two cryogenic sensorsaboard Curiosity. With a donutload cell operating within therover’s drilling arm, it standsresponsible for monitoring the

force exerted upon the Martian ground. Additionally, a multi-axial sensor supervises the robotic arm as it maneuvers.www.futek.com

JPL has adopted Maplesoft technology in many of its projects.Maplesoft products will help save time and reduce cost by pro-viding very efficient methods for mathematical analysis,modeling, and simulation.Maplesoft solutions arebuilt within a natively sym-bolic framework, avoid ingsources of error and com-putational inefficiencies,making it suitable for pre-cision-rich projects. Maplesoft technology is used in a variety ofengineering applications, including space robotics.www.maplesoft.com/company/publications/articles/view.aspx?SID=130045

Curiosity uses a laser diode fromnanoplus. With its help, Curiosityis to draw important conclusionson organic compounds and lightelements, as well as on isotoperatios in atmosphere and soil

samples from Mars. This is to determine whether the RedPlanet is or has been a suitable living environment.www.nanoplus.com

Optimax is proud to be apart of history by supplyingoptics for the Mastcam,MAHLI and MARDI pay-loads on-board the MarsRover Curiosity. With more than 100 opticians, Optimax isAmerica’s largest prototype optics manufacturer and lever-ages its optics manufacturing technology for programs thatbenefit mankind.www.optimaxsi.com/About/SolarSystem.php

Siemens is proud of its rolein NASA’s development ofCuri osity. NASA’s Jet Pro -pulsion Lab oratory imple-mented NX™ from SiemensPLM Software, a fully inte-grated CAD/CAM/CAE sys-tem, as their product engi-neering and manufacturing platform. NX CAE offers a modernCAE environment to help realize shorter design-analysis iter-ations, and efficient workflows for multi-discipline simulation.www.techbriefs.com/siemens201209

Using Stratasys Fused Deposition (FDM) Technology, NASAengineers create complex rover parts, durable enough forMartian terrain. Visit Stratasys.com/rover to see how FDMpaves the way for development of human-supporting space

vehicles, helping NASA achieveits goal of extending humanreach farther into space. www.stratasys.com/rover

SUHNER’s flexible shafts are on board of “Curiosity,” playingan essential role in the scoop arm, helping to scratch shallowholes into Mars’ soil, to grabthe samples and to movethem to the on-board lab.Flexible shafts are not just forouter space; they are a veryeffective and cost efficientway to transmit rotary motionin everyday life. SUHNER Mfg., Inc. in Rome, Georgia USA www.suhner.com

Zemax optical and illuminationdesign software was used exten-sively by NASA engineers, scien-tists and contractors to designthe 17 cameras and spectrome-ters now onboard Curiosity.Zemax was also used to design

similar optical systems on NASA’s two previous Mars rovers,Spirit and Opportunity.www.radiantzemax.com/en/zemax/home.aspx?rnet=z12tb8

Industry Contributions to Mars RoverTo accomplish its missions, NASA relies on the support of hundreds of contractors and suppliers.Here's a look at some of the companies that contributed to the Mars Science Laboratory and the futuresuccess of Curiosity’s mission on the Red Planet.

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Congratulations,NASA,

on the successful landing of the Curiosity Rover —

an amazing feat of engineering.

We are proud to support this mission and the discoveries yet to come.

Thank you for inspiring us all to dream bigger.

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C AD/CAE Software Enables NASAto Head Back to Mars

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The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), developed at NASA’sJet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, CA, wasdesigned to determine whether the Gale Crater on Mars everhad conditions favorable for life. The Curiosity rover isequipped with a robotic arm that can drill into rocks, scoop upsoil, and deliver samples to internal analytical instruments.

While experience with previous Mars rovers, including Spiritand Opportunity, played a role in the development of MSL’sthermal control system, there were major differences in thisproject that posed new challenges for JPL.

Curiosity’s power generator, the Multi-Mission RadioisotopeThermoelectric Generator (MMRTG), is constantly generat-ing a substantial amount of heat, so JPL had to add more capa-bility to the heat-rejection system to accommodate it duringthe cruise phase. Also, Curiosity’s payload is larger, with muchhigher heat dissipations. The larger heat load on the roverinfluenced the need to add a rover heat-rejection system. Butan even bigger difference is that Curiosity’s heat-rejection sys-tem has to operate on the surface of Mars. While the cruiseheat-rejection system operates in a single mode to removewaste heat, the rover heat-rejection system must perform bothheating and cooling on the Martian surface.

The design of the MSL’s thermal control system involvedmore than just the heat-rejection system. It included all thetypical thermal control hardware (heaters, thermostats, ther-mal control coatings, and thermal blankets) that maintains thepayload and the spacecraft subsystems within their allowabletemperature requirements, for all operating modes and in thewide range of thermal conditions the MSL will experiencethroughout the mission lifetime.

The highest temperature that portions of the MSL flight sys-tem will experience is estimated to be 1447 °C during entry

into the Mars atmosphere. The coldest environment it willexperience is the coldness of deep space (-2 degrees Kelvin/-275 °C) during the cruise phase to Mars. The thermal environ-ment on the Mars surface will range from -135 to +50 °C.

Seamless IntegrationNearly a decade ago, JPL started to put together a technolo-

gy infrastructure aimed at meeting the more aggressive sched-ules and leaner budgets it had started to experience. A key ele-ment was establishing seamless software interfaces from con-ceptual design through manufacturing. This would allow JPLto minimize transcription errors, manual processes, and inter-polations between meshes. Minimizing errors and rework wascritical to maintaining design and fabrication schedules.

To address these issues, JPL implemented NX software as anend-to-end mechanical design platform. With NX, JPL got afully integrated computer-aided design (CAD)/computer-aided engineering (CAE)/computer-aided manufacturing(CAM) system. This is the system JPL used to develop themechanical portions of the MSL, including the thermal con-trol system.

Virtual MSLJPL’s mechanical designers modeled the entire MSL using

NX. There are digital assembly models of the rover, the cruisestage, and the descent stage. Analysts used the NX geometry,simplifying it as necessary, as the basis for their finite elementmeshes. Having design geometry and the analysis meshes in asingle environment improved collaboration between thedesign and analysis teams, and also reduced the time andeffort spent creating analysis models. The integrated NX envi-ronment also allowed the engineering teams to rapidly re-eval-uate designs as the mechanical hardware evolved.

JPL engineers started with small simulations (as this was thepilot program) to validate modeling assumptions, and eventu-ally gained confidence that their models correctly replicatedthe physics involved. Then they used the NX CAE solutions forthermal analysis to simulate a variety of physical effects, such asfluid flow in the rover, heater control of the propulsion system,and solar loading of the cruise stage. Analysis results were usedto update the design geometry.

The ease and efficiency of going from the design to thermalanalysis and then back to update the design geometry acceler-

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In addition to tighter design-analysis integration, use of NX enabled integration between different types of analysis, such as thermal and mechanicalanalysis.

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ated the development of the MSL’s ther-mal control system considerably. Savingtime and keeping to the schedule wascritical, although an equally importantbenefit of using NX was the ability toevaluate the thermal control system’sperformance under conditions that JPLcould not simulate with physical testing.

In addition to tighter design-analysisintegration, use of NX enabled integra-tion between different types of analysis,such as thermal and mechanical distor-tion and stress analysis. Prior to adopt-ing NX, engineers would have run athermal solution and then manuallymapped temperatures to the structuralmesh. Use of NX eliminated this manu-al process.

Use of NX also enabled easier accessto multiple types of analysis. For exam-ple, designers also needed to knowwhether any moving components wouldinterfere with any other components orrover operations. This would have beendifficult to determine by looking at stat-ic drawings or digital models. Using NXMotion made it possible to answer ques-tions such as these without the costs anddelays of physical testing.

The MSL flight system is the mostcomplex Mars mission that JPL hasimplemented, involving new technolo-gies and a new approach for entry,descent, and landing. As such, the devel-opment lifecycle is very difficult to com-pare to previous missions. It is clear thatthe MSL program had less manual workand more efficient upstream and down-stream modeling and simulation inter-facing compared to previous programs.And not having to re-enter data intomultiple applications ruled out a poten-tial source of error, giving JPL a higherlevel of confidence in the MSL designthan it would have had otherwise.

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NASA Tech Briefs, September 2012 41

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Technology Focus: Test & Measurement

A miniature, lighter-weight, and high-ly accurate inertial navigation system(INS) is coupled with GPS receivers toprovide stable and highly accurate posi-tioning, attitude, and inertial measure-ments while being subjected to highlydynamic maneuvers. In contrast to con-ventional methods that use extensive,ground-based, real-time tracking andcontrol units that are expensive, large,and require excessive amounts of powerto operate, this method focuses on thedevelopment of an estimator that makesuse of a low-cost, miniature accelerome-ter array fused with traditional measure-ment systems and GPS. Through the useof a position tracking estimation algo-

rithm, onboard accelerometers arenumerically integrated and transformedusing attitude information to obtain anestimate of position in the inertialframe. Position and velocity estimatesare subject to drift due to accelerometersensor bias and high vibration over time,and so require the integration with GPSinformation using a Kalman filter to pro-vide highly accurate and reliable inertialtracking estimations.

The method implemented here usesthe local gravitational field vector. Upondetermining the location of the localgravitational field vector relative to twoconsecutive sensors, the orientation ofthe device may then be estimated, and

the attitude determined. Improved atti-tude estimates further enhance the iner-tial position estimates. The device canbe powered either by batteries, or by thepower source onboard its target plat-forms. A DB9 port provides the I/O toexternal systems, and the device isdesigned to be mounted in a waterproofcase for all-weather conditions.

This work was done by Liang Tang ofImpact Technologies and AgamemnonCrassidis of the Rochester Institute ofTechnology for Goddard Space Flight Center.For more information, download theTechnical Support Package (free whitepaper) at www.techbriefs.com/tsp under thePhysical Sciences category. GSC-16132-1

Lightweight, Miniature Inertial Measurement System Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland

Optical Density Analysis of X-Rays Utilizing Calibration Toolingto Estimate Thickness of PartsThis method uses off-the-shelf data analysis software and a digitized x-ray for nondestructive testing.John F. Kennedy Space Center, Florida

This process is designed to estimate thethickness change of a material throughdata analysis of a digitized version of an x-ray (or a digital x-ray) containing thematerial (with the thickness in question)and various tooling. Using this process, itis possible to estimate a material’s thick-ness change in a region of the material orpart that is thinner than the rest of thereference thickness. However, that sameprinciple process can be used to deter-mine the thickness change of materialusing a thinner region to determinethickening, or it can be used to developcontour plots of an entire part.

Proper tooling must be used. An x-rayfilm with an S-shaped characteristic curveor a digital x-ray device with a productresulting in like characteristics is necessary.If a film exists with linear characteristics,this type of film would be ideal; however, atthe time of this reporting, no such film hasbeen known. Machined components (withknown fractional thicknesses) of a like

material (similar density) to that of thematerial to be measured are necessary.

The machined components shouldhave machined through-holes. For easeof use and better accuracy, the through-holes should be a size larger than 0.125in. (≈3 mm). Standard components forthis use are known as penetrameters orimage quality indicators. Also needed isstandard x-ray equipment, if film is usedin place of digital equipment, or x-raydigitization equipment with proven con-version properties. Typical x-ray digitiza-tion equipment is commonly used in themedical industry, and creates digitalimages of x-rays in DICOM format. It isrecommended to scan the image in a 16-bit format. However, 12-bit and 8-bit res-olutions are acceptable. Finally, x-rayanalysis software that allows accuratedigital image density calculations, suchas Image-J freeware, is needed.

The actual procedure requires the testarticle to be placed on the raw x-ray, ensur-

ing the region of interest is aligned for per-pendicular x-ray exposure capture. One ormultiple machined components of likematerial/density with known thicknessesare placed atop the part (preferably in aregion of nominal and non-varying thick-ness) such that exposure of the combinedpart and machined component lay-up iscaptured on the x-ray. Depending on theaccuracy required, the machined compo-nent’s thickness must be carefully chosen.Similarly, depending on the accuracyrequired, the lay-up must be exposed suchthat the regions of the x-ray to be analyzedhave a density range between 1 and 4.5.After the exposure, the image is digitized,and the digital image can then be analyzedusing the image analysis software.

This work was done by David Grau ofKennedy Space Center. For more information,download the Technical Support Package(free white paper) at www.techbriefs.com/tspunder the Physical Sciences category. KSC-13206

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This device provides non-invasivebeat-to-beat blood pressure measure-ments and can be worn over the upperarm for prolonged durations. Phase andwaveform analyses are performed on fil-tered proximal and distal photoplethys-mographic (PPG) waveforms obtained

from the brachial artery. The phaseanalysis is used primarily for the compu-tation of the mean arterial pressure,while the waveform analysis is used pri-marily to obtain the pulse pressure. Real-time compliance estimate is used torefine both the mean arterial and pulse

pressures to provide the beat-to-beatblood pressure measurement.

This wearable physiological monitorcan be used to continuously observe thebeat-to-beat blood pressure (B3P). It canbe used to monitor the effect of pro-longed exposures to reduced gravita-tional environments and the effective-ness of various countermeasures.

A number of researchers have usedpulse wave velocity (PWV) of blood in thearteries to infer the beat-to-beat bloodpressure. There has been documentationof relative success, but a device that is ableto provide the required accuracy andrepeatability has not yet been developed.It has been demonstrated that an accu-rate and repeatable blood pressure meas-urement can be obtained by measuringthe phase change (e.g., phase velocity),amplitude change, and distortion of thePPG waveforms along the brachial artery.The approach is based on comparing thefull PPG waveform between two pointsalong the artery rather than measuringthe time-of-flight. Minimizing the meas-urement separation and confining themeasurement area to a single, well-defined artery allows the waveform toretain the general shape between the twomeasurement points. This allows signalprocessing of waveforms to determinethe phase and amplitude changes.

Photoplethysmography, which meas-ures changes in arterial blood volume, iscommonly used to obtain heart rate andblood oxygen saturation. The digitizedPPG signals are used as inputs into thebeat-to-beat blood pressure measure-ment algorithm. The algorithm consistsof the following main components:• First harmonic isolation bandpass fil-

ters take the raw PPG signals and sepa-rate out the first harmonics.

• Three harmonic lowpass filters takethe PPG signal and filter out all spec-tral components outside the first threeharmonics. The first three harmonicsare used for regeneration of the pulsepressure waveforms.

• Phase analysis engine takes the firstharmonics of the PPG signals and com-putes the phase difference betweenthem in real time using a cross-correla-tion-based algorithm. The phase dif-ference is to the first order correlatedto the MAP (mean arterial pressure).

Beat-to-Beat Blood Pressure MonitorThis invention is applicable to all segments of the blood pressure monitoring market, includingambulatory, home-based, and high-acuity monitoring.Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas


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NASA is in the process of modernizing its communicationsinfrastructure to accompany the development of a CrewExploration Vehicle (CEV) to replace the shuttle. With thiseffort comes the opportunity to infuse more advanced codedmodulation techniques, including low-density parity-check(LDPC) codes that offer greater coding gains than the cur-rent capability. However, in order to take full advantage ofthese codes, the ground segment receiver synchronizationloops must be able to operate at a lower signal-to-noise ratio(SNR) than supported by equipment currently in use.

At low SNR, the receiver symbol synchronization loop will beincreasingly sensitive to transmitter timing jitter. Excessive tim-ing jitter can cause bit slips in the receiver synchronizationloop, which will in turn cause frame losses and potentially leadto receiver and/or decoder loss-of-lock. Therefore, it is neces-sary to investigate what symbol timing jitter requirements onthe satellite transmitter are needed to support the next gener-ation of NASA coded modulation techniques.

Measurements of ground segment receiver sensitivity totransmitter bit jitter were conducted using a satellitetransponder and two different commercial staggered quadra-

Measurement Techniques forClock JitterNew approach offers more advanced codedmodulation techniques.Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas

• Compliance estimation engine takes information on the gen-eral shape of the waveforms and the phase delay to computethe local compliance of the artery. The higher the arterialpressure, the higher the Young’s modulus and thus the lowerthe compliance.

• MAP computation engine obtains the phase delay and com-pliance information and provides the mean arterial pressure.

• Waveform analysis engine takes the PPG signal containingthe first three harmonics and provides the signal processingneeded for compliance (elasticity) estimation and pulse pres-sure computation.

• Pulse pressure computation engine takes the filtered PPG sig-nal and an estimate of the arterial compliance to re-generatethe pulse waveform.

• B3P computation engine takes the MAP and the pulse pres-sure computations and combines them with a blood pressuremodel and calibration data to produce the final signal ofinterest — the beat-to-beat blood pressure.This work was done by Yong Jin Lee of Linea Research Corporation for

Johnson Space Center. For more information, download the TechnicalSupport Package (free white paper) at www.techbriefs.com/tsp underthe Bio-Medical category.

In accordance with Public Law 96-517, the contractor has elected toretain title to this invention. Inquiries concerning rights for its commer-cial use should be addressed to:

Linea Research Corporation1020 Corporation WaySuite 216Palo Alto, CA 94303Refer to MSC-24601-1, volume and number of this NASA Tech

Briefs issue, and the page number.

Test & Measurement

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ture phase-shift keying (SQPSK) re -ceivers. The symbol synchronizer looptransfer functions were characterizedfor each receiver. Symbol timing jitterwas introduced at the transmitter.Effects of sinusoidal (tone) jitter onsymbol error rate (SER) degradationand symbol slip probability were meas-ured. These measurements were usedto define regions of sensitivity to phase,frequency, and cycle-to-cycle jitter char-acterizations. An assortment of otherband-limited jitter waveforms was thenapplied within each region to identify

peak or root-mean-square measures as abasis for comparability.

Receiver clock recovery loops thatoperate in low SNR ratio environmentsrequire that transmit clock jitter be con-strained by several measures on differ-ent dimensions and operating regions.In this work, effects of transmit phase jit-ter (PhJ), frequency jitter (FJ), andcycle-to-cycle jitter (CCJ) were studiedfor sinusoidal and multi-tone jitter pro-files on receiver performance. It wasdemonstrated that the receiver musthave a loop bandwidth tight enough to

avoid cycle slips, but loose enough totrack some movement in the data signal.Movement that a tight loop cannot trackis usually manifested first as intersymbolinterference (ISI) (SER degradation)and then ultimately as cycle slipping inthe receiver.

Results from the tests indicate thatthe receiver symbol synchronizationloop is more sensitive to certain types ofsymbol jitter and jitter frequencies,depending on the selection of the loopfilter and damping ratio. A frameworkis provided to properly compose atransmit jitter mask depending onreceiver design parameters such asdamping ratio in order to limit receiverperformance degradation at low SNRregions.

This work was done by ChatwinLansdowne and Adam Schlesinger of JohnsonSpace Center. For more information, down-load the Technical Support Package (freewhite paper) at www.techbriefs.com/tspunder the Physical Sciences category. MSC-24810-1


©2012 Measurement Computing Corporation, 10 Commerce Way, Norton, MA 02766 • [email protected]

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A concept has been developed for anew fuel cell individual-cell-voltage mon-itor that can be directly connected to amulti-cell fuel cell stack for direct sub-stack power provisioning. It can also pro-vide voltage isolation for applications inhigh-voltage fuel cell stacks. The tech-nology consists of basic modules, eachwith an 8- to 16-cell input electricalmeasurement connection port. For eachbasic module, a power input connectionwould be provided for direct connectionto a sub-stack of fuel cells in series with-in the larger stack. This power connec-tion would allow for module power to beavailable in the range of 9-15 volts DC.The relatively low voltage differencesthat the module would encounter fromthe input electrical measurement con-nection port, coupled with the fact thatthe module’s operating power is sup-plied by the same substack voltage input(and so will be at similar voltage), pro-vides for elimination of high-common-

Fuel Cell/ElectrochemicalCell VoltageMonitor Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center,Houston, Texas

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Online detection techniques to mon-itor the health of rotating engine com-ponents are becoming increasinglyattractive to aircraft engine manufac-turers in order to increase safety ofoperation and lower maintenancecosts. Health monitoring remains achallenge to easily implement, especial-ly in the presence of scattered loadingconditions, crack size, componentgeometry, and materials properties.

The current trend, however, is to utilizenoninvasive types of health monitoringor nondestructive techniques to detecthidden flaws and mini-cracks beforeany catastrophic event occurs. Thesetechniques go further to evaluate mate-rial discontinuities and other anomaliesthat have grown to the level of criticaldefects that can lead to failure.Generally, health monitoring is highlydependent on sensor systems capable

of performing in various engine envi-ronmental conditions and able to trans-mit a signal upon a predeterminedcrack length, while acting in a neutralform upon the overall performance ofthe engine system.

Spin simulation tests were conductedon a turbine engine-like rotor with andwithout an artificially induced notch atdifferent rotational loading speed levels.Health monitoring verification was per-

Anomaly Detection Techniques With Real Test Data From aSpinning Turbine Engine-Like RotorThese techniques are suitable for engine manufacturers and industries in aerospace and aviation.John H. Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

mode voltage issues within each module.Within each module, there would beoptions for analog-to-digital conversionand data transfer schemes.

Each module would also include adata-output/communication port. Eachof these ports would be required to beeither non-electrical (e.g., optically iso-

lated) or electrically isolated. This is nec-essary to account for the fact that theplurality of modules attached to thestack will normally be at a range of volt-ages approaching the full range of thefuel cell stack operating voltages. A com-munications/data bus could interfacewith the several basic modules. Options

have been identified for commandinputs from the spacecraft vehicle con-troller, and for output-status/data feedsto the vehicle.

This work was done by Arturo Vasquez ofJohnson Space Center. For further informa-tion, contact the JSC Innovation PartnershipsOffice at (281) 483-3809. MSC-24592-1

Test & Measurement

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formed by integrating three differentadvanced machine-learning algorithmsfor anomaly detection in continuousdata streams from spinning tests of asubscale turbine engine-like rotor diskup to a speed of 10,000 rpm.

This study compares an outlier detec-tion algorithm (Orca), one-class sup-port vector machines (OCSVM), andthe Inductive Monitoring System (IMS)for anomaly detection on the datastreams. These techniques were used toinspect the experimental data underthe same operating conditionsemployed in the tests, and using themeasured vibration response (blade tipclearance) as a key input to check theviability of these techniques on detect-ing the disk anomalies and to evaluatethe performance of each methodology.The performance of the algorithm ismeasured with respect to the detectionhorizon for situations where fault infor-mation is available. Further, this workpresents a select evaluation of an online

health monitoring scheme of a rotatingdisk using a combination of high-cal-iber sensor technology, high-precisionin-house spin test system facilities, andunprecedented data-driven fault detec-tion methodologies.

The methodologies applied in thisstudy can be considered as a model-based reasoning approach to enginehealth monitoring. Typical model-based reasoning techniques compare asystem model or simulation with systemsensor data to detect deviationsbetween values predicted by the modeland those produced by the actual sys-tem. In fact, a model-based reasoneruses the collected system parametervalues as input to a simulation anddetermines if a particular set of inputvalues is consistent with the simulationmodel. When the values are not consis-tent with the model, a “conflict”occurs, indicating that the system oper-ation is off nominal. The resultsobtained showed that the detection

algorithms are capable of predictinganomalies in the rotor disk with verygood accuracy. Each detection schemeperformed differently under the sameexperimental conditions, and eachdelivered a different level of precisionin terms of detecting a fault in therotor. Overall rating showed that boththe Orca and OCVSM performed bet-ter than the IMS technique.

This work was done by Ali Abdul-Aziz,Mark R. Woike, Nikunj C. Oza, and BryanL. Matthews of Glenn Research Center. Formore information, download the TechnicalSupport Package (free white paper) atwww.techbriefs.com/tsp under the PhysicalSciences category.

Inquiries concerning rights for the commer-cial use of this invention should be addressedto NASA Glenn Research Center, InnovativePartnerships Office, Attn: Steven Fedor, MailStop 4–8, 21000 Brookpark Road,Cleveland, Ohio 44135. Refer to LEW-18758-1.

Large cryogenic liquid hydrogen tanksare composed of inner and outer shells.The outer shell is exposed to the ambientenvironment while the inner shell holdsthe liquid hydrogen. The region betweenthese two shells is evacuated and typicallyfilled with a powder-like insulation tominimize radiative coupling between thetwo shells. A technique was developed fordetecting the presence of an air leakfrom the outside environment into thisevacuated region. These tanks are rough-

ly 70 ft (≈21 m) in diameter (outer shell)and the inner shell is roughly 62 ft (≈19m) in diameter, so the evacuated region isabout 4 ft (≈1 m) wide.

A small leak’s primary effect is toincrease the boil-off of the tank. It waspreferable to install a more accurate filllevel sensor than to implement a boil-offmeter. The fill level sensor would becomposed of an accurate pair of pres-sure transducers that would essentiallyweigh the remaining liquid hydrogen.

This upgrade, allowing boil-off data tobe obtained weekly instead of over sever-al months, is ongoing, and will then pro-vide a relatively rapid indication of thepresence of a leak.

This work was done by Robert Youngquist,Stanley Starr, and Mark Nurge of KennedySpace Center. For more information, down-load the Technical Support Package (freewhite paper) at www.techbriefs.com/tspunder the Physical Sciences category. KSC-13211

Measuring Air Leaks Into the Vacuum Space of Large LiquidHydrogen TanksJohn F. Kennedy Space Center, Florida

Antenna Calibration and Measurement EquipmentNASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California

A document describes the AntennaCalibration & Measurement Equipment(ACME) system that will provide theDeep Space Network (DSN) with instru-mentation enabling a trained RF engi-neer at each complex to perform anten-na calibration measurements and togenerate antenna calibration data. Thisdata includes continuous-scan autobore-based data acquisition with all-sky datagathering in support of 4th order point-

ing model generation requirements.Other data includes antenna subreflec-tor focus, system noise temperature andtipping curves, antenna efficiency,reports system linearity, and instrumentcalibration.

The ACME system design is based onthe on-the-fly (OTF) mapping tech-nique and architecture. ACME has con-tributed to the improved RF perform-ance of the DSN by approximately a fac-

tor of two. It improved the pointing per-formances of the DSN antennas andproductivity of its personnel and calibra-tion engineers.

This work was done by David J. Rochblattand Manuel Vazquez Cortes of Caltech forNASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. For moreinformation, download the TechnicalSupport Package (free white paper) atwww.techbriefs.com/tsp under the PhysicalSciences category. NPO-47599

Test & Measurement

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Conferences & Courses29 April to 3 May 2013

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Technologies and applications for:

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Submit your abstract by 22 October 2012spie.org/aboutdss

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Technologies of the Month

For more information on these and other new, licensable inventions, visit www.techbriefs.com/techsearch

Sponsored by

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Razor “Saws” Hair for Easier Shaving

Laser Consult

With traditional razors, the cutting edge of a blade movesin the direction of the cut. A new shaving device, however,includes one or more blades that perform a vibrating motionperpendicular to the direction of the cut, and parallel to theblade’s edge; the hairs are cut by sawing, rather than cutting.

Because an additional blade movement is introduced (inthe direction parallel to the blade), the sawing of the hair iseasier than cutting. As sawing requires less energy than cut-ting, the act of shaving becomes easier. Other features of theinvention include smoother skin feel, shorter shaving time,and longer life span of the razor.

Get the complete report on this technology at:www.techbriefs.com/tow/201209b.html

Email: [email protected]: 781-972-0600

Medical Valves Withstand Magnetic Fields

Parker Hannifin

Parker Hannifin has created design concepts for valves thatcan be used in MRI-compatible ventilators. The valves, built towork with a variety of medical fluids and gases, are unaffectedby strong magnetic fields and, in turn, do not create any mag-netic fields of their own. In addition, the valves can bedesigned to handle a range of operating characteristics whileminimizing total footprint.

Parker also seeks to establish partnerships with earlyadopters of new technology to test and validate design con-cepts for MRI-compatible valves. Each MRI-compatible venti-lator is expected to have three inlet valves and one bleedvalve. Any proposed device must be compatible with O2, airand N2O.

Get the complete report on this technology at:www.techbriefs.com/tow/201209d.html


Gauge Calibrates Three-DimensionalCoordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)

National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology

A gauge, which is used in examining the accuracy of a coor-dinate measuring machine (CMM), enables total calibrationof errors and numbers of revisions of the measured values.The accurate calibration is possible for a CMM of any size.Various machines can also be calibrated by combining thegauge.

The CMM calibrating gauge consists of a block gauge anda fixed sphere. The coordinates of the sphere’s center anddiameter can be specifically measured on the basis of theopposite end faces of the block gauge. Furthermore, theCMM calibrating gauge may have numbers of block gaugesthat are fixed together, allowing measured values to berevised repeatedly.

Get the complete report on this technology at:www.techbriefs.com/tow/201209a.html


Inspection Technology Identifies Surface Defects

Nissan Motor Co., Ltd.

An automated surface inspection technology identifiespotential defects on a painted surface so that they can beremedied. The system provides a database so that the size,location, quality, and other aspects of production line defectscan be tracked over time.

The technology identifies dots and dust from 0.1 mm orgreater on coated film, such as automobile bodies. It uses aseries of LED lights, configured in stripes, and CCD cameras.The cameras provide images for analysis to a tracking system.If there is a defect, the angle of reflection from the lights pro-duces greater brightness; the tracking software identifies flawsthat pass a preset threshold.

Get the complete report on this technology at:www.techbriefs.com/tow/201209c.html


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TechNeeds — Requests for TechnologiesTechNeeds are anonymous requests for technologies that you and your organization may be able to fulfill.

Responding to a TechNeed is the first step to gaining an introduction with a prospective “buyer” for your technology solution.

Diagnostic Indicators on Consumer Packaging

Low-cost, flexible diagnostic indicators must be incorporat-ed onto consumer product packaging. The main focus of thetechnology should be the diagnosis of bad breath; a printablediagnostic strip on a tube of toothpaste, for example, may bea possible solution for quickly identifying halitosis. The clientwants to provide the consumer with a disposable tool to self-diagnose at point of sale. Solutions could be diagnostics thatdetect one or multiple states, and could include tests forbreath, saliva, sweat, urine, skin cells, and tongue scraping.

Respond to this TechNeed at:www.techbriefs.com/tn/201209g.html


Graphene as Filler for ThermoplasticNanocomposites

To save costs and reduce weight, a company is exploringgraphene as a filler for thermoplastic resins. Work to date hasshown that graphene dispersion is generally poor in thermo-plastics, leading to less than optimal reinforcement proper-ties and darker color. The manufacturer is specifically inter-ested in the reinforcement properties of graphene in polyeth-ylene and polypropylene. Potential solution proposals mustinclude the source of the material, the matrix they are dis-persing into, the level of transparency and color, and somemeasure of mechanical reinforcement.

Respond to this TechNeed at:www.techbriefs.com/tn/201209h.html


Heat Seal Solutions for Flexible Film An organization seeks one or more bonding agents that can

be dispersed into water. When the bonding agents are coatedonto a PET film and dried, the coated film should adhere toand seal items made from rigid PE (polyethylene), PP(polypropylene), PS (polystyrene), PVC (polyvinylchloride),and PET (polyester). The same agent does not need to bondall five materials. One possible solution may be a material thathas both a polar group to bond to PET and a non-polar groupthat can bond to other substrates.

Respond to this TechNeed at:www.techbriefs.com/tn/201209e.html


Fast-Cooking PastaA large manufacturer of consumer products needs an inno-

vative process to make fast-cooking pasta. Cooking timeshould be reduced by at least 70%, and thickness/texture ofthe dry product must be the same as that of the referenceshape. Ingredients should be suitable for human consump-tion. The reduction of cooking time and eventual tempera-ture represents not only a clear advantage for a “time-starv-ing” consumer, but also a lower energy consumption of thecooking process, which reduces impact on the environment.

Respond to this TechNeed at:www.techbriefs.com/tn/201209f.html


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MORE MANUFACTURING & PROTOTYPING TECH BRIEFSOnline at www.techbriefs.com/prototypingRead these new reports:

• Joining and Assembly of Bulk Metallic Glasses Through Capacitive Discharge

• Reducing Machine Controller Design and Deployment

• Electrospun Nanofiber Coating: A Composite Toughening Approach

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Manufacturing & Prototyping

High-precision mirrors for spaceapplications are traditionally manufac-tured from one piece of material, suchas lightweight glass “sandwich” or beryl-lium. The purpose of this project was todevelop and test the feasibility of a man-ufacturing process capable of producingmirrors out of welded segments ofAlBeMet® (AM162H). AlBeMet® is aHIP’d (hot isostatic pressed) materialcontaining approximately 62% berylli-um and 38% aluminum. As a result,AlBeMet® shares many of the benefits ofboth of those materials for use in highperformance mirrors, while minimizingmany of their weaknesses.

AlBeMet® machines more like alu-minum than beryllium, but retains manyof the beneficial structural characteristicsof beryllium, such as a lower coefficientof thermal expansion (CTE), greater stiff-ness, and lower density than aluminum.AlBeMet® also has as a key characteristicthat it can be electron-beam welded, andAlBeMet® has been demonstrated as asuitable material for use as an optical sub-strate. These last two characteristics werecentral to the selection of AlBeMet® asthe material to be used in the construc-tion of the segmented mirror. In order toeffectively compare the performance ofthe monolithic and the segmented mir-ror, a plano mirror was designed.

A plano mirror is the best design, as itminimizes the effect of extraneous fac-tors on the performance of the final mir-ror, such as the skill of the polisher toachieve the proper prescription. A planomirror will also theoretically retain thesame prescription when segmented andthen reassembled. Any material lost tothe kerf will not change the prescrip-tion, unlike, for example, a sphericalmirror whose radius of curvature willbecome smaller with the loss of material.The mirror design also incorporateslight-weighting cavities and stiffeningribs, as is typical in space-based mirrordesign. Thicker ribs were required along

the proposed cutting/welding lines tofacilitate the machining of those sur-faces when the mirror was segmented.The mirror was designed to be cut intofour (4) equal segments. As a result, thethicker ribs ran perpendicular to eachother through the center of the mirror.

The monolithic mirror was ma -chined and ground by closely follow -ing Materion’s suggested fabricationprocess for AlBeMet®, including stabiliza-tion, temperature cycling, and in-processinspection checks. Once the flatness hadbeen obtained, the mirror was sent fornickel plating. The mirror was plated withhigh-phosphorous nickel to a thickness

Lightweight Metal Matrix Composite Segmented forManufacturing High-Precision MirrorsNew approach is examined to reduce production costs.Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland

Front of the welded mirror substrate. Back of the finished mirror.

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between 0.003 and 0.004 in. (≈0.076 and0.102 mm) in accordance with specifica-tion AMS 2404, class I. After nickel-plating,the mirror was stabilized and then pol-ished to obtain a finished optic. In theend, the monolithic mirror achieved a sur-face figure of nearly ¼ λ (0.286 λ) at 633nm with a surface roughness of 15 Å rms.

The monolithic mirror was then pre-pared to be segmented and welded. Thenickel-plating on the mirror had to becompletely stripped off in order to facili-tate welding. The mirror was cut into fourquarters using a wire EDM process. The

segments were stabilized and cleanedbefore being delivered to Materion for thewelding process. The welds along the mir-ror surface were done first and the mirrorflipped and aligned, and the backside,along the bottom of the ribs, was welded.

Following welding, one first had toremove enough material from the mir-ror surface to get below any surfacedamage or other irregularities caused bythe weld. A small amount of material wasalso removed from the backside of themirror, simply to clean up the appear-ance of that weld. The mirror was stress

relieved before being ground to theproper flatness requirement, after whichthe mirror was inspected and sent outfor nickel plating.

The returned mirror underwent thegrinding and polishing process in thesame manner as that used on the mono-lithic mirror. The mirror was ground andpolished until it achieved a surface figureof less than 1 (at 633 nm), temperaturecycled for stabilization, and then re-measured. In the end, the segmentedmirror achieved a surface figure of lessthan 0.7 at 633 nm with a surface rough-ness measured at 16.5 Å. It is very proba-ble that a better surface figure couldhave been achieved on the segmentedmirror, but budget constraints of thisPhase I project prevented further efforts.

Based on the results presented, thefeasibility of creating high-performancemirrors out of welded segments ofAlBeMet® has been proven and has thepotential for being used in a full-sizeastronomical mirror.

This work was done by Vladimir Vudler ofHardric Laboratories, Inc. for Goddard SpaceFlight Center. For more information, down-load the Technical Support Package (freewhite paper) at www.techbriefs.com/tspunder the Manufacturing & Prototyping cat-egory. GSC-16165-1

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Manufacturing & Prototyping

The sounding rocket experimentFIRE (Far-ultraviolet Imaging RocketExperi ment) will improve the sciencecommunity’s ability to image a spectralregion hitherto unexplored astronomi-cally. The imaging band of FIRE (≈900to 1,100 Å) will help fill the currentwavelength imaging observation holeexisting from ≈620 Å to the GALEXband near 1,350 Å. FIRE is a single-opticprime focus telescope with a 1.75-mfocal length. The bandpass of 900 to1100 Å is set by a combination of the

Plasma TreatmentTo Remove CarbonFrom Indium UVFilters Hydrogen plasma cleaning isused in sterilizationapplications in healthcare asan alternative to autoclaving. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory,Pasadena, California

NASA Tech Briefs, September 2012

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A cutaway view shows the Detector Assembly and Filter. The indium filtersits just in front of the detector plates in the light beam (yellow cone) atthe orange ring.

mirror coating, the indium filter in front of the detector, andthe salt coating on the front of the detector’s microchannelplates. Critical to this is the indium filter that must reduce theflux from Lyman-alpha at 1,216 Å by a minimum factor of 10–4.The cost of this Lyman-alpha removal is that the filter is notfully transparent at the desired wavelengths of 900 to 1,100 Å.

Recently, in a project to improve the performance of opticaland solar blind detectors, JPL developed a plasma processcapable of removing carbon contamination from indiummetal. In this work, a low-power, low-temperature hydrogenplasma reacts with the carbon contaminants in the indium toform methane, but leaves the indium metal surface undis-turbed. This process was recently tested in a proof-of-conceptexperiment with a filter provided by the University ofColorado. This initial test on a test filter showed improvementin transmission from 7 to 9 percent near 900 Å with no processoptimization applied. Further improvements in this perform-ance were readily achieved to bring the total transmission to12% with optimization to JPL’s existing process.

A low-power, hydrogen plasma treatment is generated in aPlasmaTherm RIE etcher using a mixture of argon and hydro-gen gas. The gas ratio is optimized in order to control the fol-lowing variables: bias voltage, atomic hydrogen content, andsubstrate temperature. Low bias voltage is required to avoidmechanically degrading the filters by sputtering the indiumfoil. High atomic hydrogen content is required to enhance thecarbon removal rate. Low substrate temperature is required toavoid deformation of the indium foil due to sagging. Thosevariables are optimized around MFC (mass flow controller) set-points of 25 sccm argon and 7 sccm hydrogen.

This work was done by Harold F. Greer and Shouleh Nikzad ofCaltech, and Matthew Beasley and Brennan Gantner of the Universityof Colorado for NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. For more informa-tion, download the Technical Support Package (free white paper) atwww.techbriefs.com/tsp under the Manufacturing & Prototypingcategory.

In accordance with Public Law 96-517, the contractor has elected toretain title to this invention. Inquiries concerning rights for its commer-cial use should be addressed to:

Innovative Technology Assets ManagementJPLMail Stop 202-2334800 Oak Grove DrivePasadena, CA 91109-8099E-mail: [email protected] to NPO-47400, volume and number of this NASA Tech

Briefs issue, and the page number.

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Electronics/Computers

Telerobotics Workstation (TRWS) forDeep Space Habitats This multi- display computer workstation can be adjusted for avariety of configurations. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California

On medium- to long- duration humanspaceflight missions, latency in commu-nications from Earth could reduce effi-ciency or hinder local operations, con-trol, and monitoring of the various mis-sion vehicles and other elements. Re -gardless of the degree of autonomy ofany one particular element, a means of

monitoring and controlling the ele-ments in real time based on missionneeds would increase efficiency andresponse times for their operation.Since human crews would be presentlocally, a local means for monitoring andcontrolling all the various mission ele-ments is needed, particularly for robotic

The Telerobotics Workstation (TRWS) swing frame enables the mounted computer workstation to beadjusted for a variety of configurations.

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elements where response to interestingscientific features in the environmentmight need near- instantaneous manipu-lation and control.

One of the elements proposed formed ium- and long- duration human space - flight missions, the Deep Space Habitat(DSH), is intended to be used as a re -mote residence and working volume forhuman crews. The proposed solution forlocal monitoring and control would beto provide a workstation within the DSHwhere local crews can operate local vehi-cles and robotic elements with little tono latency.

The Telerobotics Workstation (TRWS)is a multi- display computer workstationmounted in a dedicated location withinthe DSH that can be adjusted for a vari-ety of configurations as required. Froman Intra- Vehicular Activity (IVA) loca-tion, the TRWS uses the Robot App -lication Programming Interface Del -egate (RAPID) control environmentthrough the local network to remotelymonitor and control vehicles and robot-ic assets located outside the pressurizedvolume in the immediate vicinity or atlow- latency distances from the habitat.The multiple display area of the TRWSallows the crew to have numerous win-dows open with live video feeds, controlwindows, and data browsers, as well aslocal monitoring and control of theDSH and associated systems.

The novelty of the TRWS comes fromthe integration and configuration of var-ious software and hardware elementswithin the context of the DSH environ-ment. Controls, communications, powerstatus, situational awareness informa-tion, and telemetry — though employ-ing conventional and sometimes com-mercial off- the- shelf (COTS) equipment— are displayed in a unique operationalenvironment that must compete withcrew attention in a fully functional habi-tat. The TRWS RAPID software, hard-ware, structural configuration, ergo -nom ics, and human factors combine toprovide the crew with an efficient toolfor carrying out mission remote assetcontrol objectives.

This work was done by David S. Mittman,Alan S. Howe, and Recaredo J. Torres ofCaltech; Jennifer L. Rochlis Zumbado andKimberly A. Hambuchen of Johnson SpaceCenter; and Matthew Demel and ChristopherC. Chapman of JSC Jacobs Technology forNASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. For moreinformation, download the TechnicalSupport Package (free white paper) atwww.techbriefs.com/tsp under the Elec -tronics/Computers category. NPO- 48503

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In order to reduce the effect of gainand noise instabilities in the RF chainof a microwave radiometer, a Dickeradiometer topology is often used, as inthe case of the proposed surface waterand ocean topography (SWOT)

radiometer instrument. For this topolo-gy, a single-pole double-throw (SPDT)microwave switch is needed, whichmust have low insertion loss at theradiometer channel frequencies tominimize the overall receiver noise fig-

ure. Total power radiometers are limit-ed in accuracy due to the continuousvariation in gain of the receiver.Currently, there are no switches in themarket that can provide these charac-teristics at 92, 130, and 166 GHz asneeded for the proposed SWOTradiometer instrument.

High-frequency SPDT switches weredeveloped in the form of monolithicmicrowave integrated circuits (MMICs)using 75-μm indium phosphide (InP)PIN-diode technology. These switchescan be easily integrated into Dickeswitched radiometers that utilizemicrostrip technology. The MMICswitches operate from 80 to 105 GHz,90 to 135 GHz, and 160 to 185 GHz.The 80- to 105-GHz switches have beentested and have achieved <2-dB inser-tion loss, >15-dB return loss (>18 dB forthe asymmetric design), and >15-dB iso-lation. The isolation can be tuned toachieve >20-dB isolation from 85 to 103GHz. The 90- to 135-GHz SPDT switchhas achieved <2-dB insertion loss, >15-dB return loss, and 8- to 12-dB isola-tion. However, it has been shown thatthe isolation of this switch can also beimproved. Although the 160- to 185-GHz switch has been fabricated, it hasnot yet been measured at the time ofthis reporting. Simulation results pre-dict this switch will have <2-dB insertionloss, >20-dB return loss, and >20-dB iso-lation.

The switches can be used for aradiometer such as the one proposed forthe SWOT Satellite Mission whose threechannels at 92, 130, and 166 GHz wouldallow for wet-tropospheric path delaycorrection near coastal zones and overland. This feat is not possible with thecurrent Jason-class radiometers due totheir lower frequency signal measure-ment and thus lower resolution.

The design work was done by Oliver Montes,Douglas E. Dawson, and Pekka P. Kangaslahtiof Caltech for NASA’s Jet PropulsionLaboratory. The processing of the InP MMICcircuits was done by Kwok Loi and AugustoGutierrez from NGST. For more information,download the Technical Support Package(free white paper) at www.techbriefs.com/tspunder the Electronics/Computers category.NPO-48083



Single-Pole Double-Throw MMIC Switches for a MicrowaveRadiometer Switches reduce the effect of gain and noise instabilities.NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California

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On Shaft Data Acquisition System (OSDAS) is a rugged, com-pact, multiple-channel data acquisition computer system that isdesigned to record data from instrumentation while operatingunder extreme rotational centrifugal or gravitational accelerationforces. This system, which was developed for the Heritage Fuel AirTurbine Test (HFATT) program, addresses the problem of record-ing multiple channels of high-sample-rate data on most any rotat-ing test article by mounting the entire acquisition computeronboard with the turbine test article. With the limited availabilityof slip ring wires for power and communication, OSDAS utilizes itsown resources to provide independent power and amplificationfor each instrument. Since OSDAS utilizes standard PC technolo-gy as well as shared code interfaces with the next-generation, real-time health monitoring system (SPARTAA — Scalable ParallelArchitecture for Real Time Analysis and Acquisition), this systemcould be expanded beyond its current capabilities, such as provid-ing advanced health monitoring capabilities for the test article.

High-conductor-count slip rings are expensive to purchase andmaintain, yet only provide a limited number of conductors forrouting instrumentation off the article and to a stationary dataacquisition system. In addition to being limited to a small numberof instruments, slip rings are prone to wear quickly, and introducenoise and other undesirable characteristics to the signal data. Thisled to the development of a system capable of recording high-den-sity instrumentation, at high sample rates, on the test article itself,all while under extreme rotational stress.

OSDAS is a fully functional PC-based system with 48 channels of24-bit, high-sample-rate input channels, phase synchronized, withan onboard storage capacity of over ½-terabyte of solid-state stor-age. This recording system takes a novel approach to the problemof recording multiple channels of instrumentation, integrated withthe test article itself, packaged in a compact/rugged form factor,consuming limited power, all while rotating at high turbine speeds.

The hardware components were oriented, secured, and encap-sulated by a variety of novel application techniques that allow forthe system to continue operation under rotational stress. This full,custom-hardened system was designed to be a comprehensive solu-tion to attaching directly to instrumentation (without external sen-sor power supplies and amplification). Instead, all instrumentationhas a dedicated power supply, integrated inside OSDAS, with theability to withstand electrical faults (short circuits, etc.) withoutcompromising other sensors. The amplification required for eachsensor was configurable at build time to match that of the Kuliteinstrumentation used in the HFATT article. The entire computing,storage, and acquisition hardware system was custom-encapsulatedin a thermally conductive medium that allows heat to passively dis-sipate by air via the outer shell (indoor/outdoor environmentalconditions) or by conduction cooling in space conditions.

OSDAS is a comprehensive, high-capacity acquisition systemcapable of withstanding extreme rotational forces. The existingproducts on the market are either limited in channel capacity,bandwidth, or simply not capable of withstanding physicalstress. As part of the build process, a variety of mounting and

On Shaft Data AcquisitionSystem (OSDAS) Applications include helicopter rotor testing,onboard liquid/solid rocket engine dataacquisition, and gas-turbine-engine healthmonitoring. Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama

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Flexible Architecture for FPGAs in Embedded SystemsA small device simplifies FPGA development in cPCI systems.NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California

Commonly, field-programmable gatearrays (FPGAs) being developed in cPCIembedded systems include the bus inter-face in the FPGA. This complicates thedevelopment because the interface iscomplicated and requires a lot of devel-opment time and FPGA resources. Inaddition, flight qualification requires asubstantial amount of time be devotedto just this interface.

Another complication of putting thecPCI interface into the FPGA beingdeveloped is that configuration informa-tion loaded into the device by the cPCImicroprocessor is lost when a new bit fileis loaded, requiring cumbersome opera-tions to return the system to an opera-tional state.

Finally, SRAM-based FPGAs are typi-cally programmed via specialized cables

and software, with programming filesbeing loaded either directly into theFPGA, or into PROM devices. This canbe cumbersome when doing FPGAdevelopment in an embedded environ-ment, and does not have an easy path toflight. Currently, FPGAs used in spaceapplications are usually programmedvia multiple space-qualified PROMdevices that are physically large and

encapsulation techniques was utilized,which ensures the system can withstandharsh rotational stresses. OSDASemploys the use of standard PC technol-ogy. The system was built to share a codeinterface with that of the SPARTAA, oth-erwise known as the next-generation,real-time vibration monitoring system(RTVMS). This allows OSDAS to beexpanded in the future to incorporatereal-time health monitoring of the testarticle hardware.

OSDAS employs a common hardware-mounting interface that allows the acqui-sition system to be adapted to a variety oftest articles and environments. With theuse of built-in sensor amplification andindependent power supplies, a total sen-sor acquisition solution was provided.While acquisition storage capacity andchannel counts were limited initially bythe desire of a small/compact form factor,further expansion beyond 48 channelsand multi-terabyte solutions is possible.

For the final system checkout, OSDAS wassubjected to speeds over 15,000 RPM(maximum facility capability). A continu-ous Ethernet connection was maintainedthroughout the checkout and test series.

This work was done by Marc Pedings, ShawnDeHart, Jason Formby, and Charles Naumannof Optical Sciences Corporation for MarshallSpace Flight Center. For more information, con-tact Sammy Nabors, MSFC CommercializationAssistance Lead, at [email protected] to MFS-32908-1.

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The cPCI Interface is a common interfacebetween the cPCI bus and the backend FPGA. Itis implemented as a separate interface device onthe cPCI bus.

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Backend FPGA

cPCI bus

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JTAG Connector

require extra circuitry (typically includ-ing a separate one-time programmableFPGA) to enable them to be used forthis application.

This technology adds a cPCI inter-face device with a simple, flexible,high-performance backend interfacesupporting multiple backend FPGAs. Itincludes a mechanism for program-ming the FPGAs directly via the micro-processor in the embedded system,eliminating specialized hardware, soft-ware, and PROM devices and theirassociated circuitry. It has a direct pathto flight, and no extra hardware andminimal software are required to sup-port reprogramming in flight. Thedevice added is currently a small FPGA,but an advantage of this technology isthat the design of the device does notchange, regardless of the applicationin which it is being used. This meansthat it needs to be qualified for flightonly once, and is suitable for one-timeprogrammable devices or an applica-tion specific integrated circuit (ASIC).An application programming interface(API) further reduces the developmenttime needed to use the interface devicein a system.

This work was done by Duane I. Clark andChester N. Lim of Caltech for NASA’s JetPropulsion Laboratory. For more information,download the Technical Support Package(free white paper) at www.techbriefs.com/tspunder the Electronics/Computers category.NPO-48424

The software used in this innovation isavailable for commercial licensing. Please con-tact Daniel Broderick of the CaliforniaInstitute of Technology at [email protected] to NPO-48424.

NASA Tech Briefs, September 2012

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EMI GASKETS AND GROUNDING PADS


Materials & Coatings

Ablative materials are required to pro-tect a space vehicle from the extremetemperatures encountered during themost demanding (hyperbolic) atmos-pheric entry velocities, either for probeslaunched toward other celestial bodies,or coming back to Earth from deepspace missions. To that effect, the resin-impregnated carbon ablator (RICA) is ahigh-temperature carbon/phenolic abla-tive thermal protection system (TPS)material designed to use modern and

commercially viable components in itsmanufacture. Heritage carbon/phenolicablators intended for this use rely onmaterials that are no longer in produc-tion (i.e., Galileo, Pioneer Venus); hencethe development of alternatives such asRICA is necessary for future NASA plan-etary entry and Earth re-entry missions.RICA’s capabilities were initially meas-ured in air for Earth re-entry applica-tions, where it was exposed to a heat fluxof 14 MW/m2 for 22 seconds. Methanetests were also carried out for potentialapplication in Saturn’s moon Titan, witha nominal heat flux of 1.4 MW/m2 for upto 478 seconds. Three slightly differentmaterial formulations were manufac-tured and subsequently tested at thePlasma Wind Tunnel of the University ofStuttgart in Germany (PWK1) in thesummer and fall of 2010. The TPS’integrity was well preserved in mostcases, and results show great promise.

There are several major elementsinvolved in the creation of a successfulablative TPS material: the choice of fab-ric and resin formulation is only thebeginning. The actual processinginvolved in manufacturing involves acareful choice of temperature, pressure,and time. This manufacturing processmust result in a material that survivesheat loads with no de-lamination or spal-lation. Several techniques have beendeveloped to achieve this robustness.Variants of RICA’s material showed nodelamination or spallation at intendedheat flux levels, and their potential ther-mal protection capability was demon-strated. Three resin formulations weretested in two separate samples each man-ufactured under slightly different condi-tions. A total of six samples was eventual-ly chosen for test at the PWK1. Materialperformance properties and results forfive of those are shown in the table. In

Resin-Impregnated Carbon Ablator: A NewAblative Material for Hyperbolic EntrySpeedsFrom surface temperatures as high as ≈3,000 °C, the measuredback temperature is only 50 °CGoddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland

Figure 1. RICA Sample during plasma wind tun-nel testing.

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NASA Tech Briefs, September 2012 www.techbriefs.com

A long-term space mission requiresefficient air revitalization performanceto sustain the crew. Prefilter and partic-ulate air filter media are susceptible torapid fouling that adversely affects theirperformance and can lead to cata-strophic failure of the air revitalizationsystem, which may result in mission fail-ure. For a long-term voyage, it isimpractical to carry replacement partic-ulate prefilter and filter modules due tothe usual limitations in size, volume,and weight. The only solution to thisproblem is to reagentlessly regenerateprefilter and filter media in place. Amethod was developed to modify theparticulate prefilter media to allowthem to regenerate reagentlessly, andin place, by the application of modestthermocycled transverse or reversedairflows. The innovation may allowNASA to close the breathing air loopmore efficiently, thereby sustaining thevision for manned space explorationmissions of the future.

A novel, self-cleaning coatings tech-nology was developed for air filter media

surfaces that allows reagentless in-placeregeneration of the surface. The tech-nology grafts thermoresponsive andnonspecific adhesion minimizing poly-mer nanolayer brush coatings from theprefilter media. These polymer nanolay-er brush architectures can be triggeredto contract and expand to generate a“pushing-off” force by the simple appli-cation of modestly thermocycled (i.e.cycling from ambient cabin temperatureto 40 ºC) air streams. The nonspecificadhesion-minimizing properties of thecoatings do not allow the particulatefoulants to adhere strongly to the filtermedia, and thermocycled air streamsapplied to the media allow easy detach-ment and in-place regeneration of themedia with minimal impact in systemdowntime or astronaut involvement inoverseeing the process.

The novel feature of this self-cleaningcoatings approach is that this is anenabling technology that can actively,controllably, and reagentlessly regener-ate filter media. The coatings applicationis amenable to industrial-scale manufac-

Self-Cleaning Particulate Prefilter Media This technology has application for air filter manufacturers forself-cleaning particulate prefilters.John H. Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

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RICA

PhenolicContent

(~%)

CarbonContent

(~%)Density(gm/ml)

PlasmaWindTunnel

Heat Flux

(MW/m2)

HeatDuration

(s)

IntegratedHeat Input

(J/m2)

MassLoss(gm)

AverageRecession

(mm)

AverageSurface Temp

fromPyrometer(c)

AverageThermalGradient(K/mm)

Heat ofAblation

(J/kg)

5C 17 83 1.41 1.4 478 6.69E+08 7.84 4.218 1978.1 44.37 49E.+07

SA(1) 27 73 1.39 14 22 3.08E+08 3.33 1.96 3336.1 34.32 1.1E+08

3A 24 76 1.36 1.4 478 6.69E+08 3.32 0.342 1962.5 54.50 8.5E+07

5B 33 67 1.37 1.4 476 6.67E+08 3.73 1.217 1990.8 53.68 7.7E+07

3B 31 69 1.35 1.4 477 6.67E+08 3.70 1.143 1967.5 51.11 8.5E+07

(1) Tested in Air; all others tested in Methane

Table. Material Properties and initial test results.

the most extreme case, the temperaturedropped from ≈3,000 to 50 °C across 1.8cm, demonstrating the material’s effec-tiveness in protecting a spacecraft’s struc-ture from the searing heat of entry.

With a manufacturing process thatcan be easily re-created, RICA hasproven to be a viable choice for high-speed hyperbolic entry trajectories, bothin methane (Titan) as well as in air(Earth) atmospheres. Further assess-

ment and characterization of spallationand an exact determination of its onsetheat flux (if present for intended appli-cations) still remain to be measured.

This work was done by Jaime Esper ofGoddard Space Flight Center and MichaelLengowski of the University of Stuttgart. Formore information, download the TechnicalSupport Package (free white paper) atwww.techbriefs.com/tsp under the Materials& Coatings category. GSC-16183-1


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Materials & Coatings

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Today Eagle is filling industry’s needsfor stainless and titanium in threeways: (1) product shipped from exten-sive inventory, (2) precision, cut-to-length stock, and (3) custom fabri-cated components. Whatever yourneeds, come to Eagle for service andquality that meets your highest expec-tations!

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A flexible, organic polyurea-basedaerogel insulation material was devel-oped that will provide superior thermalinsulation and inherent radiation protec-tion for government and commercialapplications. The rubbery polyurea-basedaerogel exhibits little dustiness, goodflexibility and toughness, and durabilitytypical of the parent polyurea polymer,yet with the low density and superior insu-lation properties associated with aerogels.The thermal conductivity values ofpolyurea-based aerogels at lower temper-ature under vacuum pressures are verylow and better than that of silica aerogels.

Flexible, rubbery polyurea-based aero-gels are able to overcome the weak andbrittle nature of conventional inorganicand organic aerogels, including polyiso-cyanurate aerogels, which are generallyprepared with the one similar compo-nent to polyurethane rubber aerogels.Additionally, with higher content ofhydrogen in their structures, thepolyurea rubber-based aerogels will alsoprovide inherently better radiation pro-tection than those of inorganic and car-bon aerogels. The aerogel materials alsodemonstrate good hydrophobicity due totheir hydrocarbon molecular structure.

Polyurea-Based Aerogel Monoliths andCompositesThese aerogels can be used in portable apparatus for warming,storing, and/or transporting food and medicine, and can berecycled for fillers for conventional plastics.Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas

Lynntech’s Self-Cleaning Coatings technology for air filter media surfaces allows reagentless in-placeregeneration of the surface.

Air Filter Surface

Cabin Air FlowClean Air

Rapid Fouling of Air Filter Surface

Lowered Air Flux

Lynntech’s Self-Cleaning Particulate Air Filter Surfaces

Thermoresponsive Polymer Nanobrush modified Air Filter Surface

Thermally triggered nanobrush expansion pushes off foulants and restores filter performance

turing processes and should allow signif-icantly increased useful lifetime for thefilter media in an inexpensive fashion.The energy required to trigger the ther-mocycled self-cleaning is minimal, andcan easily be diverted from heatexchange modules further downstreamin the air revitalization system. Theapproach will further lower loads down-stream in the air revitalization system,thereby contributing to increasing thelifetime of these modules, and decreas-ing the amount of replacement modules.These salient features will enable NASAto design more efficient and reliable,

and less cumbersome, air revitalizationsystems for future manned missions.

This work was done by Olivia Weber,Sanjiv Lalwani, and Anjal Sharma ofLynntech, Inc. for Glenn Research Center. Formore information, download the TechnicalSupport Package (free white paper) atwww.techbriefs.com/tsp under the Materials& Coatings category.

Inquiries concerning rights for the commer-cial use of this invention should be addressedto NASA Glenn Research Center, InnovativePartnerships Office, Attn: Steven Fedor, MailStop 4–8, 21000 Brookpark Road, Cleveland,Ohio 44135. Refer to LEW-18848-1.

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There are several strategies to over-coming the drawbacks associated withthe weakness and brittleness of silicaaerogels. Development of the flexiblefiber-reinforced silica aerogel compositeblanket has proven to be one promisingapproach, providing a conveniently field-ed form factor that is relatively robust inindustrial environments compared to sil-ica aerogel monoliths. However, the flex-ible, silica aerogel composites still have abrittle, dusty character that may be unde-sirable, or even intolerable, in certainapplication environments. Although thecrosslinked organic aerogels, such asresorcinol-formaldehyde (RF), polyiso-cyanurate, and cellulose aerogels, showvery high impact strength, they are alsovery brittle with little elongation (i.e., lessrubbery). Also, silica and carbon aero-gels are less efficient radiation shieldingmaterials due to their lower content ofhydrogen element.

The invention involves mixing atleast one isocyanate resin in solventalong with a specific amount of at leastone polyamine hardener. The hardeneris selected from a group of poly-oxyalkyleneamines, amine-based poly-ols, or a mixture thereof. Mixing is per-formed in the presence of a catalyst andreinforcing inorganic and/or organicmaterials, and the system is then sub-jected to gelation, aging, and supercrit-ical drying. The aerogels will offerexceptional flexibility, excellent ther-mal and physical properties, and goodhydrophobicity.

The rubbery polyurea-based aerogelsare very flexible with no dust andhydrophobic organics that demonstrat-ed the following ranges of typical prop-erties: densities of 0.08 to 0.293 g/cm3,shrinkage factor (raerogel/rtarget) = 1.6to 2.84, and thermal conductivity valuesof 15.2 to 20.3 mW/m K.

This work was done by Je Kyun Lee ofAspen Aerogels, Inc. for Johnson SpaceCenter. For more information, download theTechnical Support Package (free whitepaper) at www.techbriefs.com/tsp under theMaterials & Coatings category.

In accordance with Public Law 96-517,the contractor has elected to retain title to thisinvention. Inquiries concerning rights for itscommercial use should be addressed to:

Aspen Aerogels, Inc.30 Forbes Road, Building BNorthborough, MA 01532Phone No.: (508) 691-1111Fax No.: (508) 691-1200 Refer to MSC-24214-1, volume and num-

ber of this NASA Tech Briefs issue, and thepage number.

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Mechanics/Machinery

Actuators are critical to all the roboticand manipulation mechanisms that areused in current and future NASA mis-sions, and are also needed for many otherindustrial, aeronautical, and space activi-ties. There are many types of actuatorsthat were designed to operate as linear orrotary motors, but there is still a need for

low-force, low-noise linear actuators forspecialized applications, and the dis-closed mechanism addresses this need.

A simpler implementation of a rotaryactuator was developed where the endeffector controls the motion of a brushfor cleaning a thermal sensor. Themechanism uses a SMA (shape-memory

Compact, Low-Force, Low-Noise LinearActuator This actuator has potential uses in military and automotiveapplications. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California

Modular, Rapid Propellant LoadingSystem/Cryogenic Testbed John F. Kennedy Space Center, Florida

The Cryogenic Test Laboratory (CTL)at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) hasdesigned, fabricated, and installed amodular, rapid propellant-loading sys-tem to simulate rapid loading of alaunch-vehicle composite or standardcryogenic tank. The system will alsofunction as a cryogenic testbed for test-ing and validating cryogenic innovationsand ground support equipment (GSE)components. The modular skid-mount-ed system is capable of flow rates of liq-uid nitrogen from 1 to 900 gpm (≈3.8 to3,400 L/min), of pressures from ambi-ent to 225 psig (≈1.5 MPa), and of tem-peratures to –320 °F (≈–195 °C). The sys-tem can be easily validated to flow liquidoxygen at a different location, and couldbe easily scaled to any particular vehicleinterface requirements.

This innovation is the first phase ofdevelopment of a smart Simulated RapidPropellant Loading (SRPL) system thatcan be used at multiple sites for servicingmultiple vehicle configurations with vary-ing interface flow, temperature, and pres-sure requirements. The SRPL system canaccommodate cryogenic componentsfrom ¼ to 8 in. (≈0.6 to 20 cm) and larg-er, and a variety of pneumatic componenttypes and sizes. Temperature, pressure,

flow, quality, and a variety of other sensorsare also incorporated into the propellantsystem design along with the capability toadjust for the testing of a multitude of sen-sor types and sizes.

The system has three modules (skids)that can be placed at any launch vehiclesite (or mobile), and can be connectedwith virtually any length of piperequired for a complete propellant load-ing system. The modules include a stor-age area pump skid (located near thestorage tank and a dump basin), a valvecontrol skid (located on or near thelaunch table to control flow to the vehi-cle, and to return to the tank or dumpbasin), and a vehicle interface skid(located at the vehicle). The skids arefully instrumented with pressure, tem-perature, flow, motor, pump controls,and data acquisition systems, and can becontrolled from a control room, orlocally from a PDA (personal digitalassistant) or tablet PC.

This work was done by Walter Hatfield, Sr.and Kevin Jumper of ASRC Aerospace Corp. forKennedy Space Center. For more information,download the Technical Support Package(free white paper) at www.techbriefs.com/tspunder the Mechanics/Machinery category.KSC-13460

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AIntro






Congratulations to the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory mission team!

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The Actuator is driven by shape memory alloy as a primary active element. Electrical connections topoints A and B are used to apply electrical power in the resistive NiTi wire, causing a phase changethat contracts the wire on the order of 5%.

Active SMA element

Actuator shaftFault tolerant and resetting actuator elements

alloy) wire for low force, and low noise.The linear implementation of the actua-tor incorporates a set of springs andmechanical hard-stops for resetting andfault tolerance to mechanical resistance.The actuator can be designed to work ina pull or push mode, or both.Depending on the volume envelope cri-teria, the actuator can be configured forscaling its volume down to 4×2×1 cm3.The actuator design has an inherentfault tolerance to mechanical resistance.The actuator has the flexibility of beingdesigned for both linear and rotarymotion. A specific configuration wasdesigned and analyzed where fault-toler-ant features have been implemented. Inthis configuration, an externally appliedforce larger than the design force doesnot damage the active components ofthe actuator. The actuator housing canbe configured and produced using cost-effective methods such as injectionmolding, or alternatively, its compo-nents can be mounted directly on asmall circuit board.

The actuator is driven by a SMA -NiTias a primary active element, and itrequires energy on the order of 20 Ws(J)per cycle. Electrical connections topoints A and B are used to apply electri-cal power in the resistive NiTi wire, caus-ing a phase change that contracts thewire on the order of 5%. The actuationperiod is of the order of a second forgenerating the stroke, and 4 to 10 sec-onds for resetting. Thus, this designallows the actuator to work at a frequen-cy of up to 0.1 Hz.

The actuator does not make use of thewhole range of motion of the SMA mate-rial, allowing for large margins on themechanical parameters of the design.The efficiency of the actuator is of theorder of 10%, including the margins.The average dissipated power while driv-ing at full speed is of the order of 1 W,and can be scaled down linearly if therate of cycling is reduced. This designproduces an extremely quiet actuator; itcan generate a force greater than 2 Nand a stroke greater than 1 cm. Theoperational duration of SMA materials isof the order of millions of cycles withsome reduced stroke over a wide tem-perature range up to 150 ºC.

This work was done by Mircea Badescu,Stewart Sherrit, and Yoseph Bar-Cohen ofCaltech for NASA’s Jet PropulsionLaboratory. For more information, down-load the Technical Support Package (freewhite paper) at www.techbriefs.com/tspunder the Mechanics/Machinery category.NPO-47991

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Future lunar landers and rovers willrequire variable thermal links thatallow for heat rejection during the lunardaytime and passively prevent heatrejection during the lunar night. During

the lunar day, the thermal manage-ment system must reject the waste heatfrom the electronics and batteries tomaintain them below the maximumacceptable temperature. During the

lunar night, the heat rejection systemmust either be shut down or signifi-cant amounts of guard heat must beadded to keep the electronics and bat-teries above the minimum acceptabletemperature. Since guard heaterpower is unfavorable because it adds tosystem size and complexity, a variablethermal link is preferred to limit heatremoval from the electronics and bat-teries during the long lunar night.Conventional loop heat pipes (LHPs)can provide the required variable ther-mal conductance, but they still con-sume electrical power to shut downthe heat transfer. This innovation addsa thermal control valve (TCV) and abypass line to a conventional LHP thatproportionally allows vapor to flowback into the compensation chamberof the LHP. The addition of this valvecan achieve completely passive ther-mal control of the LHP, eliminatingthe need for guard heaters and com-plex controls.

A schematic of the system is shownin Figures 1 and 2 for operation dur-ing the Lunar day and night, respec-tively. During the Lunar day, maxi-mum vapor flow to the radiator isdesired for efficient operation. In theexample shown, 95% of the vaporflows though the radiator and 5%flows though the bypass line. In con-trast to the Lunar day, the thermallink must be as ineffective as possibleduring the Lunar night (see Figure 2).As the temperature of the TCV drops,more and more of the vapor is direct-ed directly back into the compensa-tion chamber, gradually shuttingdown the LHP.

Previous LHPs with a TCV have thebypass vapor flow directly mix with theliquid return line. In this arragement,the vapor and liquid flows will interactwith each other, possibly causing flowinstabilities as the two streams come tothe thermodynamic equilibrium. ALHP incorporating a passive TCV andbypass line proportionally allowsvapor to flow back into the compensa-tion chamber, minimizing flow insta-bilities experienced in previous LHPswith TCVs by allowing mixing of the


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Mechanics/Machinery

Loop Heat Pipe With Thermal Control Valve as a VariableThermal Link New arrangement reduces energy demands while maintaining circuits and batteries withinoptimal temperature range. Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama

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Figure 1. Variable Conductance Loop Heat Pipe schematic during the Lunarday. Most of the vapor flows through the radiator. The 5% and 95% flowrates are representative.

Figure 2. Variable Conductance Loop Heat Pipe schematic during the Lunarnight. Most of the vapor flows directly back into the compensation cham-ber, shutting down the LHP. The 95% and 5% flow rates are representative.

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This work was done by John Hartenstine, William G. Anderson,Kara Walker, and Pete Dussinger of Advanced Cooling Technologies,Inc. for Marshall Space Flight Center. For more information, contactSammy Nabors, MSFC Commercialization Assistance Lead, [email protected]. Refer to MFS-32915-1.

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Mechanics/Machinery

Over-center mechanisms were used inthe orbiter payload bay to lock down therobotic arm during the launch of thespace shuttle. These mechanisms wereunlocked while in orbit in order torelease the arm for use. Adjusting themechanism such that it would not inad-vertently release during launch, butcould be released when needed by useof the motor, required accurate adjust-ments that were difficult to perform. Aprocedure was developed to allow thesemechanisms to be adjusted to within thespecifications required for the SpaceShuttle Program. This approach is sig-nificantly more accurate than any othertechnique, and is the only techniqueknown that met the launch require-ments of the program.

Within the payload bay of the orbiterswas a set of small over-center mecha-nisms that held the robotic arm in place.Each of these contained two straight seg-ments connected with a pin. The upperend (called the drivelink) was connect-

ed via a second pin to a hook,whose purpose was to holdthe robotic arm securely inplace until it was needed on amission. The lower end(called the bellcrank) wasconnected to a gearbox viaanother pin or axle. In prac-tice, this mechanism wasadjusted such that the over-center pin could be forcedthrough the on-line positiona known over-center distancewhere the residual strain inthe two straight segmentswould lock it in place (thestowed position). The dis-tance and the force requiredhad to be adjusted such thatthis mechanism would notdeploy during launch, butsuch that a motor could drivethe pin back through the on-line position to release therobotic arm when needed.

Process for Measuring Over-Center DistancesA more accurate approach enables mechanisms to be adjusted to within tight specifications.John F. Kennedy Space Center, Florida

In this one-to-one scale model of the Over-Center Mechanism,a hex wrench is used in place of the motor, but the rest of thecomponents were machined to match those in the field.

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The problem was that the over-centerdistance was required to be set at 0.026-in. (≈0.7 mm), which was difficult tomeasure to the required accuracy[±0.001 in. (≈±0.03 mm)]. Trying to findthe on-line position, so that one couldmeasure from it, was not possiblebecause the mechanism would only stayin this position if frictional forces held it,and these forces were directional andnot consistent between measurements.

Some consideration was given to sim-ply photographing the mechanism in itsstowed position and measuring the dis-tance between the center of the pin anda line connecting the centers of theouter two rotational pins, but this failedbecause the pin covers were not neces-sarily centered on the pin centers.

In order to understand the problem, aone-to-one scale model of the over-cen-ter mechanism was constructed (see fig-ure). A hex wrench was used in place ofthe motor, but the rest of the compo-nents were machined to match those inthe field. Several attempts at measuringthe over-center position were attemptedwith this model, the first few of whichfailed. One of the advantages of having amodel like this is that the dimensions ofthe parts were well known and the pinswere all accessible, so the on-line posi-tion could be measured accurately usingapproaches not possible in the field.

A jig was constructed that used adepth gage to measure the distance tothe over-center pin while resting on thetop and bottom pin. The hex wrenchwas replaced with a calibrated torquewrench. Then, the drivelink (the upperhalf of the mechanism) was repositionedto make it difficult to push the devicethrough the on-line position. Now, byapplying a known torque, it was possibleto measure a location to the center pin.Then, without changing the length ofthe drivelink, the top pin was discon-nected, the mechanism was placed intothe stowed position, the top-pin wasreinserted, and the location of the cen-ter pin was measured while applying theopposite torque. In essence, this meas-ured the location of the center pin whileit was being pushed toward the on-lineposition from two different directions;the average of these two measurementswas then the on-line position. Testsshowed that this approach was accurateto ±0.002 in. (≈±0.05 mm) where at least±0.001 in. (≈±0.03 mm) of error enteredfrom the second measurement tech-nique. Statistically, this new approachwas accurate to ±0.001 in. (≈±0.03 mm).

Making static measurements, combinedwith working in regions where the strainis strongly dependent on position, led tothis enhancement in measurement accu-racy and solved the problem.

Because the prior method used anLDT (linear displacement transducer)and strain gauges, most of the necessarystructures were already in place in thefield to allow the new measurementprocess to be transferred. The depthgauge would be replaced by the LDT andthe torque wrench by a wrench and a

strain gauge. But rigid mounting brack-ets and a target (or contact point) wereneeded for the LDT in order to allow anaccurate position measurement.

This work was done by Robert Youngquistand Douglas Willard of Kennedy SpaceCenter, and Joddy Stahl, Kevin Murtland,and Steven Parks of ASRC AerospaceCorporation. For more information, down-load the Technical Support Package (freewhite paper) at www.techbriefs.com/tspunder the Mechanics/Machinery category.KSC-13212


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Bio-Medical

Several technological enhancementshave been made to METI’s commercialEmergency Care Simulator (ECS) withregard to how microgravity affects humanphysiology. The ECS uses both a software-only lung simulation, and an integratedmannequin lung that uses a physical lungbag for creating chest excursions, and adigital simulation of lung mechanics andgas exchange. METI’s patient simulatorsincorporate models of human physiologythat simulate lung and chest wall mechan-ics, as well as pulmonary gas exchange.

Microgravity affects how O2 and CO2are exchanged in the lungs. Procedureswere also developed to take into affect theGlasgow Coma Scale for determining lev-

els of consciousness by varying the ECSeye-blinking function to partially indicatethe level of consciousness of the patient. Inaddition, the ECS was modified to providevarious levels of pulses from weak andthready to hyper-dynamic to assist inassessing patient conditions from thefemoral, carotid, brachial, and pedal pulselocations.

This work was done by Nigel Parker andVeronica O’Quinn of Medical EducationTech, Inc. for Johnson Space Center. Formore information, download the TechnicalSupport Package (free white paper) atwww.techbriefs.com/tsp under the Bio-Medicalcategory. MSC-23922-1

Developing Physiologic Models forEmergency Medical Procedures UnderMicrogravityLyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas

Improving Balance Function Using LowLevels of Electrical Stimulation of theBalance OrgansA device based on this technology may be used as a miniaturepatch worn by people with disabilities to improve posture andlocomotion, and to enhance adaptability or skill acquisition.Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas

Crewmembers returning from long-duration space flight face significantchallenges due to the microgravity-induced inappropriate adaptations inbalance/sensorimotor function. TheNeuroscience Laboratory at JSC is devel-oping a method based on stochastic res-onance to enhance the brain’s ability todetect signals from the balance organsof the inner ear and use them for rapidimprovement in balance skill, especiallywhen combined with balance trainingexercises. This method involves a stimu-lus delivery system that is wearable/portable providing imperceptible elec-trical stimulation to the balance organsof the human body.

Stochastic resonance (SR) is a phe-nomenon whereby the response of a non-linear system to a weak periodic input sig-nal is optimized by the presence of a par-ticular non-zero level of noise. This phe-nomenon of SR is based on the conceptof maximizing the flow of informationthrough a system by a non-zero level ofnoise. Application of imperceptible SRnoise coupled with sensory input inhumans has been shown to improvemotor, cardiovascular, visual, hearing,and balance functions. SR increases con-trast sensitivity and luminance detection;lowers the absolute threshold for tonedetection in normal hearing individuals;improves homeostatic function in the

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human blood pressure regulatory system;improves noise-enhanced muscle spindlefunction; and improves detection of weaktactile stimuli using mechanical or electri-cal stimulation. SR noise has been shownto improve postural control when appliedas mechanical noise to the soles of thefeet, or when applied as electrical noise atthe knee and to the back muscles.

SR using imperceptible stochasticelectrical stimulation of the vestibularsystem (stochastic vestibular stimulation,SVS) applied to normal subjects hasshown to improve the degree of associa-tion between the weak input periodicsignals introduced via venous blood

pressure receptors and the heart-rateresponses. Also, application of SVS over24 hours improves the long-term heart-rate dynamics and motor responsivenessas indicated by daytime trunk activitymeasurements in patients with multi-sys-tem atrophy, Parkinson’s disease, orboth, including patients who were un -responsive to standard therapy forParkinson’s disease. Recent studies con-ducted at the NASA JSC NeurosciencesLaboratories showed that imperceptibleSVS, when applied to normal, young,healthy subjects, leads to significantlyimproved balance performance duringpostural disturbances on unstable com-

pliant surfaces. These studies haveshown the benefit of SR noise character-istic optimization with imperceptibleSVS in the frequency range of 0–30 Hz,and amplitudes of stimulation haveranged from 100 to 400 microamperes.

This work was done by Jacob Bloombergand Millard Reschke of Johnson SpaceCenter; Ajitkumar Mulavara and Scott Woodof USRA; Jorge Serrador of Dept. of VeteransAffairs NJ Healthcare System; MatthewFiedler, Igor Kofman, and Brian T. Peters ofWyle; and Helen Cohen of Baylor College. Forfurther information, contact the JSCInnovation Partnerships Office at (281) 483-3809. MSC-25013-1

Current transcranial color Doppler(TCD) transducer probes are bulky anddifficult to move in tiny increments tosearch and optimize TCD signals. Thisinvention provides miniature motions ofa TCD transducer probe to optimizeTCD signals.

The mechanical probe uses a spheri-cal bearing in guiding and locating thetilting crystal face. The lateral motion ofthe crystal face as it tilts across the fullrange of motion was achieved by mini-mizing the distance between the pivotlocation and the crystal face. The small-

est commonly available metal sphericalbearing was used with an outer diameterof 12 mm, a 3-mm tall retaining ring,and 5-mm overall height. Small gearedmotors were used that would providesufficient power in a very compact pack-age. After confirming the validity of the

Hands-Free Transcranial Color Doppler ProbeThese probes enable full use of TCD technology for neurological diagnostics.Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas

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basic positioning concept, optimizationdesign loops were completed to yield thefinal design.

A parallel motor configuration wasused to minimize the amount of spacewasted inside the probe case while mini-mizing the overall case dimensions. Thedistance from the front edge of the crys-tal to the edge of the case was also mini-mized to allow positioning of the probevery close to the ear on the temporallobe. The mechanical probe is able toachieve a ±20° tip and tilt with smoothrepeatable action in a very compact

package. The enclosed probe is about 7cm long, 4 cm wide, and 1.8 cm tall.

The device is compact, hands-free,and can be adjusted via an innovativetouchscreen. Positioning of the probe tothe head is performed via conventionaltransducer gels and pillows. This deviceis amendable to having advanced soft-ware, which could intelligently focus andoptimize the TCD signal.

The first effort will be development ofmonitoring systems for space use andfield deployment. The need for long-lived, inexpensive clinical diagnostic

instruments for military applications issubstantial. Potential future uses of thissystem by NASA and other commercialend-users include monitoring cerebralblood flow of ambulatory patients, prog-nostic of potential for embolic stroke,ultrasonic blood clot treatment, monitor-ing open-heart and carotid endarterecto-my surgery, and resolution of the contro-versy regarding transient ischemicattacks and emboli’s role. Monitoringapplications include those for embolismformation during diving ascents,changes in CBFV (cerebral blood flowvelocity) in relation to cognitive functionas associated with sick building syndromeor exposure to environmental and work-place toxins, changes of CBFV for testingand evaluating Gulf War Syndrome, andpatients or subjects while moving or per-forming tasks.

This work was done by Robert Chin ofGeneXpress Informatics, and SrihdarMadala and Graham Sattler of IndusInstruments for Johnson Space Center. Formore information, download the TechnicalSupport Package (free white paper) atwww.techbriefs.com/tsp under the Bio-Medical category.


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Bio-Medical

There are several medical conditionsthat require intravenous (IV) fluids.Limitations of mass, volume, storagespace, shelf-life, transportation, andlocal resources can restrict the availabil-ity of such important fluids. These limi-

PortableIntravenous FluidProduction Devicefor Ground Use This small, portable devicewith high output producesmedical injection-gradesterile water from potablewater sources. John F. Kennedy Space Center, Florida

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tations are expected in long-durationspace exploration missions and inremote or austere environments onEarth. Current IV fluid productionrequires large factory-based processes.Easy, portable, on-site production of IVfluids can eliminate these limitations.Based on experience gained in develop-ing a device for spaceflight, a ground-use device was developed.

This design uses regular drinkingwater that is pumped through two filtersto produce, in minutes, sterile, ultra-pure water that meets the stringentquality standards of the United StatesPharmacopeia for Water for Injection(Total Bacteria, Conductivity, Endo -toxins, Total Organic Carbon). Thedevice weighs 2.2 lb (1 kg) and is 10 in.long, 5 in. wide, and 3 in. high (≈25, 13,and 7.5 cm, respectively) in its storageconfiguration. This handheld deviceproduces one liter of medical-gradewater in 21 minutes. Total productioncapacity for this innovation is expectedto be in the hundreds of liters.

The device contains one battery pow-ered electric mini-pump. Alternatively,a manually powered pump can beattached and used. Drinking waterenters the device from a source water

bag, flows through two filters, and finalsterile production water exits into asealed, medical-grade collection bag.The collection bag contains pre-placedcrystalline salts to mix with productwater to form isotonic intravenous med-ical solutions. Alternatively, a hyperton-ic salt solution can be injected into afilled bag. The filled collection bag isdetached from the device and is readyfor use or storage. This device current-ly contains one collection bag, but amanifold of several pre-attached bagsor replacement of single collectionbags under sterile needle technique ispossible for the production of multipleliters. The entire system will be flushed,sealed, and radiation-sterilized.

Operation of the device is easy andrequires minimal training. Drinkingwater is placed into the collection bag.Inline stopcock flow valves at the sourceand collection bags are opened, and themini-pump is turned on by a switch tobegin fluid flow. When the collectionbag is completely filled with the medical-grade water, the pump can be turnedoff. The pump is designed so it cannotpump air, and overfilling of the collec-tion bag with fluid is avoided by placingan equal amount of water in the source

bag. Backflow is avoided by inline checkvalves. The filled collection bag is dis-connected from its tubing and is readyfor use. The source bag can be refilledfor production of multiple liters, or thesource bag can be replaced with aninput tube that can be placed in a largerpotable water source if the device isattended. The device functions in all ori-entations independent of any gravityfields.

In addition to creating IV fluids, thedevice produces medical-grade water,which can be used for mixing with med-ications for injection, reconstitutingfreeze-dried blood products for injec-tion, or for wound hydration or irriga-tion.

Potential worldwide use is expectedwith medical activities in environmentsthat have limited resources, storage, orresupply such as in military field opera-tions, humanitarian relief efforts, sub-marines, commercial cruise ships, etc.

This work was done by Philip J. Scarpa ofKennedy Space Center and Wolfgang K.Scheuer of Tiger Purification Systems, Inc. Formore information, contact Dr. Philip Scarpa at(321) 867-6386 or [email protected]

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A report describes an adaptation of afilter assembly to enable it to be used to fil-ter out microorganisms from a propulsionsystem. The filter assembly has previouslybeen used for particulates >2 μm. Projectsthat utilize large volumes of nonmetallicmaterials of planetary protection concern

pose a challenge to their bioburden budg-et, as a conservative specification value of30 spores/cm3 is typically used.

Helium was collected utilizing anadapted filtration approach employingan existing Millipore filter assembly appa-ratus used by the propulsion team for

particulate analysis. The filter holder onthe assembly has a 47-mm diameter, andtypically a 1.2-5 μm pore-size filter is usedfor particulate analysis making it compat-ible with commercially available steriliza-tion filters (0.22 μm) that are necessaryfor biological sampling.

This adaptation to an existing tech-nology provides a proof-of-concept anda demonstration of successful use in aground equipment system. This adapta-tion has demonstrated that the Milliporefilter assembly can be utilized to filterout microorganisms from a propulsionsystem, whereas in previous uses the fil-ter assembly was utilized for particulates>2 μm.

This work was done by James N. Benardini,Robert C. Koukol, Wayne W. Schubert, FabianMorales, and Marlin F. Klatte of Caltech forNASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. For moreinformation, download the TechnicalSupport Package (free white paper) atwww.techbriefs.com/tsp under the Bio-Medical category. NPO-48304

The most common approach forassessing the abundance of viable bacte-rial endospores is the culture-based plat-ing method. However, culture-basedapproaches are heavily biased andoftentimes incompatible with upstreamsample processing strategies, whichmake viable cells/spores uncultivable.This shortcoming highlights the need


Bio-Medical

PMA-LinkedFluorescence forRapid Detection ofViable BacterialEndosporesThis method has applicationsin the pharmaceutical, foodmicrobiology, semiconductor,and other industries requiringsurface sterilization.NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory,Pasadena, California

Adaptation of a Filter Assembly to Assess Microbial Bioburdenof Pressurant Within a Propulsion SystemNASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California

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for rapid molecular diagnostic tools toassess more accurately the abundanceof viable spacecraft-associated microbio-ta, perhaps most importantly bacterialendospores.

Propidium monoazide (PMA) hasreceived a great deal of attention due to itsability to differentiate live, viable bacterialcells from dead ones. PMA gains access tothe DNA of dead cells through compro-mised membranes. Once inside the cell, itintercalates and eventually covalentlybonds with the double-helix structuresupon photoactivation with visible light.The covalently bound DNA is significantlyaltered, and unavailable to downstreammolecular-based manipulations and analy-ses. Microbiological samples can be treat-ed with appropriate concentrations ofPMA and exposed to visible light prior toundergoing total genomic DNA extrac-tion, resulting in an extract comprisedsolely of DNA arising from viable cells.This ability to extract DNA selectively fromliving cells is extremely powerful, andbears great relevance to many microbio-logical arenas.

While this PMA-based selective chem-istry has been applied to several poly-merase chain reaction (PCR)-basedmolecular protocols, it has never beencoupled with fluorescence in situhybridization (FISH)-based microscopicmethods. FISH microscopy is a powerfultechnique for visualizing and enumerat-ing microorganisms present in a givensample, which relies on the ability of fluo-rescently labeled oligonucleotide probesto gain access to, and hybridize with, spe-cific nucleic acid sequences within cells.Dogmatic principles suggest that by firsttreating a sample with PMA and covalent-ly modifying the DNA originating fromdead cells, downstream FISH-based mi -croscopy should then enable the direct,specific visualization and enumeration ofonly living, viable microorganisms. Aneffective and efficient coupling of PMA-based chemistry with downstream FISH-microscopic methods would significantlyempower the current ability to discernviable from dead microbes by direct visu-alization.

The basic principle of this method isthat PMA penetrates only the dead cellsand/or spores, due to their compro-mised membrane structures. Once insidethe cell, PMA strongly intercalates withDNA. PMA has a photoactive azide groupthat allows covalent cross-linkage to DNAupon exposure to bright white light. Thisphotoactivation results in the formationof PMA-DNA complex that renders DNAinaccessible for hybridization reaction

during FISH assay. To avoid the difficul-ties and problems associated with currentmethods for determining the actual num-bers of living versus dead cellular entitiesexamined, and biases associated there-with, a novel molecular-biological proto-col was developed for selective detectionand enumeration of viable microbialcells. After having been subjected to theprocedures described herein, the viability(live vs. dead) of bacterial cells andspores could be discerned. Followingtreatment with PMA, living, viable cellsand spores were shown to be receptive tofluorescently labeled oligonucleotideprobes, as hybridization and FISH-basedmi cros copy was successful. Dead cells andspores, however, were not detected, as thepretreatment with PMA rendered theirDNA unavailable to hybridization withthe FISH-probes.

The true novelty of the technology isthe coupling of a downstream, highlyspecific means of visualizing microbialcells and spores with a chemical pretreat-ment that precludes the portion of themicrobial consortium that is not living(non-viable) from being detected. Thisresults in the ability to selectively visual-ize and enumerate only the living cellsand spores present in a given sample, ina molecular biological fashion, withoutthe need for heavily biased cultivation-based methodologies. This novel studydemonstrates that PMA penetrates onlythe heat-killed spores, which precludesdownstream hybridization reactions inthe FISH assay. This novel PMA-FISHmethod is an attractive tool to detectviable endospores in spacecraft-associat-ed environments, which is of crucialimportance and benefit to planetary pro-tection practices aimed at reducing theabundance of spacecraft-borne micro-bial contaminants.

This work was done by Myron T. La Ducand Kasthuri Venkateswaran of Caltech, andBidyut Mohapatra of the University of SouthAlabama for NASA’s Jet PropulsionLaboratory. For more information, [email protected].


Innovative Technology Assets ManagementJPLMail Stop 202-2334800 Oak Grove DrivePasadena, CA 91109-8099E-mail: [email protected] to NPO-48040,volume and number

of this NASA Tech Briefs issue, and thepage number.

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Physical Sciences

Micro aerial vehicles have limited sen-sor suites and computational power. Forreconnaissance tasks and to conserveenergy, these systems need the ability toautonomously land at vantage points orenter buildings (ingress). But forautonomous navigation, information isneeded to identify and guide the vehicleto the target. Vision algorithms can pro-vide egomotion estimation and targetdetection using input from cameras thatare easy to include in miniature systems.

Target detection based on visual fea-ture tracking and planar homographydecomposition is used to identify a tar-

get for automated landing or buildingingress, and to produce 3D waypoints tolocate the navigation target. The vehiclecontrol algorithm collects these way-points and estimates the accurate targetposition to perform automated maneu-vers for autonomous landing or build-ing ingress.

Systems that are deployed outdoorscan overcome this issue by using GPSdata for pose recovery, but this is not anoption for systems operating in deepspace or indoors. To cope with this issue,a system was developed on a smallunmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) platform

with a minimal sensor suite that can oper-ate using only onboard re sources toautonomously achieve basic navigationtasks. As a first step towards this goal, anavigation approach was developed thatvisually detects and reconstructs the posi-tion of navigation targets, but depends onan external VICON tracking system toregain scale and for closed-loop control.

A method was demonstrated of vision-aided autonomous navigation of a microaerial vehicle with a single monocularcamera, considering two different exam-ple applications in urban environments:autonomous landing on an elevated sur-

Vision-Aided Autonomous Landing and Ingress of Micro AerialVehicles This technology enables a micro aerial vehicle to transition autonomously between indoor andoutdoor environments via windows and doors based on monocular vision. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California

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face and automated building ingress. Themethod requires no special preparation(labels or markers) of the landing oringress locations. Rather, leveraging theplanar character of urban structure, thevision system uses a planar homographydecomposition to detect navigation tar-gets and produce approach waypoints asan input to the vehicle control algorithm.Scale recovery is achieved using motioncapture data. A real-time implementationrunning onboard a micro aerial vehiclewas demonstrated in experimental runs.

The system is able to generate highlyaccurate target waypoints. Using a three-

stage control scheme, one is able toautonomously detect, approach, andland on an elevated landing surface thatis only slightly larger than the footprintof the aerial vehicles, and gather naviga-tion target waypoints for buildingingress. All algorithms run onboard thevehicles.

This work was done by Roland Brockers,Jeremy C. Ma, and Larry H. Matthies ofCaltech; and Patrick Bouffard of theUniversity of California, Berkeley for NASA’sJet Propulsion Laboratory. For more informa-tion, contact [email protected]. NPO-47841

Whispering Gallery ModeOptomechanical Resonator These devices can be used for remote and inertial sensing, andmass detection. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California

Great progress has been made in bothmicromechanical resonators and micro-optical resonators over the past decade,and a new field has recently emergedcombining these mechanical and opticalsystems. In such optomechanical systems,the two resonators are strongly coupledwith one influencing the other, and theirinteraction can yield detectable opticalsignals that are highly sensitive to themechanical motion. A particularly high-Q optical system is the whispering gallerymode (WGM) resonator, which has manyapplications ranging from stable oscilla-tors to inertial sensor devices. There is,however, limited coupling between theoptical mode and the resonator’s exter-nal environment. In order to overcomethis limitation, a novel type of optome-chanical sensor has been developed,offering great potential for measure-ments of displacement, acceleration, andmass sensitivity.

The proposed hybrid device com-bines the advantages of all-solid opticalWGM resonators with high-qualitymicro-machined cantilevers. For directaccess to the WGM inside the resonator,the idea is to radially cut precise gapsinto the perimeter, fabricating amechanical resonator within the WGM.Also, a strategy to reduce losses hasbeen developed with optimized designof the cantilever geometry and positionsof gap surfaces.

The cantilever is machined by makingfine cuts in a high-Q crystalline WGM

resonator using focused ion-beam (FIB)technology. Such cuts can be muchsmaller than the optical wavelength,which should preserve the quality of theoptical resonator. At the same time,reflection from the cantilever surfaceswill result in coupling between thedegenerate clockwise and counterclock-wise propagating WGM. Therefore, awell-established technique of position-sensitive, dual-resonator coupling will beimplemented in a novel system with opti-cal and mechanical resonators’ highquality factors. This technique allows foroptical cooling, as well as heating, of themechanical oscillator.

This innovative hybrid system com-bines the advantages of both WGM andFabry-Perot (FP) cavity resonators by uti-lizing the WGM resonator with theaforementioned cuts in the crystal tocreate an independent micromechani-cal resonator, residing directly in themiddle of the optical WGM as an inte-gral structure of the disk. This featureallows the direct coupling of themechanical motion to the opticalmodes, much like a membrane inside anFP cavity. In this configuration, the sin-gle-mode optomechanical interactioncan be selectively accessed as with a stan-dard WGM resonator, or the coupledoptical mode interaction as in that of amembrane-FP cavity.

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Physical Sciences

ing interfaces. The partially reflectingsurfaces result in standing waves (SWs)in the resonators, and the mode cou-pling between them. These interfacescan also introduce scattering and dif-fraction losses. The estimates and previ-ous WGM experiments suggest that acombination of appropriate microfabri-cation processes, such as FIB, and strate-gic use of SW modes, can reduce thelosses and yield an optical resonator Q

108, higher than any cavity Q of opto-mechanical systems at the time of thisreporting.

This work was done by David C. Aveline,Dmitry V. Strekalov, Nan Yu, and Karl Y. Yeeof Caltech for NASA’s Jet PropulsionLaboratory. For more information, down-load the Technical Support Package (freewhite paper) at www.techbriefs.com/tspunder the Physical Sciences category. NPO-47114

Self-Sealing Wet Chemistry Cell for FieldAnalysis Analysis of soluble species in field samples is required inagriculture, soil science, and biomedical applications. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California

In most analytical investigations,there is a need to process complex fieldsamples for the unique detection of ana-lytes, especially when detecting low-con-centration organic molecules that mayidentify extraterrestrial life. Wet chem-istry based instruments are the tech-niques of choice for most laboratory-based analysis of organic molecules dueto several factors including less frag-mentation of fragile biomarkers, andability to concentrate target speciesresulting in much lower limits of detec-tion. Development of an automated wetchemistry preparation system that canoperate autonomously on Earth and isalso designed to operate under Martianambient conditions will demonstratethe technical feasibility of including wetchemistry on future missions. AnAutomated Sample Processing System(ASPS) has recently been developedthat receives fines, extracts organicsthrough solvent extraction, processesthe extract by removing non-organicsoluble species, and delivers sample tomultiple instruments for analysis (in -cluding for non-organic solublespecies). The key to this system is a sam-ple cell that can autonomously functionunder field conditions.

As a result, a self-sealing sample cellwas developed that can autonomouslyhermetically seal fines and powder into acontainer, regardless of orientation ofthe apparatus. The cap is designed witha beveled edge, which allows the cap tobe self-righted as the capping motorengages. Each cap consists of a C-cliplock ring below a crucible O-ring that isplaced into a groove cut into the sample

cap. As the capping motor pushes thecap down onto the cell, the lock ringengages a small groove cut into the cellbody. When the C-clip engages, the caplocks onto the sample cell. The seal iscreated through the O-ring, which ispushed down the body of the cell, result-ing in a clean seal that has not leakedduring multiple tests with 2,000 psi( 13.8 MPa) of pressure.

The sample cells allow solvent to beinserted into the cell through a high-pressure check valve at the bottom ofthe cell. The spring-loaded back endalso comes with a 5-μm sintered metalfilter that removes particulates as the sol-vent and analyte are removed from thecell and delivered to the analyticalinstrumentation for analysis. Addi tion -ally, the check valve is nominally closedso that any residual solvent remains inthe cell and does not contaminate otherinstruments.

This type of technique is vital for insitu chemical analysis on future flightmissions. The current commercialbenchtop model that performs this typeof operation weighs well over 60 kg, andneeds to be loaded by hand, including aconsumable filter. The new cells arecompletely reusable with the only con-sumables being a C-clip and two O-rings, and have been demonstrated tobe reusable over 50 times in laboratorytesting.

This work was done by Luther W. Beegle ofCaltech, and Juancarlos Soto, James Lasnik,and Shane Roark of Ball Aerospace &Technologies Corp. for NASA’s Jet PropulsionLaboratory. For more information, [email protected]. NPO-47977

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Force sensing is an essential require-ment for dexterous robot manipulation,e.g., for extravehicular robots makingvehicle repairs. Although strain gaugeshave been widely used, a new sensingapproach is desirable for applicationsthat require greater robustness, designflexibility including a high degree ofmultiplexibility, and immunity to elec-tromagnetic noise.

This invention is a force and deflec-tion sensor — a flexible shell formedwith an elastomer having passagewaysformed by apertures in the shell, with anoptical fiber having one or more Bragggratings positioned in the passagewaysfor the measurement of force anddeflection.

One object of the invention is light-weight, rugged appendages for a robotthat feature embedded sensors so thatthe robot can be more “aware” of loadsin real time. A particular class of opticalsensors, fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sen-sors, is promising for space robotics andother applications where high sensitivi-ty, multiplexing capability, immunity toelectromagnetic noise, small size, andresistance to harsh environments areparticularly desirable. In addition, thebiosafe and inert nature of optical fibersmakes them attractive for medicalrobotics. FBGs reflect light with a peakwavelength that shifts in proportion tothe strain to which they are subjected.Multiple FBG sensors can be placedalong a single fiber and optically multi-plexed. FBG sensors have previouslybeen surface-attached to or embeddedin metal parts and composites to moni-tor stresses.

An exoskeletal force sensing robot fin-ger was developed by embedding FBGsensors into a polymer-based structure.Multiple FBG sensors were embeddedinto the structure to allow the manipula-tor to sense and measure both contactforces and grasping forces. In order tofabricate a three-dimensional structure,a new shape deposition manufacturing(SDM) process was developed. The sen-sorized SDM-fabricated finger was thencharacterized using an FBG interroga-

tor. A force localization scheme was alsodeveloped.

A sensor is formed from a thin shell offlexible material such as elastomer toform an attachment region, a sensingregion, and a tip region. In one embod-iment, the sensing region is a substan-tially cylindrical flexible shell, and has aplurality of apertures forming passage-ways between the apertures. Opticalfiber is routed through the passageways,with sensors located in the passagewaysprior to the application of the elastomer-ic material forming the flexible shell.Deflection of the sensor, such as by aforce applied to the contact region,causes an incremental strain in one ormore passageways where the opticalfiber is located. The incremental strainresults in a change of optical wavelengthof reflection or transmittance at the sen-sor, thereby allowing the measurementof force or displacement.

The ability to route a single opticalfiber through the passageways of theouter shell of the sensor, combined withthe freedom to place Bragg grating-based sensors in desired locations of theshell, provides tremendous flexibility insensing force in three axes, as well as thepossibility of providing a large numberof sensors for more sophisticated meas-urement modalities, such as torque andshell deflection in response to multi-point pressure application.

This work was done by Yong-Lae Park,Richard Black, Behzad Moslehi, MarkCutkosky, and Kelvin Chau of IntelligentFiber Optic Systems Corp. for Johnson SpaceCenter. For more information, download theTechnical Support Package (free whitepaper) at www.techbriefs.com/tsp under thePhysical Sciences category.


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Multiplexed Force and DeflectionSensing Shell Membranes for RoboticManipulatorsThis technology can be used to enhance precision in roboticsurgery.Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas

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Mars Technology Rover with Arm-Mounted Percussive CoringTool, Microimager, and Sample-Handling EncapsulationContainerization Subsystem

A report describes the PLuto (programmable logic) Mars Technology Rover, amid-sized FIDO (field integrated design and operations) class rover with six fullydrivable and steerable cleated wheels, a rocker-bogey suspension, a pan-tilt mastwith panorama and navigation stereo camera pairs, forward and rear stereo hazcampairs, internal avionics with motor drivers and CPU, and a 5-degrees-of-freedomrobotic arm.

The technology rover was integrated with an arm-mounted percussive coring tool,microimager, and sample handling encapsulation containerization subsystem(SHEC). The turret of the arm contains a percussive coring drill and microimager.The SHEC sample caching system mounted to the rover body contains coring bits,sample tubes, and sample plugs.

The coring activities performed in the field provide valuable data on drilling con-ditions for NASA tasks developing and studying coring technology. Caching of sam-ples using the SHEC system provide insight to NASA tasks investigating techniques tostore core samples in the future.

This work was done by Paulo J. Younse, Matthew A. Dicicco, and Albert R. Morgan ofCaltech for NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. For more information, download the TechnicalSupport Package (free white paper) at www.techbriefs.com/tsp under the Mechanics/Ma -chinery category. NPO-47917

Fault-Tolerant, Real-Time, Multi-Core Computer System

A document discusses a fault-tolerant, self-aware, low-power,multi-core computer for space missions with thousands of sim-ple cores, achieving speed through concurrency. The pro-posed machine decides how to achieve concurrency in realtime, rather than depending on programmers. The driving fea-tures of the system are simple hardware that is modular in theextreme, with no shared memory, and software with significantrun-time reorganizing capability.

The document describes a mechanism for moving ongoingcomputations and data that is based on a functional model ofexecution. Because there is no shared memory, the processorconnects to its neighbors through a high-speed data link.Messages are sent to a neighbor switch, which in turn forwardsthat message on to its neighbor until reaching the intendeddestination. Except for the neighbor connections, processorsare isolated and independent of each other.

The processors on the periphery also connect chip-to-chip,thus building up a large processor net. There is no particulartopology to the larger net, as a function at each processorallows it to forward a message in the correct direction. Somechip-to-chip connections are not necessarily nearest neighbors,providing short cuts for some of the longer physical distances.The peripheral processors also provide the connections to sen-sors, actuators, radios, science instruments, and other deviceswith which the computer system interacts.

This work was done by Kim P. Gostelow of Caltech for NASA’s JetPropulsion Laboratory. For more information, download the TechnicalSupport Package (free white paper) at www.techbriefs.com/tsp underthe Electronics/Computers category. NPO-47894



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The past decade has seen an ex-plosion of observations from air-borne and satellite-based multi-

and hyperspectral sensors, as well asfrom synthetic-aperture radar andLiDAR. Distilling useful informationfrom this wealth of raw data is the do-main of geospatial analysis, the collec-tion of analytical, statistical, and heuris-tic methods for extracting informationfrom georeferenced data. This informa-tion is important in serving the needs ofa diverse set of industries including envi-ronmental conservation, oil and gas ex-ploration, defense and intelligence, agri-culture, coastal monitoring, forestry,and mining.

3D visualization techniques play animportant role in geospatial analysis.The ability to represent the 3D nature ofa geospatial data product on a 2D com-puter screen — including the ability tomanipulate the data product in a 3D co-ordinate system — is essential; it en-hances a user’s ability to explore thedata, aiding in discovery and insight intofeatures of the data that may not be ap-parent from a 2D view.

Representing 3D in Computer Graphics

In computer graphics, a typical con-vention is to specify a right-handed 3D

coordinate system such that when aviewer is facing the display, +x is directedto the right, +y is directed up, and +z isdirected out of the display, toward theviewer. Points — and 3D objects, whichare treated as groups of points — withinthis 3D coordinate system are repre-sented by homogeneous coordinates,which are formed by adding a fourth co-ordinate to each point. Instead of beingrepresented by a triple (x,y,z), eachpoint is instead represented by a quadru-ple (x,y,z,w). Homogeneous coordinatessimplify coordinate transformations(i.e., translation, rotation, and scaling)by allowing them to be treated as matrixmultiplications.

To view an object from a 3D coordi-nate system on a 2D display, a view vol-

ume, a projection plane, and a viewportare needed. The view volume is a subsetof the 3D coordinate system; for simplic-ity it is often a unit cube centered at theorigin. This is where the action takesplace: Any object within the view volumeis visualized; any object that falls outsidethe view volume is not. Objects can bescaled, rotated, and translated to fitwithin the view volume.

Objects within the 3D view volume aremapped into a 2D projection using a pla-nar geometric projection, usually someform of perspective or parallel projec-tion. The projection is defined by raysthat emanate from a point, the center ofprojection, and pass through every pointof the object to intersect with the projec-tion plane. The contents of the projec-

3D Visualization inGeospatial AnalysisA visualization of collapsed, damaged, and standing structures after the 2010 Haiti earthquake, constructed from a LiDAR point cloud. (Image credit: Exelis VIS; created with E3De™)

3D Visualization inGeospatial Analysis

Figure 1. Flat (left) and Gouraud (right) shading of a surface. (Image credit: Exelis VIS; created withIDL™)

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tion plane are then mapped onto theviewport, a 2D window defined in the de-vice coordinates of the display.

In computer graphics, complex 3D ob-jects are constructed from a small num-ber of primitive graphical items: points,line segments, and convex polygons. 3Dcurved surfaces are approximated bylarge numbers of small, flat polygons, typ-ically triangles or quadrilaterals. Increas-ing the density of the polygons makes asmoother-looking surface.

Surfaces can be rendered using filledpolygonal primitives drawn with a sin-

gle color. This is known as flat shading.Surfaces can also be rendered usingsmooth or Gouraud shading, where thecolors of the polygonal primitives areinstead interpolated between the ver-tices. See Figure 1 for a comparison ofthe two techniques.

Applications of 3D inGeospatial Analysis

Digital elevation models (DEM),which give a 3D representation of theEarth’s surface, are used frequently ingeospatial analysis. A DEM can be visual-ized in 3D as a polygonal mesh or a filledsurface, with shading to heighten the 3Dappearance of the model, or with colorsproportional to height.

The data density of the visualizationcan be heightened by overlaying, as animage, additional georeferenced dataonto the 3D DEM surface through tex-ture mapping. The additional imagedata could be sourced from, for exam-ple, meteorology (surface temperatures,ozone concentration), geology (mineraltypes identified by multi- or hyperspec-tral imaging), or urban planning (zon-ing or land use), as well as many others.As an example, Figure 2 shows a visuali-zation of USGS GTOPO30, a U.S. Geo-logical Survey global digital elevationmodel, over the Front Range of north-east Colorado. The image features anoverlay, through texture mapping, ofland use with the USGS National LandCover Dataset 1992 product, a 21-classland cover classification scheme. Colorsare keyed to land cover types; urban andresidential areas, for example, are redand pink. A vertical exaggeration of 0.2is used in the visualization.

Hyperspectral ImagingWidespread use of hyperspectral im-

agery across industries is a relatively re-cent trend in geospatial analysis. Com-pared to multispectral sensors (e.g.,Landsat, SPOT, AVHRR), which meas-ure reflected radiation from the Earth’ssurface at a few widely spaced wave-length bands, hyperspectral sensorsmeasure reflectance over a series of hun-dreds of narrow and contiguous bands,providing the opportunity for more de-tailed spectral image analysis. Hyper-spectral images are often referred to asimage cubes because of their large spec-tral dimension, in addition to their twospatial dimensions. Figure 3 shows a vi-sualization of an AVIRIS (Airborne Visi-ble/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer) hy-perspectral image taken near Cuprite,Nevada. The visualization is an oblique

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Figure 2. Land cover data texture mapped ontoa digital elevation model of the Front Range ofColorado. (Image credit: Exelis VIS; created withIDL™)

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parallel projection, with the spectral di-mension visualized in the xz- and yz-planes (the top and right sides of thecube, respectively). The face of thecube, in the xy-plane, is a false colorcomposite with red, green, and bluebands chosen to emphasize peaks in thereflectance spectra of minerals found inthe image, such as buddingtonite, kaoli-nite, and various clays.

LiDAROn Tuesday, January 12, 2010, a mag-

nitude 7.0 earthquake struck just milesfrom Haiti’s capital city of Port-au-Prince. About 3 million people were af-fected by the quake. The government ofHaiti estimated that 250,000 residencesand 30,000 commercial buildings wereseverely damaged or destroyed.

LiDAR can be used to detect andmeasure objects like collapsed build-ings and standing structures damagedby an earthquake. It can also be used inextracting road networks and routeplanning — information that can becritical for emergency responders try-ing to plan routes to find people whoneed help as quickly and efficiently aspossible. A 3D visualization, recon-structed from a LiDAR point cloud,showed buildings and roads in Port-au-Prince that were damaged in the Janu-ary 2010 earthquake.

The data used in producing this visu-alization were collected in a joint projectfunded by the World Bank, in conjunc-tion with the Rochester Institute ofTechnology, the University of Buffalo,and ImageCat, Inc. A twin-engine PiperNavajo, operated by Kucera Interna-tional, flew missions for seven consecu-tive days at 3000 feet over Port-au-Princeand other areas badly hit by the earth-quake. LiDAR data at 1- and 10-m spatialresolutions were collected to map thedisaster zone to aid in crisis manage-ment and the eventual reconstruction ofthe city.

To produce the visualization (seetitle image), the E3De™ LiDAR pro-cessing application was used to extracta digital surface model (DSM) fromsurface features such as buildings,trees, and cars. Further processing ofthe DSM gave building footprints androof shape polygons. Next, a DEM wascomputed from the DSM using a com-bination of proprietary crawling andsensitivity algorithms.

Subtracting the DEM from the DSMgives the vertical obstruction layer. Withadditional image analysis in ENVI™,based on published algorithms in the

LiDAR community, intact roads can beseparated from structures and debris.

Leveraging 3D LiDAR data, as well as3D visualization tools for the data, canbe invaluable for disaster mitigation.The type of analysis described here canquickly help emergency responders findpassable routes to people in need.

ConclusionIn geospatial analysis, 3D visualization

techniques are invaluable for enhanc-ing a user’s ability to explore, interpret,and understand data. In the future, asthe use of hyperspectral and LiDARdata in disaster management continuesto grow, 3D visualization will become in-creasingly relevant. While the synthesisof hyperspectral and LiDAR data canhelp emergency responders inventorybuildings, land ground teams, find pass-able routes, and otherwise support crisisresponse efforts, proper 3D visualiza-tion of this data can aid all levels of dis-aster management, from basic buildinginventory to sophisticated network rout-ing problems.

This article was written by Mark Piper, So-lutions Engineer, Exelis Visual InformationSolutions (Boulder, CO). For more informa-tion, visit http://info.hotims.com/40437-140.

ReferencesFoley, James D., Andries van Dam, Steven K.Feiner and John F. Hughes, 1990: ComputerGraphics: Principles and Practice. Secondedition. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.Priestnall, G., J. Jaafar and A. Duncan, 2000:Extracting urban features from LiDAR digitalsurface models. Computers, Environments andUrban Systems, 24, 65-78.Shippert, P., 2004. Why use hyperspectralimagery?, Photogrammetric Engineering &Remote Sensing, 70(4), 377–380.Shreiner, D., 2010: OpenGL ProgrammingGuide: The Official Guide to Learning OpenGL,versions .0 and .1. Addison-Wesley, UpperSaddle River, NJ.

Geospatial Analysis

Figure 3. A hyperspectral image cube of AVIRISdata collected near Cuprite, Nevada. (Imagecredit: Exelis VIS; created with ENVI™)

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The GigE Vision® Interface Standard:Transforming Medical Imaging

Live, high-resolution imaging is in-creasingly being leveraged to en-hance operating procedures. It can

improve the precision of physicians andtheir instruments, and minimize the in-vasiveness of many procedures. Increas-ingly, one small component in a visionsystem — the interfacing technology —is providing answers to the most com-mon of these challenges.

In particular, the GigE Vision inter-face standard, which supports real-time,high-resolution, and multi-sensor imag-ing, is garnering the attention of themedical sector. This article explores howGigE Vision over Gigabit Ethernet(GigE), as well as GigE Vision over 10GigE, enables substantial innovations inmedical imaging.

Streamlining Multi-Sensor Network Architectures

Originally, point-to-point connectionsbetween a camera sensor or detector anda computer (PC) were used to achievereal-time functionality. In the operatingtheater, images often need to be viewedon multiple displays in different areas,even remotely. With a point-to-point ar-chitecture, each of these connections re-quires a dedicated connection, often in-cluding its own PC, frame grabber, ordisplay controller. A more efficient archi-tecture would reduce both the complex-ity and costs of this arrangement.

This became possible in 2006 whenthe AIA (www.visiononline.org) stan-dardized a set of protocols for transmit-ting video and control data over Ether-net: the GigE Vision standard. Thisopen, freely available standard providesmedical system designers and integra-tors with a reliable, flexible, and inex-pensive interface alternative to morecumbersome and costly legacy options.Furthermore, as the resolution andframe rate of medical imaging devicesincreases, interfaces will need to accom-modate the additional data throughput,and GigE Vision over 10 GigE providesthe necessary capacity.

Clinical Benefits of GigE VisionMedical system designers have been

converting legacy analog systems tomore powerful digital systems for sometime. This is expanding the range of ap-

plications for image-guided surgical anddiagnostic systems. Common applica-tions of medical imaging now include:• Computed tomography (CT scan)• Image-guided or robotic surgery• Digital radiography• Fluoroscopy• Dental imaging• Veterinary radiology

As medical imaging technologyevolves, however, it exceeds the capabil-ity of both analog interfaces, as well aslegacy digital interfaces. Video-over-Eth-ernet is particularly well suited for thesetypes of applications because it ad-dresses the following common chal-lenges associated with achieving high-resolution, real-time video:

Accommodating High-Resolution ImagesInterfaces traditionally used in imag-

ing equipment do not have the band-width required to carry the advancedresolution and high frame rates neces-sary in many modern medical imagingapplications.

Video compression is a standard cod-ing practice used to reduce the size ofvideo files while maintaining the in-tegrity of the image. The process, how-ever, adds latency to image transmissionand can reduce image detail. Latencymust be reduced to a point where move-ment on the display is practically indis-tinguishable from that of a surgeon’s di-rect visual perception. Most systemdesigners aim for an end-to-end latency

Figure 1. A diagram of real-time digital imaging in networked hospital operating rooms.

Figure 2. A diagram of a digital X-ray system with a flat panel detector.

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92 www.techbriefs.com Imaging Technology, September 2012

of 200 ms or less, a figure achieved bycareful selection of the interface andnetworking technology, including an op-timized implementation of the GigE Vi-sion standard.

Gigabit Ethernet (both at 1 and 10Gbps) is particularly well suited to ac-commodate high data rates, and so com-pression is not required in most cases.The GigE Vision standard employs a low-overhead network protocol, and canbenefit from the use of jumbo Ethernetframes, thereby reducing the overheadeven further.

Transferring Images ReliablyPatients must not be exposed twice to

obtain an image, and physicians mustwork from accurate, real-time images.Although data packets are unlikely to gomissing or to arrive out of order in aproperly architected network, the GigEVision standard includes a packet resendmechanism that ensures such an occur-rence would not cause data loss. Also,GigE Vision is built upon known, stan-dard technologies (Ethernet, IP, UDP)that have been widely used for decades,and which have been heavily invested inand developed by giants like Intel andCisco. GigE has been in use since 1999,while 10 GigE was ratified by the IEEE in2003 and has a decade of widespread ac-ceptance and development behind it.

Accommodating Sterile RoomsSterilization requirements make it

risky and sometimes impossible to intro-duce new systems into medical environ-ments. Video-over-Ethernet resolves thischallenge through distance. With areach of 100 meters over copper wire

(1 GigE) or even further over fiber (1 or10 GigE), GigE Vision systems can be lo-cated and serviced outside of sterilerooms, as Figure 1 illustrates. Each net-work element can also be located in theappropriate department, providingmore flexibility in system design.

Minimizing System CostThe GigE Vision standard helps lower

the costs of new systems and system up-grades:• The data is transmitted using GigE net-

work interface cards (NICs), which arestandard on PCs.

• Ethernet is a standards-compliant solu-tion already in place in healthcare fa-cilities.

• For GigE networks, standard, afford-able Cat 5/6 cabling is used. For 10GigE networks, cost-effective GigEfiber connections are most often used(providing electrical isolation), andCat 6A cabling can also be used up to100 meters.

• System designers avoid the risk of sin-gle-source or proprietary architecturesbecause the GigE Vision standard is anopen, global standard that ensuresseamless interoperability betweenequipment designed by different man-ufacturers.

• Multiple sensors or channels of videocan be aggregated into a single net-work link. Multiple cables can be re-placed with a single connection, and anumber of sensors can be connectedover the same link.

Maximizing System Design LifeMedical imaging systems are substan-

tial investments, both in R&D effort as

well as capital cost. To extend the life -span of these valuable systems, the use ofa GigE Vision interface enables design-ers to leave a system’s imaging compo-nent as-is while extending cable dis-tances, eliminating frame grabbers, andintegrating more flexible connectorsand cables. This is possible with GigE Vi-sion products available today that em-ploy one or more image sources usingCamera Link® interfaces and transmitthem over GigE. Alternatively, a manu-facturer could simply change the inter-face of a medical imaging product froma proprietary interface to GigE Vision bymeans of a small adapter board.

Future Clinical Applications of GigE Vision

GigE Vision provides the technologi-cal platform for networked video suit-able for use in medical environments. Ina networked video architecture, all ele-ments (image sensors, cameras, comput-ers, video receivers, video servers, con-trol units, and displays) are connectedto each other. With this streamlined ap-proach, every component uses the samestandard framework to transmit or re-ceive video and control data. While GigEVision over GigE is already commonlyused in medical environments, the grow-ing adoption of GigE Vision over 10GigE will open up further opportunitiesto enhance medical imaging applica-tions and patient care, as the followingexamples illustrate:

Digital FluoroscopyAdvances in X-ray imaging, such as

image intensifiers and flat-panel digitaldetectors, are reducing the radiation doseto which patients are exposed (see Figure2). This is especially beneficial in fluo-roscopy, which provides physicians withreal-time X-ray images of a patient’sanatomy by using radiation exposure overtime. The process, however, results in agreater cumulative radiation exposure.

Innovative new fluoroscopy systemsminimize the patient’s exposure byusing multiple moving X-ray sources toirradiate tissue from numerous incre-mental angles in just seconds. To do sousing traditional vision interfaces andconnections, though, would be uneco-nomical and cumbersome.

Using GigE Vision over 10 GigE, themulti-source image data can be transmit-ted over Ethernet to a processor to gen-erate 3D images on a CMOS X-ray detec-tor. If required, a systems integratorcould add an additional GigE Visioncompliant X-ray detector from another

Figure 3. Dexela’s GigE Vision compliant CMOS X-ray detector is based on an innovative CMOS sensordesign that improves speed and image quality.

GigE Vision®

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manufacturer to further increase theutility of the system (see Figure 3). Be-cause all imaging components and soft-ware are GigE Vision compliant, the in-tegration is very simple.

MRIMRI machines output substantial

amounts of video data. Today, that datais transferred using proprietary inter-faces that can be expensive to maintainand costly for R&D teams to develop inthe first place. GigE Vision over 10 GigEoffers a solution to these challenges andmay make magnetic resonance imagingmore affordable, easier to maintain, andmore widely available in the near future.

Tomorrow’s HospitalsAs medical technologies grow in so-

phistication, the bandwidth, resolutions,and frame rates required for imagingwill grow in parallel. Within three to fiveyears the average radiation oncology de-partment, for example, will experienceexponential growth in the size, complex-ity, and volume of medical images, as il-lustrated in Figure 4. The increase isdue, in part, to the success of image-guided oncology programs, which gen-erate new images at each step in the

treatment process — diagnosis, staging,planning, verification, setup, response,and follow-up.

As these kinds of medical imaging sys-tems continue to evolve, real-time videonetworks will be important technologyelements for the medical community as

it expands into new areas of image-guided surgery and diagnostics.

This article was written by John Phillips,Senior Product Manager at Pleora Technolo-gies (Kanata, ON, Canada). For more infor-mation, visit http://info.hotims.com/40437-141.

www.IOINDUSTRIES.com

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Figure 4. Projected image storage per patient. (Graph courtesy of Varian Medical Systems)

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Imaging SensorOmniVision Technologies (Santa Clara, CA) offers the OV12830, a 12.7-megapixel CameraChip™ sensor de-

signed to meet the image and video recording standards of smartphones and tablets. The OV12830 utilizes the Om-niBSI-2 pixel architecture to capture 1080p high definition (HD) video at 60 frames per second (FPS). The sensor supports an active array of 4,224 x 3,000 pixels (12-megapixel) operating at 24 FPS, and 4,224 x 2,376 pixels

(10-megapixel in a 16:9 aspect ratio) at 30 FPS, minimizing shutter lag from shot-to-shot. An on-chip RAW scaler allows thesensor to record video at 30 FPS while maintaining full field of view.

Additionally, the OV12830 is capable of capturing video with increased sensitivity for low-light recording, and at 60 FPSwith additional pixels for EIS. The sensor pro-vides alternate row output from full-resolutionat two different exposures, enabling high-dy-namic range (HDR) still or video recording.The OV12830 comes in die format with indus-try standard 4-lane MIPI interface connectivity.

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GigE Vision CamerasTeledyne DALSA (Billerica, MA) has ex-

panded its Genie™ TS camera series with theaddition of three color models that use CMOSimaging sensor technology. The Genie TScolor cameras, which include 5M, 8M, and12M models, reach speeds up to 29 fps.

The GigE-Vision-compliant Genie TS Se-ries transmits data over standard CAT-5e andCAT-6 cables to distances of up to 100m. TheGenie TS cameras are supported by TeledyneDALSA’s Sapera™ Essential software and itsGenie Framework package. The Genie Frame-work employs Trigger-to-Image Reliability en-gineering, accelerating application develop-ment and deployment time by providingdevelopers with a 360° view of the entire ac-quisition process.


Digital High-Speed Cameras

Vision Research (Wayne, NJ) has addedthe v411 to its 1 Megapixel (Mpx)-v-Series lineof digital high-speed cameras. The 4Gpx/sv411 has a top speed at full resolution of 4200fps. V-Series cameras feature high-definition,widescreen 1280x800 CMOS sensorsand have larger 20 micronpixels that allow shootingin low light.

The cameras alsoinclude PhantomCineMag compatibil-ity for on-camera storage andlong record time applications. They also fea-ture Image-Based Auto-Trigger functionality,Extreme Dynamic Range, and an internalcapping shutter for hands-free and remoteblack references.


TRUST MATTERS.WHO’S RELYING ON YOUR CAMERA CHOICE? Real people—you and your customers—are. That’s why, at Basler, trust is as crucial to our business as technology. Count on Basler for:

baslerweb.com


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6 – 8 November 2012 Messe Stuttgartwww.vision-fair.de

One VISIONWhat do brake assist systems and intraoral scanners have in common? Both applications have only been made possible thanks to machine vision. VISION will be presenting the entire spectrum of this unique technology – from components to turnkey complete systems, from mechanical engineering to endoscopy. This is where the industry meets – and has done for the past 25 years.

One VISION. 25 Years of VISION.


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CCD Scientific CamerasPhotometrics (Tucson, AZ) has introduced

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Human-Machine InterfaceThe HMI5121P from Maple Systems (Everett,

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The HMIs connect to PLCs through two serial ports, USB ports, aCAN bus port, and an Ethernet port. The EZwarePlus configuration soft-ware enables the importing of tag data. Two video input ports allow twomotion cameras for remote monitoring, and video files can be playedusing the built-in media player for training or instructional purposes.

The EZwarePlus configuration software has also increased recipefunctionality, advanced macro support, and diagnostic tools. Securityoptions manage user accounts and privilege settings, and remote mon-itoring and control of the HMI can be configured from any networkedPC. The HMI also supports VNC (Virtual Network Computing) to mon-itor from a handheld device or smartphone.


3D VisualizationChristie® (Cypress, CA) has added three Mi-

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Infrared CameraThe IR-1000 near-infrared camera from Dage-

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Position SensorsASM, Elmhurst, IL, offers the

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Ultrasonic SensorsPepperl+Fuchs, Twinsburg, OH, has intro-

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Proximity SensorsAutomationDirect, Cumming, GA,

offers a line of round-bodied stainlesssteel inductive proximity sensors includ-ing 3-wire NPN output versions in 8-, 12-,18-, and 30-mm models. Also availableare unshielded 3-wire 12-, 18-, and 30-mm models. All have a full 316L stainless steel barrel and sensingface that provides durability in harsh environments. For Free Info

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Humidity/Temperature SensorsThe SHT20 humidity and temperature

sensors from Sensirion, Stafa, Switzerland,feature typical accuracy of 3% RH. The sen-sors are based on the CMOSens® technolo-gy, and offer temperature measurementaccuracy of ±0.4 °C and a measuring rangeof -40 to +120 °C. They feature a 3x3-mm footprint and 1.1-mmprofile. For Free Info Visit http://info.hotims.com/40437-103

Force/Torque SensorATI Industrial Automation, Apex, North

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Design SoftwareSiemens PLM Software, Plano, TX, has

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Electromagnetic Flow Meters OMEGA Engineering, Stamford, CT, offers plas-

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Film AdhesiveNuSil Technology LLC, Carpinteria, CA, has

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One of the challenges for Manned and Unmanned Aircraft Systems is the cooling of flight-critical avionics that must be maintainedbelow a specific temperature for mission success.

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Additive manufacturing technologies are also commonly known as "Rapid Prototyping" or "3D Printing" as well as other names.

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This Webinar focuses on presenting simulation approaches to aeroacoustic problems in ANSYS CFD. They include a directComputational Aeroacoustics (CAA) methodology, far-field noise propagation using the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings acoustics analogy, and broadband noise models.


Modeling Airborne NoiseLive Presentation –

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Is Early Performance Testing ReallyValuable AND Viable?

Many organizations are neglecting to include a comprehensive performance testing process in their quality arsenal as it is tooexpensive or time consuming to measure the stability and scalability of business critical functionality prior to releasing to production.

What if there was a way to test the performance of your applications before deploying to production at a lower cost?Join Scott Barber, Thought Leader, as he shares his thoughts on how organizations can improve their performance abilities duringthis IBM sponsored Webinar.

The single-platform concept has proved to be both convenient and effective across the technology landscape, from smartphones toconverged media that employ a single platform to allow viewing and seamless shifting of a broadcast on TV set-top boxes, mobilephones, laptops, tablets, and other screens.

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Solver Matters: Scalable, Accurate, andRobust Multiphysics Analysis Live Presentation – Thursday, September 20, 2012, 2:00 pm ET


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NASA’s Technology SourcesIf you need further information about new technologies presented in NASA Tech Briefs,request the Technical Support Package (TSP) indicated at the end of the brief. If a TSP is notavailable, the Innovative Partnerships Office at the NASA field center that sponsored theresearch can provide you with additional information and, if applicable, refer you to theinnovator(s). These centers are the source of all NASA-developed technology.

Ames Research CenterSelected technological strengths: InformationTechnology; Biotechnology; Nanotechnology;Aerospace Operations Systems; Rotorcraft;Thermal Protection Systems.Lisa L. Lockyer(650) [email protected]

Dryden Flight Research CenterSelected technological strengths:Aerodynamics; Aeronautics Flight Testing;Aeropropulsion; Flight Systems; ThermalTesting; Integrated Systems Test andValidation.Yvonne D. Gibbs(661) [email protected]

Glenn Research CenterSelected technological strengths:Aeropropulsion; Communications; EnergyTechnology; High-Temperature MaterialsResearch.Kathleen Needham(216) [email protected]

Goddard Space Flight CenterSelected technological strengths: Earth andPlanetary Science Missions; LIDAR; CryogenicSystems; Tracking; Telemetry; Remote Sensing;Command.Nona Cheeks(301) [email protected]

Jet Propulsion LaboratorySelected technological strengths: Near/Deep-Space Mission Engineering; Microspacecraft;Space Communications; Information Systems;Remote Sensing; Robotics.Indrani Graczck(818) [email protected]

Johnson Space CenterSelected technological strengths: ArtificialIntelligence and Human Computer Interface;Life Sciences; Human Space FlightOperations; Avionics; Sensors;Communications.David Leestma(281) [email protected]

Kennedy Space CenterSelected technological strengths: Fluids andFluid Systems; Materials Evaluation; ProcessEngineering; Command, Control, and MonitorSystems; Range Systems; EnvironmentalEngineering and Management.David R. Makufka(321) [email protected]

Langley Research CenterSelected technological strengths: Aerodynamics;Flight Systems; Materials; Structures; Sensors;Measurements; Information Sciences.Elizabeth B. Plentovich(757) [email protected]

Marshall Space Flight CenterSelected technological strengths: Materials;Manufacturing; Nondestructive Evaluation;Biotechnology; Space Propulsion; Controls andDynamics; Structures; Microgravity Processing.Jim Dowdy(256) [email protected]

Stennis Space CenterSelected technological strengths: PropulsionSystems; Test/Monitoring; Remote Sensing;Nonintrusive Instrumentation.Ramona Travis(228) [email protected]

National Technology Transfer CenterDarwin MolnarWheeling, WV(800) 678-6882

NASA HEADQUARTERS

Innovative Partnerships Program OfficeDoug Comstock, Director(202) [email protected]

Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) &Small Business Technology Transfer (STTR)ProgramsCarl Ray, Program Executive(202) [email protected]

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Publisher.....................................................Joseph T. PrambergerEditorial Director ........................................................Linda L. BellEditor, PTB and Embedded Technology...............Bruce A. BennettTechnical/Managing Editor.........................................Ted SelinskyTechnical Writers.........................................................Shirl Phelps.........................................................................Nick LukianoffManaging Editor, Tech Briefs TV...............................Kendra SmithAssociate Editor...........................................................Billy HurleyProduction Manager .............................................Adam SantiagoAssistant Production Manager .........................Danielle GaglioneArt Director ...............................................................Lois ErlacherDesigner ...........................................................Bernadette TorresMarketing Director .............................................Debora RothwellMarketing Assistant..............................................Felicia KennedyCirculation Manager .............................................Marie ClaussellCirculation/Audience Development Coordinator ....Brandie DenlingerSubscription Changes/[email protected]

NASA Tech Briefs are provided by the National Aeronauticsand Space Administration, Innovative Partnerships Program:Administrator...............................................Charles F. Bolden, Jr.Chief Technologist.......................................................Mason PeckTechnology Transfer Program Executive ................Daniel Lockney

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at (408) 778-0300Bill Hague

...........................................................................at (310) 457-6783CO, UT, MT, WY, ID, NM ...............................................Tim Powers...........................................................................at (973) 409-4762S. Calif., AZ, NV ...............................................................Tom Boris...........................................................................at (949) 715-7779Integrated Media Consultants................................Patrick Harvey...........................................................................at (973) 409-4686

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Reprints........................................................................Jill Kaletha .................................................................at (866) 879-9144, x168

w w w . t e c h b r i e f s . c o m

NASA’s Technology SourcesIf you need further information about new technologies presented in NASA Tech Briefs,request the Technical Support Package (TSP) indicated at the end of the brief. If a TSP is notavailable, the IPO at the NASA field center that sponsored the research can provide you withadditional information and, if applicable, refer you to the innovator(s). These centers are thesource of all NASA-developed technology.

Ames Research CenterSelected technological strengths: InformationTechnology; Biotechnology; Nanotechnology;Aerospace Operations Systems; Rotorcraft;Thermal Protection Systems.David Morse(650) [email protected]

Dryden Flight Research CenterSelected technological strengths:Aerodynamics; Aeronautics Flight Testing;Aeropropulsion; Flight Systems; ThermalTesting; Integrated Systems Test andValidation.Ron Young(661) [email protected]

Glenn Research CenterSelected technological strengths:Aeropropulsion; Communications; EnergyTechnology; High-Temperature MaterialsResearch.Kimberly A. Dalgleish-Miller(216) [email protected]

Goddard Space Flight CenterSelected technological strengths: Earth andPlanetary Science Missions; LIDAR; CryogenicSystems; Tracking; Telemetry; Remote Sensing;Command.Nona Cheeks(301) [email protected]

Jet Propulsion LaboratorySelected technological strengths: Near/Deep-Space Mission Engineering; Microspacecraft;Space Communications; Information Systems;Remote Sensing; Robotics.Indrani Graczyk(818) [email protected]

Johnson Space CenterSelected technological strengths: ArtificialIntelligence and Human Computer Interface;Life Sciences; Human Space FlightOperations; Avionics; Sensors;Communications.John E. James(281) [email protected]

Kennedy Space CenterSelected technological strengths: Fluids andFluid Systems; Materials Evaluation; ProcessEngineering; Command, Control, and MonitorSystems; Range Systems; EnvironmentalEngineering and Management.David R. Makufka(321) [email protected]

Langley Research CenterSelected technological strengths: Aerodynamics;Flight Systems; Materials; Structures; Sensors;Measurements; Information Sciences.Michelle Ferebee(757) [email protected]

Marshall Space Flight CenterSelected technological strengths: Materials;Manufacturing; Nondestructive Evaluation;Biotechnology; Space Propulsion; Controls andDynamics; Structures; Microgravity Processing.Terry L. Taylor(256) [email protected]

Stennis Space CenterSelected technological strengths: PropulsionSystems; Test/Monitoring; Remote Sensing;Nonintrusive Instrumentation.Ramona Travis(228) [email protected]

NASA HEADQUARTERS

Daniel Lockney, Technology TransferProgram Executive

(202) [email protected]

Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) & SmallBusiness Technology Transfer (STTR) ProgramsRich Leshner, Program Executive(202) [email protected]

w w w . t e c h b r i e f s . c o mNASA’s Innovative PartnershipsOffice (IPO)

NASA’s R&D efforts produce a robust supply of promising technologies with applications in many indus-tries. A key mechanism in identifying commercial applications for this technology is NASA’s nationalnetwork of laboratories and business support entities. The network includes ten NASA field centers,and a full tie-in with the Federal Laboratory Consortium (FLC) for Technology Transfer. To explore tech-nology transfer, development, and collaboration opportunities with NASA, visit www.ipp.nasa.gov.

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Advertisers IndexFor free product literature, enter advertisers’ reader service numbers at www.techbriefs.com/rs, or visit the

Web site listed beneath their ad in this issue. Advertisers listed in bold-face type have banner ads on the NASA Tech Briefs Web site — www.techbriefs.com

Reader ServiceCompany Number Page


ACCES I/O Products ........................................802............................62Advanced Technical Ceramics Company ............704 ..............................6aAerotech, Inc. ........................................................815..............................74Aerotek ..................................................................792..............................49Agilent Technologies ............................................759, 779..................9, 31Allied Electronics, Inc...........................................783, 784................36, 37AllMotion, Inc. ......................................................825..............................84Altos Photonics, Inc. ............................................707 ............................12aAmerican Aerospace Controls..............................836..............................97ASM Sensors, Inc...................................................826..............................85Astro-Med Inc. ......................................................787..............................44ATI Industrial Automation ..................................774........................26, 38AutomationDirect ................................................777..............................29Avago Technologies (Select Editions)................................................32A-BAvnet Electronics ..................................................758................................7Basler Vision Technologies ..................................832..............................94BINDER Inc...........................................................762..............................12Bird Precision ........................................................856..............................99BRL Test, Inc. ........................................................857..............................99c3controls ..............................................................764..............................15Centricity Corporation..........................................858..............................99COMSOL, Inc. ..................................................763, 859 ..............13, 99Crane Aerospace & Electronics............................871..............Opp. COV IData Translation ....................................................788..............................45DCC Corporation..................................................860..............................99Deposition Sciences Inc. ......................................747 ..............................3aDEWESoft ..............................................................867..............................99Dewetron Inc. ....................................................785............................41Digi-Key Corporation ........................................754..............................2Dimension..................................................................................................56Dranetz/Gossen Metrawatt ..................................861..............................99DRS Technologies, Inc. ........................................769..............................21dSPACE, Inc...........................................................771..............................23Dynetic Systems ....................................................817..............................76Eagle Stainless Tube ..........................................808............................68Edmund Optics ................................................830............................90Enwave Optronics, Inc. ........................................708 ............................13aFLIR Commercial Vision Systems ......................819............................78FORTUS 3D Production Systems ........................767..................19, 38, 56Fotofab ..................................................................799..............................58Futek Advanced Sensor Technology, Inc. ............768........................20, 38Goodfellow Corporation ......................................840 ....................COV IIIGPD Optoelectronics Corp. ................................748 ............................10aHARTING Technology Group..............................804..............................64Heidenhain Corporation......................................790..............................47Helical Products Co., Inc. ....................................812..............................71Hottinger Baldwin Messtechnik ........................801............................61Image Science Ltd.................................................701 ..............................2aImagineering, Inc. ............................................755..............................3Indium Corporation ............................................822..............................81InnoDisk Corp.......................................................818..............................77Integrated Engineering Software Inc. ................814............................73International Rectifier ..........................................800..............................60IO Industries..........................................................831..............................93KAMAN Corporation ............................................765..............................16Keil, Tools by ARM................................................810..............................69Krohn-Hite Corporation ......................................834..............................96Laser Institute of America ....................................705 ............................11aLemos International ............................................862..............................99Littelfuse, Inc. (Select Editions) ........................................................16ALPKF Laser & Electronics ....................................813..............................72M.S. Kennedy Corporation ................................757..............................6Maplesoft ..............................................................772........................24, 38Master Bond Inc. ..................................................837..............................97MathWorks ............................................................756................................5Matrox Imaging ....................................................828..............................88Measurement Computing Corp. ..........................791..............................48

Memory Protection Devices, Inc. ........................870 ..........................13BMetrigraphics, LLC ..............................................703 ..............................5aMicro-Epsilon Messtechnik GmbH ......................824..............................83MicroCare Corp. ..................................................766..............................18MicroStrain, Inc. ..................................................789..............................46Mill-Max Mfg. Corp...............................................803..............................63Miller-Stephenson Chemical Co. ........................809..............................69Minalex Corporation ............................................780..............................32Morehouse Instrument Company........................823..............................82Mouser Electronics, Inc. ....................................752 ....................COV IIMPL........................................................................835..............................96nanoplus GmBh ....................................................776........................28, 38National Instruments ............................................868 ....................COV IVNewark/element14 ..............................................761..............................11Newcomb Spring Corporation ............................797..............................59Omega Engineering ..........................................753..............................1Omicron USA........................................................793..............................50Omley Industries, Inc. ..........................................863..............................99Optimax Systems, Inc. ..........................................781........................34, 38OriginLab Corporation ........................................782..............................35PennEngineering ..................................................816..............................75PhotoMachining Inc. ............................................864..............................99PI (Physik Instrumente) LP ..............................827............................86Pletronics, Inc. ......................................................760..............................10Proto Labs, Inc. ....................................................796..............................57PTI Engineered Plastics, Inc.................................773..............................25Radiant Zemax ......................................................778........................30, 38RedEye RPM ..............................................................................................56RF Monolithics, Inc...............................................821..............................80Roithner Lasertechnik GmbH..............................710 ............................14aSAE International..................................................869 ..........................13ASantest Co., Ltd. ....................................................838..............................98Sealevel Systems, Inc. ............................................805..............................65Seastrom Mfg.........................................................798..............................59Siemens PLM Software ........................................775........................27, 38Silicon Designs, Inc. ..............................................865..............................99Smalley Steel Ring Company................................811..............................70Spectrogon US Inc. ..............................................709 ............................13aSPIE Defense, Security + Sensing ........................795..............................53SPIE Photonics West ............................................702 ..............................7aStanford Research Systems Inc. ........................794............................51Suhner Manufacturing Corporation....................770........................22, 38TAL Technologies Inc...........................................839..............................98TDK-Lambda Americas Inc. ................................820..............................79Tech Briefs TV............................................................................................9aTeledyne DALSA................................................829............................89Tempco Electric Heater Corp. ............................866..............................99Vision 2012........................................................833............................95Voltage Multipliers Inc. ........................................847..............................86W.L. Gore ..............................................................806, 807................66, 67Wavelength Electronics ........................................706 ............................12ayet2.com ................................................................................................54-55Yokogawa Corporation of America ......................786..............................43


NASA Tech Briefs, ISSN 0145-319X, USPS 750-070, copyright ©2012 in U.S. is publishedmonthly by Tech Briefs Media Group, an SAE International Company, 261 Fifth Avenue,Suite 1901, New York, NY 10016. The copyright information does not include the (U.S.rights to) individual tech briefs that are supplied by NASA. Editorial, sales, production,and circulation offices at 261 Fifth Avenue, Suite 1901, New York, NY 10016. Subscriptionfor non-qualified subscribers in the U.S. and Puerto Rico, $75.00 for 1 year; $135 for 2years. Single copies $6.25. Foreign subscriptions one-year U.S. Funds $195.00. Remit bycheck, draft, postal, express orders or VISA, MasterCard, and American Express. Otherremittances at sender’s risk. Address all communications for subscriptions or circula-tion to NASA Tech Briefs, 261 Fifth Avenue, Suite 1901, New York, NY 10016. Periodicalspostage paid at New York, NY and additional mailing offices.

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Spinoff is NASA’s annual publication featuring successfully commercialized NASA technology. This commercialization has contributed to the development of products and services in the fields of health and medicine, consumer goods,transportation, public safety, computer technology, and environmental resources.

Spinoff


An Ionic Twist on Hair CareNanomaterials developed by NASA play a big role in professional hairstyling tools.

D isinfecting can be dirty work. Typicalcleaning agents, like chlorine and

alcohol, release fumes that don’t go awaywhen applied in the contained environ-ment of a spacecraft. So NASA scientistsdeveloped an alternative method to keepsurfaces disinfected, using a materialwhose antimicrobial properties have longbeen known: nanosilver.

Nanosilver acts as a passive sterilizingcomponent, creating an area that is, ineffect, self-cleaning; airborne contami-nants like fungi and bacteria quickly dieafter settling on the surface.

Inspired by NASA, Houston-basedFarouk Systems decided in 2004 toincorporate nanosilver into its line ofhairstyling irons and nail polish. Thechemical-free sterilization it provides isespecially attractive to salons and spas,where an emphasis is placed on reduc-ing fumes and contamination.

This wasn’t the first time FaroukSystems looked to NASA for inspiration.An unlikely connection from yearsbefore supplied the company withunique NASA technology that makes it agreat example of just how diverse theapplications of space technology can befor life on Earth.

Cancer-Fighting Drugs to Hair Conditioners

NASA-derived improvements to hair-styling products began with decades ofresearch on nanomaterials — materials10,000 times smaller than the width of ahuman hair. Dennis Morrison, a former

NASA scientist, spent much of his careerwith the Agency developing ceramicmicrocapsules that could be filled withcancer-fighting drugs and then injectedinto solid tumors deep within the body.

In order to release the contents of themicrocapsules on demand, Morrisonconstructed them using special ceramicnanoparticles. When placed in a mag-netic field, the material produced ionsand heated to a predictable tempera-ture. This caused the ceramic particlesto melt holes in the microcapsules,which released the drugs.

Originally, these liquid-filled micro -balloons were made in low Earth orbitwhere the absence of gravity aided in theformation of the outer membrane.NASA’s space-based experiments eventu-ally resulted in the development of adevice that could make the drug-filledmicrocapsules on Earth.

“I never had any idea that it might bebeneficial to someone in the hair indus-try making a hair iron with ceramicplates,” said Morrison. But that potentialbecame apparent after talks with FaroukSystems at a nanotechnology conference.

Farouk Systems eventually incorporat-ed the NASA-developed technology intoits CHI (Cationic Hydration Interlink)hairstyling iron. When heated, the spe-cial ceramic material releases ions thatsmooth and soften the hair, making iteasier to manage and style. The companyhas also developed a second level of hairconditioning and protecting productsengineered to complement its unique

styling tools. These products are special-ly formulated to work with the combina-tion of ions and infrared wavelengthscaused by the CHI irons and hair dryers.

Morrison may have had no idea thathis research in ceramic nanomaterialswould lead to breakthroughs in profes-sional hairstyling, but he knows the valueof looking for such applications as a nat-ural extension of scientific research.

“Alternate uses may not be envisionedfor a certain technology, but once youunderstand the mechanisms of the tech-nology, you can look for spinoff applica-tions,” he explained. “As a NASAemployee, I was encouraged to spreadinformation about the concepts andresults of our research, as well as talk topeople about potential new applicationsof what we were discovering.”

Farouk System’s reliance on NASAtechnology continues to this day:Morrison is now one of the company’ssenior vice presidents. Leaning on hisexperience, the company continues topioneer products that bring the benefitsof NASA technology from space to yourlocal salon.

This article was written by LisaRademakers for Spinoff. Visit www.techbriefs.com/component/content/article/10647 for the full story. CHI® is a registeredtrademark of Farouk Systems Inc.

The CHI line of hairstyling irons features a unique ceramic composite, which releases ions that makehair softer, smoother, and easier to style.

These liquid formulations were speciallydesigned to work with the combination of ionsand infrared wavelengths created by FaroukSystems’ CHI styling tools.

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Photonics Solutions for the Design Engineer

September 2012

Supplement to NASA Tech Briefs

Digital Imaging Systems for Ballistics Testing...........IIa

Photovoltaic TrackingControl Systems ...............4a

Glass Solder Approach for Fiber-to-Waveguide Coupling.........................8a

General MACOS Interface for Modeling Controlled Optical Systems ...........8a

ASIC Readout Circuit Architecture for Large Geiger Photodiode Arrays....................8a

Product of the Month/New Products ..........11a

A properly designed and controlled photovoltaic

tracking system can capture up to 40 percent more energy from

each panel than fixed racks. The key to achieving optimum energy production and

reliability from such a system is selectingthe right hardware and control algorithm.To learn more about photovoltaic tracking

control systems, read the applications article on page 4a.

(Image courtesy of Sedona Solar Technology)

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IIa www.techbriefs.com Photonics Tech Briefs, September 2012

T raditionally, the recording of ord-nance proofing data has been split

into two main areas: instrumentationand high speed photography. Instru -mentation was more focused on the col-lection of analytical data from variousinstruments, e.g. Doppler radar, yawscreens (for pitch and yaw), and velocitytraps (i.e. skyscreens or acoustic trig-gers), whereas high speed photographywas more concerned with obtaininghigh quality images for later qualitativeanalysis. The photographic images wereobtained using an assortment of highspeed film cameras, often requiring aspecialist photographic team to surveyin, set up and align the camera, illumi-nate the subject, synchronise the camerato the firing system, process the filmrecords and produce the final imagesfor later manual analysis.

From Film to Digital The introduction of the Hadland

Photonics BR553 high-speed ballisticdigital range camera in 1988 marked thebeginning of the demise of high-speedfilm cameras. These early cameras pro-vided almost instant viewing of nearphotographic quality images. Thisallowed ballisticians and engineers tomake changes to development roundswithout having to wait sometimes severalhours for films to be developed. Thedigital imaging systems also facilitatedinstant, on-site, measurement and analy-

sis of ordnance performance. This, inturn, provided significant time savingsthat resulted in much faster firing ratesbeing achieved and more productive useof range time.

The ensuing 25 years have seen theintroduction of many major productswhich have helped revolutionize the wayproofing and experimental ranges oper-ate. Today the two main areas of record-ing ordnance proofing are instrumenta-tion along with digital high speed imag-ing and post-production. Digital imag-ing, with the ability to post-processimages, has now allowed the role, previ-ously the preserve of dedicated photog-raphers, to be fully integrated into theoverall instrumentation suite. Newimage post-production operations,including ballistic/projectile perform-ance, image/data analysis and collation,enable the trial data to be presented,within a very short time-frame, to the

test sponsor/ordnance manufacturer inan accurately integrated format.

Since the introduction of the earlyballistic range cameras, the quality andversatility of these instruments has grad-ually improved with advances in CCDsensor technology and improvements inimage intensifiers (both of which are keyelements in the capture of extremelyshort exposure still images). An exam-ple of a state-of-the-art ballistic rangecamera today is the SIR3 ballistic rangecamera (Figure 1). This new camera iscapable of shutter speeds as short as10ns, resulting in the elimination ofmotion blur in images of objects travel-ling at up to 4000 m/s. Offering 11 mil-lion pixel resolution images, the qualityof results from the SIR3 is fast approach-ing film quality.

Nowadays, while a well-exposed andpresented, sharp-focus picture is appre-ciated by ballisticians, their prime con-cern is the analytical data that can bederived from that image. This includesinformation such as projectile/fragmentvelocity, spin rates, pitch and yaw etc.With this in mind the SIR3 camera wasdeveloped with the unique ability to takea second full-resolution image (within100us) so that analytical measurementstaken from the images could be extend-ed into the time domain without any lossof quality, and without the additionalinvestment of a second camera. Anadded advantage of the second imagefacility is the ability to monitor projectileperformance and integrity further intoits flight path.

High-Speed VideoThe mid 1990s saw the introduction of

high-speed video (HSV) cameras ontothe proofing ranges in place of high-

Digital Imaging Systemsfor Ballistics Testing

Figure 1. Specialised Imaging SIR3 ballistic rangecamera

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speed framing cameras. The new highspeed video cameras were used to look ata multitude of events ranging from firingpin behaviour, barrel flexing, muzzleblast formation, as well as terminal/impact ballistics. Initially terminal andimpact ballistic events were often far toofast for the early HSV cameras, but withmodern HSV cameras capable of exceed-ing 250,000 fps and exposure time of<5μs per frame, the study of these typesof events has become more feasible.

The number of frames that a high-speed video can record offers a range oftest scenarios which cannot be achievedusing a single shot camera. This makesthem ideally suited to record longertime frame events not requiring sub-microsecond triggering accuracy, giventhat they have a post event triggering sys-tem. Using a single-shot high-resolutionstill camera, on the other hand, necessi-tates extremely precise triggering toeven guarantee seeing the subject withinthe field of view!

HSV cameras are very flexible, offer-ing many modes of operation so thatthe subject can be filmed. However,very often compromises have to bemade in order to acquire images at anappropriate exposure and framing rate,which may result in failure to producethe required data from an entire high-speed sequence.

Ultra-high-speed cameras with a limit-ed number of images (such as the SIR3ballistic range camera or the SIM multi-ple framing camera) have the ability tocapture an image or sequence of imagesat exactly the time when it is needed,with extremely high resolution, highframe rate and timing accuracy. Withframe rates of over 330 Mfps and shutterspeeds down to 3ns, these types of cam-era can remove motion blur of projec-tiles or fragments travelling at speeds ofup to 4000m/s.t

Modern HSV cameras have allowedtheir users to broaden the scope of bal-listic testing, and to consider detailedrecording of many aspects of ballisticsthat were recently beyond the realms ofpossibility. Unfortunately, this broaden-ing of requirements sometimes meansthat the capability of the high speedvideo camera is over-stretched, resultingin poor quality and the inability toextract meaningful data from therecorded sequences. An example of thisis where the test engineers want to studya projectile travelling over several meterand yet need at least 10,000fps (100us)to minimise the projectile motion blurto an acceptable level. This field of view

will produce a very small image of theprojectile in each frame of the video andtogether with the residual motion bluradding to the uncertainty of projectileposition and attitude, this will reducethe accuracy/viability of any data thatcan be extracted from the sequence.

This has caused the parallel develop-ment of ideas to further enhance theability of users to extract data from fastballistic events. One example of this isproducing a digital streak camera thatsweeps the image at a constant speedacross a CMOS sensor to produce a long

Photonics Tech Briefs, September 2012 www.techbriefs.com 1a

Double image of a projectile travelling at 800m/s.

Eight sequential images of a detonating explosive charge “overlaid” as a composite onto originalimages of an intact explosive sample. Inter-frame time of 275n-secs. Exposure=25ns

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2a Photonics Tech Briefs, September 2012Free Info at http://info.hotims.com/40437-701

record-time image. This methodologywas known as a SMEAR (ballistic-syn-chro) camera in the days of film. Thefilm was moved across a narrow slit at aspeed that matched the predicted imagevelocity of a projectile as it passed therecording point. The matching of thedirection of film travel past the slit andits velocity to the predicted projectileflight path and velocity enabled a veryhigh resolution image of a fast movingprojectile to be recorded. This methodof recording tended to give a distortedimage of the projectile if the film speedwas not matched to the projectile imagevelocity, and the peripheral components(such as sabots, driving rings, pusherplates, etc.) were also usually distorteddue to their difference in speed fromthe main projectile.

Driven by the limited amount of datathat could be extracted using thismethod - Specialised Imaging intro-duced, in 2006, a Trajectory Tracker sys-tem (Figure 2) that allows a HSV camerato record over a large part of the flightpath, or any portion of the flight paththat is of interest. The TrajectoryTracker employs a triggered scanningmirror that is programmed to scan insynchronism with a passing projectile sothat it relays the image of the subjectinto the HSV camera. Because the mir-ror is programmed to match the velocityof the projectile, motion blur is eliminat-ed, enabling the high-speed camera tonow operate at a much more modestframe rate that only needs to eliminateany vertical movement. Realistic framingrates are typically less than 6000fps - giv-ing far better resolution and sensitivity.

ConclusionHigh speed digital imaging cameras,

which provide high resolution resultsand rapid data analysis, have replacedhigh speed still and film cameras.Modern cameras, such as the SIR3 andSIM, offer much more flexibility andcapability for imaging external and ter-minal ballistics.

The continuous demand for complexand sophisticated data analysis hasresulted in rapid advances in imagingtechnology to give high resolution andbetter quality images.

This article was written by Wai Chan,Managing Director; Keith Taylor, TechnicalDirector; Wayne Smethurst, EngineeringDirector; and Richard Briggs, ApplicationsConsultant; Specialized Imaging Ltd. (Tring,UK). For more information, contact Mr.Chan at [email protected], orvisit http://info.hotims.com/40437-200.

Ballistics Testing

Figure 2. Specialized Imaging Trajectory Tracker

MTF Testing – Multi-Waveband

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T racking systems are included inmore than one-third of new photo-

voltaic developments in Europe, but lessthan 10% in the US. If properly con-trolled, they can capture more energyfrom each panel than fixed racks – up to40% more in most parts of NorthAmerica – so selecting the best hardwareand the right control algorithm is criti-cal to realizing optimum energy produc-tion and reliability.

RequirementsKey requirements for control systems

are cost, reliability, and energy produc-tivity. Energy productivity can be defined

as the number of kilowatt-hours pro-duced by each panel (or each kilowatt ofpanels). Photovoltaic panels carry powerratings – typically 200 watts to 400 wattsper panel – based on standard testingmethods1. Control systems that enableeffective tracking of the sun can pro-duce significantly more energy, as shownin Figure 1.

This article considers flat-plate photo-voltaic arrays, which should be con-trolled to within about 1 degree of theoptimum orientation east-west andnorth-south. Concentrated PV technol-ogy requires much higher precisiontracking.

Hardware for control systems includesprinted circuits, connectors, weather-proof enclosures, and cables – all com-mercial parts or custom componentsmade with common and inexpensivetechnologies. Thus cost considerationsare generally less critical than reliabilityand energy productivity.

For large systems, hardware costs aretypically less than $0.04 per peak watt,compared with $2.00 to $5.00 for all sys-tem costs combined. Systems less than 10kilowatts may have control hardware costsabout $0.10 per watt.

Similarly, control systems for photo-voltaic tracking systems can be held tohigh standards of reliability, becausethey can be protected from extremeweather and generally do not carry highcurrent. Care is taken to use best prac-tices, such as de-rating of components,and sealing of junction boxes againstweather. Cables which are exposed tosunlight must be chosen for life underultraviolet exposure, or shrouded withuv-resistant material.

Types of Mounting SystemsThe primary difference among con-

trol systems is in energy production, andit depends largely on the type of mechan-ical motion. The National RenewableEnergy Laboratory’s PVWatts database2

defines the following array types:Horizontal fixed racks: panels mount-

ed on fixed racks and held horizontal atall times. This type does not track thesun and hence requires no tracking con-trol system.

Tilted fixed racks: panels mounted onfixed racks which are tilted toward thesouth, typically at an angle approximate-ly equal to the latitude of the site. Thisarrangement is typically about 20% moreproductive than fixed horizontal racks,and requires no tracking control system.

Horizontal one-axis tracking systems:panels tracking the sun east-westthrough the day but fixed at a tilt of 0degrees. This arrangement is typically40% more productive than fixed hori-zontal racks, and requires a control sys-tem for the east-west motion.

Tilted one-axis tracking systems: pan-els tilted up toward the south (in thenorthern hemisphere), typically at anangle approximately equal to the lati-

4a www.techbriefs.com Photonics Tech Briefs, September 2012

Applications

Photovoltaic Tracking Control Systems

Applications

Figure 1. Comparison of tracking system impact on energy production.

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tude, and tracking the sun east-westthrough the day. Systems with this con-figuration typically produce about 60%more energy than horizontal fixed racks,and have control requirements the sameas horizontal one-axis tracking systems.

Two-axis tracking systems: panelstrack the sun east-west through the dayand north-south through the seasons,producing typically 70% more energythan horizontal fixed racks (Figure 2).The control system is more complexthan one-axis systems but typically notmuch more expensive.

a. Upright-pole two-axis tracking sys-tems typically pivot in the azimuthdirection, requiring a rotational con-trol moving the panels from east towest through the day and a linear orrotational control adjusting the tilt ofthe panels through the seasons.b. Rail tracking systems use linear con-trols to adjust the orientation of thepanels in both the east-west directionand the north-south direction.

InputsTwo strategies are employed to deter-

mine the position of the sun. The firstemploys sensors and iterative adjust-ment of the array to find the orientationthat produces the maximum power.

This strategy has the advantage of sim-plicity, but can be disrupted by the pres-ence of clouds or other shadows. Oncethe position of the sun is lost, it may notbe found again, and the array canremain poorly oriented.

A second strategy is based on thelocation (latitude and longitude) of thearray and date/time data. Locationdata can be established within a micro-processor at the time of installation,and the microprocessor can include aclock. With these data, and a well-cho-sen solar position algorithm, the micro-processor can determine the positionof the sun, even if it is obscured byclouds or other obstacles. The array

can be positioned accurately regardlessof weather, so when the sun comes outthe array will already be correctly posi-tioned.

Both methods are commonlyemployed, with the latter being general-ly considered more reliable.

An additional input to some con-trollers comes from an anemometer(wind speed sensor). When wind speedexceeds a set limit, the panels may be“stowed” – oriented so as to minimizedrag against the wind and reduce risk ofdamage to the array. The stow positionmay be horizontal in regions with nosnow, or tilted to the south in snowyregions to allow snow to slide off.

Photonics Tech Briefs, September 2012 5a

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Figure 2. Two-axis tracking systems: upright-pole type (left) and rail tracking type (right)

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Applications

OutputsTracking systems may include motors,

actuators, and/or hydraulics. The con-trol system must be configured accord-ingly, typically using encoders.

“Back-tracking”When panels are close together, they

may partially shade each other early and

late in the day. Simple algorithms providefor “back-tracking” – panels are kept at the“noon” position during those hours, sothey continue to produce energy and donot shade each other (Figure 3). This fea-ture reduces total energy produced, typi-cally by 1% to 2%, but allows closer spac-ing of panels which increases the amountof energy produced per unit array area.

Data ManagementTracking control systems typically

gather little information; energy pro-duction is more commonly logged bythe inverters that convert DC power toAC power. Data gathered by the track-ing control system is primarily for eval-uating its function and providingalerts when the system is not workingproperly.

On advanced networked solar track-ing control systems, power and energydata can be logged by the solar trackercontroller. In these systems, the datacan be directly correlated with the track-er movements to verify correct and opti-mum operation.

SelectionEnergy lost due to system down-time

may be many times the energy con-sumed for operation of the tracking sys-tem, and of much more value than thecost of the control hardware. Thus, theprimary considerations for control sys-tem selection are reliability and energyproduction.

Energy production can be accuratelyestimated by analysis of the control sys-tem algorithm together with insolationdata from NREL or another provensource. Reliability can be evaluatedusing data for the hardware compo-nents and analysis of the control algo-rithm to understand potential failuremodes during operation.

SummaryTracking systems can increase energy

production dramatically, reducing thenumber and cost of the panels and othersystem components needed to meet agiven load. Control systems of high reli-ability and low relative cost are availableto optimize the function of tracking sys-tems and minimize the cost per unit ofenergy produced.

This article was written by Matt Kesler,CEO of Sedona Solar Technology (Flagstaff,AZ), with assistance from Mogens Lauritzen,President of Lauritzen, Inc. (MountainView, CA). For more information, contactMr. Kesler at [email protected],Mr. Lauritzen at [email protected], orvisit http://info.hotims.com/40437-201.

References:1. http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/publications/

pdf/fsec-gp-68-01.pdf2. http://www.nrel.gov/rredc/pvwatts/

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8a www.techbriefs.com Photonics Tech Briefs, September 2012

The objective of this work was to devel-op a new class of readout integrated circuit(ROIC) arrays to be operated with Geigeravalanche photodiode (GPD) arrays, by

integrating multiple functions at the pixellevel (smart-pixel or active pixel technolo-gy) in 250-nm CMOS (complementarymetal oxide semiconductor) processes. In

order to pack a maximum of functionswithin a minimum pixel size, the ROICarray is a full, custom application-specificintegrated circuit (ASIC) design using a

ASIC Readout Circuit Architecture for Large GeigerPhotodiode ArraysCommercial applications include 3D imaging, positron emission tomography (PET), laserranging (LADAR), night vision, and surveillance.Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland

The key advantages of this approachinclude the fact that the index of inter-face glass (such as Pb glass n = 1.66)greatly reduces Fresnel losses at thefiber-to-waveguide interface, resulting inlower optical losses. A contiguous struc-ture cannot be misaligned and readilylends itself for use on aircraft or spaceoperation. The epoxy-free, fiber-to-wave-guide interface provides an opticallypure, sealed interface for low-loss, high-power coupling. Proof of concept of thisapproach has included successful attach-ment of the low-melting-temperatureglass to the x–y plane of the crystal, suc-

cessful attachment of the low-melting-temperature glass to the end face of astandard SMF (single-mode fiber), andsuccessful attachment of a wetted low-melting-temperature glass SMF to theend face of a KTP crystal.

There are many photonic compo-nents on the market whose performanceand robustness could benefit from thiscoupling approach once fully devel-oped. It can be used in a variety of fiber-coupled waveguide-based components,such as frequency conversion modules,and amplitude and phase modulators. Arobust, epoxy-free, contiguous optical

interface lends itself to components thatrequire low-loss, high-optical-power han-dling capability, and good performancein adverse environments such as flightor space operation.

This work was done by Shirley McNeil,Philip Battle, and Todd Hawthorne of AdvR,Inc.; and John Lower, Robert Wiley, and BrettClark of 3SAE Technologies, Inc. for GoddardSpace Flight Center. For more information,download the Technical Support Package(free white paper) at www.techbriefs.com/tspunder the Manufacturing & Prototyping cat-egory. GSC-16348-1

Glass Solder Approach for Robust, Low-Loss, Fiber-to-Waveguide Coupling Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland

The General MACOS Interface (GMI)for Modeling and Analysis for ControlledOptical Systems (MACOS) enables theuse of MATLAB as a front-end for JPL’scritical optical modeling package,MACOS. MACOS is JPL’s in-house opti-cal modeling software, which has provento be a superb tool for advanced systemsengineering of optical systems. GMI, cou-pled with MACOS, allows for seamlessinterfacing with modeling tools fromother disciplines to make possible inte-gration of dynamics, structures, and ther-mal models with the addition of controlsystems for deformable optics and otheractuated optics.

This software package is designed as atool for analysts to quickly and easily useMACOS without needing to be anexpert at programming MACOS. Thestrength of MACOS is its ability to inter-face with various modeling/develop-ment platforms, allowing evaluation ofsystem performance with thermal,mechanical, and optical modelingparameter variations. GMI provides animproved means for accessing selectedkey MACOS functionalities. The mainobjective of GMI is to marry the vastmathematical and graphical capabilitiesof MATLAB with the powerful opticalanalysis engine of MACOS, thereby pro-

viding a useful tool to anyone who canprogram in MATLAB. GMI alsoimproves modeling efficiency by elimi-nating the need to write an interfacefunction for each task/project, reducingerror sources, speeding up user/model-ing tasks, and making MACOS well suit-ed for fast prototyping.

This work was done by Norbert Sigrist, ScottA. Basinger, and David C. Redding of Caltechfor NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. For moreinformation, contact [email protected].

This software is available for commerciallicensing. Please contact Daniel Broderick ofthe California Institute of Technology [email protected]. Refer to NPO-48009.

General MACOS Interface for Modeling and Analysis forControlled Optical SystemsNASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California


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What’s On

Vibration Test and Thermal Deformation MonitoringFrom NIWeek 2012: a quick demo of National Instruments’ optical sensorinterrogator — a flexible, modular PXI platform with rapid, secure LabWindows/CVIdevelopment, and static and dynamic tests using a single platform. Designed forportable test and monitoring with optical sensing.

www.techbriefs.com/tv/vibrationtest

Creating a Mars Environment on EarthThe Mars Chamber re-creates the temperatures, pressures, and atmosphere ofthe Martian surface. Scientists and engineers use this refrigerator-size box to testexperiments on the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument suite - a fullyfunctioning chemistry lab aboard the Curiosity Rover.

www.techbriefs.com/tv/marschamber

Lab-on-a-Disk: Faster Medical Diagnostics Sandia National Lab researchers have developed a lab-on-a-disk platform calledSpinDx that they believe will be faster, less expensive, and more versatile thancurrent medical diagnostic tools. The technology can determine a patient's whiteblood cell count, analyze important protein markers, and process up to 64 assaysfrom a single sample — all in a matter of minutes.

www.techbriefs.com/tv/SpinDx

Easy Access to Remote Sensing DataSatNet, an online interface developed at Langley Research Center, connects usersto NASA Earth Observing System (EOS) satellites, providing easy access toinformation that can be used in real-world applications such as disaster mitigationand resource management.

www.techbriefs.com/tv/SatNet

Mercury MESSENGER Spacecraft DetectorLawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) physicist Morgan Burksdescribes the gold-plated detector placed aboard NASA's Mercury MESSENGERspacecraft, designed to provide information about the elements and mineralsfound on the planet closest to the Sun.

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View these and hundreds of other videos at:

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Have a video you would like to submit for Tech Briefs TV?Contact Kendra Smith, managing editor, [email protected].

For marketing opportunities on Tech Briefs TV, contact Joe Pramberger, [email protected].

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mixed-signal CMOS process with com-pact primitive layout cells.

The ROIC array was processed to allowassembly in bump-bonding technologywith photon-counting infrared detectorarrays into 3-D imaging cameras(LADAR). The ROIC architecture wasdesigned to work with either common-anode Si GPD arrays or common-cath-ode InGaAs GPD arrays. The currentROIC pixel design is hardwired prior toprocessing one of the two GPD array con-figurations, and it has the provision toallow soft reconfiguration to either array

(to be implemented into the next ROICarray generation). The ROIC pixel archi-tecture implements the Geiger ava-lanche quenching, bias, reset, and timeto digital conversion (TDC) functions infull-digital design, and uses time domainover-sampling (vernier) to allow hightemporal resolution at low clock rates,increased data yield, and improved uti-lization of the laser beam.

The non-uniformity of the breakdownvoltage over large GPD arrays (a seriousconcern in InGaAs GPD arrays) is partial-ly corrected by a digital-to-analog circuit,

capable of detecting the first breakdownevent at pixel level, storing the break-down voltage bin, and correcting for thebreakdown voltage excursion. The cor-rection is written at the pixel level. It isperformed once at the first power-upand could be repeated any time prior tofield operation after ROIC hard reset.Implementing this feature is critical forlarge and very large GPD arrays, forwhich I/O limitations impose on-dietime binning on multiple pixels.

A pixel-level interface integrated intothe ROIC pixel was developed to workwith the GPD pixel (active quenching orAQC). The AQC interface detects theGeiger pulse, quenches the Geiger ava-lanche, and then resets (drains) thecharge at the GPD-AQC node. TheROIC-GPD array is fully gated — GATEenable generates the START signal forthe pixel-level TDCs and biases the GPDpixel above the breakdown voltage. Thestop event in TDC is driven by the AQCoutput (following the photon detectionregistration) and identifies the timestamp with respect to the system clockgenerating the synchronized GATE(START) signal. The signal is fed throughmultiple taps for fine time sampling(vernier bits) to a synchronized randomcounter. A programmable delay in thetime vernier module allows extending thedynamic range without adding counterbits to the raw range TDC module, but atthe expense of decreased timing resolu-tion. ROIC arrays processed in 250-nmCMOS allowed increasing the count rateof the Geiger arrays (less than 20-nsreset) and reading out the time stamp ofGeiger events detected in each pixel with350-ps timing resolution. Fine time sam-pling is created by using redundant clockphase shifting as a time vernier, thusallowing the pixel to over-sample the timedomain at low clock frequency (200MHz), and thus decreasing the uncer-tainty due to setup time violations andimproving the utilization of the laser puls-es. The programmable delay allows alsosuper-fine timing — in this mode theROIC should be capable of 175-ps timingresolution. The row-column driver, inte-grated with the ROIC array, enables shift-ing sequentially the row data. The imple-mentation into 16×32 or mosaic 32×32pixel ROIC arrays should be scalable tomuch larger ROIC/GPD arrays.

This work was done by Stefan Vasile andJerold Lipson of aPeak Inc. for Goddard SpaceFlight Center. For more information, downloadthe Technical Support Package (free whitepaper) at www.techbriefs.com/tsp under theElectronics/Computers category. GSC-16107-1

10a Photonics Tech Briefs, September 2012

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New ProductsNew ProductsProduct of the Month

Blue Tunable LaserNew Focus™ (Santa Clara, CA) a Newport Corporation Brand, has introduced the Vortex™ Plus Blue

TLB-6802 precision series, single-mode, finely-tunable laser. This is the world’s first precision tunable bluelaser that operates at 461nm, the critical wavelength for next-generation atomic clocks that are currentlybeing built by National Labs and other top research labs worldwide. The blue Vortex Plus replaces com-plex resonant second-harmonic generation, or SHG systems.

The innovative Vortex Plus laser head delivers a narrower linewidth than prior versions. The new fea-ture combines with the same reliable stability (1% over 1 hour) and true continuous-wave, mode-hop-free operation that New Focus’ legacy Vortex II product offers. For added flexibility, an industry-stan-dard SMA port for direct-to-diode, high-speed modulation (useful for precise wavelength locking) isalso included.


Smart CameraThe In-Sight® 7000 smart camera from Cognex Corp. (Natick, MA) features a vision tool library; In-Sight measure-

ment, location, and inspection vision tools; and the EasyBuilder® setup and deployment environment. The smart cam-era provides various model options, all with a tough metal IP67 package. Each includes acquisition speeds of more than100 image captures per second. The device has the capability to power and control specialized lighting directly.

Additional features of the In-Sight 7000 smart camera include CognexConnect™, which offers a range of built-in com-munication protocols that interface directly with the vision system. The compact In-Sight 7000 has built-in Ethernet, RS-232 serial, and multiple discrete I/Os. The system can communicate directly to PLC or robot controllers, or managemultiple smart cameras remotely from a networked PC or HMI.


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New Products

Optical Matrix Switch Polatis (Andover, MA) has intro-

duced its Series 6000 Optical MatrixSwitch — a non-blocking, all-opticalsingle-mode fiber cross-connect forup to 192x192 fiber ports. The switchfeatures less than 1dB typical optical loss. The Series 6000, based on Po-latis’ patented DirectLight® optical switch technology, doubles the max-imum matrix size previously available from Polatis.

The DirectLight® beam-steering technology uses piezoelectric actua-tors to connect light directly between switch ports. The Series 6000switch enhances network availability by enabling fast automatic recoveryfrom network equipment or fiber failures. DirectLight® allows opticalconnections to be established with or without light on the fiber, en-abling pre-provisioning of dark fiber paths for disaster recovery, M:Nprotection switching, and intelligent network monitoring and test. Di-rectLight® supports transparent, protocol-agnostic connections, andcan switch bi-directional and transient signals used in FTTx access net-works and other transmission systems.

The Series 6000 optical switch features a control architecture withdual redundant control interfaces and power systems. Network inter-faces provide support for SNMP, TL1, and SCPI protocols to allow seam-less integration with higher-level management systems. A web browserGUI enables setup, provisioning, monitoring, and control.


DC CablingAmphenol Industrial (Sidney, NY)

has announced an active trunk and dropcabling product, in conjunction withAmpt (Fort Collins, CO), a designer ofactive electronics for photovoltaic (PV)solar modules.

Comprised of one major cable con-ductor with a number of smaller cables connected to a PV panel, thenew assembly allows for up to 40 percent more modules per string, aswell as lower current carrying requirements. Ampt’s integrated ‘smarttechnology’ monitors power generation, ground faults, and fire protec-tion on the assembly.

Integrated into Amphenol’s ModLink junction box, Ampt’s activeelectronics turn the module from a current source into a power source,monitoring power generation conducted down the trunk and dropcable assembly, while providing power monitoring and optimization forsolar panels attached by a wire harness.

The ModLink junction box base has built-in industry standard con-nections that allow a direct connection between panels, using jumpercables available in various standard lengths. The ModLink base acceptsa range of smart modules such as DC/DC converters/optimizers,micro-inverters, or monitoring modules. Optional wireless communica-tion is also provided with each PV module.


Machinable Glass CeramicMACOR® machinable glass ceramic from

Goodfellow Corp. (Oakdale, PA) is machinablewith ordinary metalworking tools rather thandiamond grinding equipment. The rigid, radia-tion-resistant ceramic, which has a maximum-use temperature of 1000°C, has a low thermalconductivity, and can be highly polished. MACOR® machinable glassceramic is available as rods, bars, sheets, and finished components.


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Photonics Tech Briefs, September 2012 13aFree Info at http://info.hotims.com/40437-709


Fiber-Pigtailed LaserCoherent (Santa Clara, CA) has expanded its

OBIS family of plug-and-play smart laser moduleswith a new fiber-pigtailed (FP) option at severalwavelengths, including 405nm, 488nm, and640nm. The OBIS FP lasers are offered with 1

meter of single-mode, polarization-preserving fiber, terminating in astandard FC/APC connector. OBIS FP lasers achieve low noise and out-put stability due to two factors: an output beam with low beam drift tomaintain efficient coupling, and telecom-type architecture and meth-ods, such as laser welding to yield drift-free opto-mechanical coupling.


Digital Laser Diode DriverPortable Power Systems (St. Louis,

MO) has expanded its line of DigitalLaser Diode Drivers by offering the newseries of PPS drivers, which are offered inCW, Pulsed or CW/Pulsed versions. Thepulsed versions have rise times of <10 sec-onds and the CW versions reach maximum current in less than 100 sec-onds. Voltages up to 250 Volts and currents up to 500 Amps are avail-able. All units have EE Prom memory that allows the user to store andrecall up to 16 sets of parameters such as Current, Pulse width, and Fre-quency on pulsed units and Current on CW units. Communicationscan be from the front panel, Analog, RS-232, or USB formats. Faultalerts include Open Load, Over Voltage, Over Current, Laser OverTemperature (optional), Driver Over Temperature, Remote Interlock,Coolant Interlock, and Emergency Stop.


CMOS CamerasBaumer (Southington, CT) has introduced

new HXG cameras that combine CMOS sensortechnology with a dual GigE interface and PoE(Power over Ethernet). Available with 2- and 4-megapixel resolutions, Baumer HXG camerastransfer more than 100 frames/s. Dual GigE

technology allows the cameras to double GigE bandwidth, achieving abandwidth of 240 MB/s. If one GigE line becomes disconnected, thecamera continues to operate on the remaining GigE line without re-quiring a power-down or reset.

The camera supports cable lengths of up to 100 meters. It enableshigh resolutions of up to 2048 x 2048 pixels. A Global Shutter sensorwith Correlated Double Sampling (CDS) provides sharp images andlow readout noise.


Diode Laser BarsDILAS (Mainz, Germany) offers water-cooled

laser diodes for alkali laser pumping at 766nm,780nm, and 852nm on micro-channel heat sinks atCW power levels of 40W, 60W, and 100W, respec-tively. The laser bar geometry has a 1cm bar width,with 19 emitters on a 500μm pitch. Typical powerconversion efficiency is in the range of 56% at rated power for all threewavelengths, as measured at 20C. The diodes are assembled in water-cooled stacks to power scale up to kW levels, according to customer re-quirements. Diode laser stack arrays can also be offered with volumeBragg gratings (with standard or low reflectivity coatings), and withboth optical axes collimated.


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New Products

Silicone Solar CablesRated for voltages up to 42,000 Volts DC, Cicoil’s (Valencia, CA) Silicone Jacketed Solar Power Cables have been

designed to provide absolute reliability in solar panel interconnection and photovoltaic applications. These halo-gen-free cables are flame retardant, highly flexible and perform exceptionally well when exposed to severe cold& heat (-65°C to +260°C).

Cicoil’s exclusive crystal-clear silicone encapsulation is resistant to tearing, and will not deform, break or wearduring a lifetime of more than 10 million cycles, even under tight bending radius and constant flexing conditions.The ultra-durable silicone compound is “self-healing” from small punctures and cable jacket damage can easily berepaired in the field ensuring continued service life. Cicoil’s unique silicone extruded cables do not require ex-

ternal “armor” or conduit for protection, and are unaffected when exposed to UV-radiation, sunlight, ozone, abrasion, salt, coarse sand, submer-sion, acid rain, ice, vibration, shock, humidity, mechanical stress, many chemicals and difficult weather conditions.


Near-Infrared Photon CounterThe id220-FR-SMF from id Quantique

(Carouge, Switzerland) provides a cost-effectivetool for applications that require asynchronousphoton detection. The cooled InGaAs/InPavalanche photodiode and associated elec-tronics achieve low dark count and afterpuls-ing rates in free-running mode. The module operates at two detectionprobability levels of 10% and 20%, with a deadtime that can be set be-tween 600ns and 25ms. Arrival time of photons is reflected by a 100nsTTL pulse available at the SMA connector; the timing resolution is aslow as 250ps at 20% efficiency. A USB interface allows users to set theefficiency level and the deadtime. A standard FC/PC connector fol-lowed by a single mode fiber is provided as optical input.


InGaAs CameraFLIR Systems (Portland, OR) has an-

nounced its SC2600 near infrared (NIR) cam-era. The device features a 640 × 512 InGaAssensor. The SC2600 combines a spectral sensi-tivity range of 0.9-1.7μm and small 25μm pix-els. Other features include independent ana-log and digital (gigabit Ethernet) video outputs, external framesynchronization, video windowing, and independent data streams.


Fiber Optic Connector Cleaning ToolsUS Conec (Hickory, NC) has re-

leased two new fiber optic connectorcleaning tools in the IBC™ family.The Zi series tools feature a 117mm(4.6") housing, and a lanyard at-

taches to the operator’s belt. The IBC™ Brand Cleaner Zi125 toolcleans LC and MU connectors, as well as 2.5mm-based connectors in-cluding the SC, ST, FC, E2000, OptiTap®, MIL 83526 (TFOCA series)and other MIL/AERO connectors.


Debris ShieldsDebris Shields from Optical Surfaces Ltd. (Ken-

ley, Surrey, UK) are specifically designed to protecttarget-facing optics located in high-power laser fa-cilities. The use of debris shields to protect typicallyexpensive final reflective or refractive focusing highpower optics is a well-established technique of ex-tending their lifetime. Working with a range of glasses including BK-7and fused silica, which offer good homogeneity and transmission fromthe UV to the Near-IR, Optical Surfaces Ltd. is able to supply customerspecified debris shields of virtually any shape and thickness. Debrisshields can be produced up to 600mm in diameter with typical wavefronterror of lambda/10 and surface finish of 40/20-10/5.


Facial Recognition Video TechnologyHood Technology (Hood River, OR) offers

new facial recognition capability, utilizing sta-bilized airborne video imagery in small, tacti-cal unmanned aerial vehicles (Small-UAVs).The company’s Alticam 09 EO+ payload ex-

tends EO optical zoom to 160X, and delivers a standard-definition hor-izontal field of view of 0.3 degrees. The 3.5-kg imagers are stabilized inHoodTech’s proprietary 4-axis gyro-stabilized gimbal design.


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