The Journal of Correctional Education 57(3) • September 2006

Narrative as a Teaching Strategy

Susan E. Butcher

Abstract

Research shows that those who are incarcerated, as a whole, have come from difpcult

past environments. This leads to having a different way of learning than most others

who have had successful educational experiences. Because of this, my research project

focused on exploring storytelling/narrative, as a teaching strategy, and how it

Influences adult learning in a correctional facility. Three methods of research were used.

As the first method, a formal literature review was prepared to obtain background

information on storytelling, including past history and current use. Second, Wisconsin

Department of Corrections professionals were interviewed to explore their teaching

strategies and use of storytelling with offenders. The final element was a personal

observation Journal, in analyzing the data given, three themes emerged. These

induded connection between teacher and student, validation of student experience and

student perspective. Connection between teacher and student was seen in the

relationship between student and teacher in the classroom. Validation of student

experience was shown in developing empathy for self and others and being abie to see

how past behavior infiuences present circumstances. Student perspective included

learning to broaden and challenge the student's current perspective, issues related to

changing thinking patterns, and approaches that involve reflection.

Introduction

'In other words, by now almost nothing that happens benefits storyteliing;

almost everything benefits information. Actually, It is half the art of

storytelling to keep a story free from expianation as one reproduces i t . . .

The most extraordinary things, marveious things, are related with the

greatest accuracy, but the psychological connection of events is not forced

on the reader. It is ieft up to him to interpret things the way he

understands them, and thus the narrative achieves an ampiitude that

information lacks.

Walter Benjamin

Illuminations (p 89)

195

The Journal of Correctional Education 57(3) • September 2006

Narrative as a Teaching Strategy Butcher

The aspiration and purpose to carry out this project on narrative began because ofpersonal use of narrative with students within the Department of Corrections,it seemed important to employ new strategies to teach life skills, different ways ofcoping with life situations, and problem-solving. It was aiso of utmost importanceto assist students in appiying the skiiis they were learning into practicai daily life.Based on prior research on the power of narrative in adult learning,- storyteilingshowed to be a valuable teaching method in portraying daiiy life situations andhow to deal with them. The objective was to provide information of the possiblebenefits of narrative, as a teaching strategy, specifically within the WisconsinDepartment of Corrections. The goai was to examine this subject and make ciearconnections to Department of Corrections educators, that by implementing a newstrategy of storytelling into the present curricuium, it wouid assist in developing alarger scope of influence in student Ieaming. Hence, students may be betterequipped to deai with daily life and problem solving.

It was discussed with other staff, inciuding teachers, sociai workers andparole agents, whether they used narrative as a teaching method with studentsand ciients. The majority said they did use narrative, in one way or another. Afew thought about using this approach, but were not sure about its vaiue.Severai feit it took too long to apply narrative into their teaching situations.However, those who did take the time to use narrative found it an extremelyvaluable tool.

ContextThe learners were incarcerated young men, ages 17-40. They were chargedwith a first felony drug offense. Most have reading ieveis from the 1 st gradeievel through the 9th grade. When periodicaiiy questioned about whether theywere read stories by their parents when younger, there was a resounding 'no'.Some students had chiidren and stated they wouid love to be able to read totheir chiidren. During class times, when stories were read to them and followedby group discussions about the story, the characters, what was said, and howthe story appiied to their iives, students stated they ioved it and were able todiscuss new ways of iooking at life.

There are 19 adult correctional facilities in the State of Wisconsin and sixyouth facilities and programs. Fifteen of the nineteen adult facilities are medium orminimum security, in Wisconsin, it has been experienced that the Department ofCorrections is committed to the education of offenders. There appears to beopenness to new ideas and an open door to deveiop fresh, innovative andcreative ways to present education and use new teaching strategies.

196

The Journal of Correctional Education 57(3)«September 2006Butcher Narrative as a Teaching Strategy

Research goals were to expand Icnowledge of the use of narrative as ateaching strategy in literaq/ curricuium, within the Wisconsin Department ofCorrections.

77ie Importance and Role of NarrativeSchoiars agree that storyteiiing creates a iearning situation. It aiiows our mindsto thini< outside the box of our own experiences and to deveiop creative waysto problem-soive. it also aiiows us to identify with the theme and character ofthe story and to see their way of thinking. Through this process, one s ownerrors in thinking tend to be realized. A number of professionals have linkedstoryteiiing as being reievant to iearning, aduit education and the incarceratedpopuiation.

Sample

The research sample was taken from teachers, sociai workers, parole agentsand other professional staff, felt to be in a position to use storyteiiing as ateaching method, within the Wisconsin Department of Corrections. The samplesize was ten participants.

EthicsThe participants were all adults and willing to participate, as voiunteers, in thisresearch project and formai signed informal consent was obtained.

Research iVIethodologyThe three elements used to evaiuate how narrative/storyteiiing, as a teachingstrategy, Infiuences aduit iearning in a correctionai facility were: formaiiiterature review, interviews with other practitioner's in the fieid of Corrections,and a personai observation journai.

Research FindingsFormal Uterature reviewThe first method of data gathering was research. Research was done in thefoiiowing areas: experts in the educational fieid; those who were activeiyinvolved using narrative/storyteiiing within correctionai faciiities; theorists and;the theory of constructivism. Three themes were identified: definition ofnarrative, social and personai effects of narrative, and infiuencing seif-efficacy.

197

The Journal of Correctional Education 57(3) • September 2006Narrative as a Teaching Strategy Butcher

Definition of Narrative - Scholarship

Jerome Brunner states in his book Makmg Stories (2002) states that 'storiesimpose a structure, a compeiiing reaiity on what we experience, even aphiiosophicai stance' (p 89). He aiso states that 'we should not write off thispower of story to shape everyday experience as simpiy another error in ourhuman effort to make sense of the worid, though cognitive scientists aresometimes won't to do this' (p 8).

Steve Denning in his articie, 'What is a Story? What is narrative meaning?Definitions" (http://www.stevedenning/com/What_story/htmi) defines narrativeas having meaning and its connections, linking human actions and event intomuiti-reiated events, dispiaying the significance that events have on oneanother.

Wendy Eiiyatt, in her articie 'Action Guide: Storyteiiing and the Power ofNarrative" (2002) states it that storyteiiing/narrative is usuaiiy combined withhuman actions or events that affect human beings. The meaning of each eventis produced by the part it plays in the whoie episode'.

Ciandinin and Conneiiy state in their book Narrative Inquiry (2000) thatnarrative becomes a way of understanding experience. With narrative as ourvantage point we have a point of reference, a iife and a ground to stand on forimagining what experience is. Experience is the stories people live. Peopie iivestories and in the telling of these stories reaffirm them, modify them and createnew ones. Stories iived and toid educate the self and others, inciuding theyoung, (p xxvi).

S. Falter, states the foiiowing:

Think of stories as the ciothesiine of your mind. You stub your toe.You teii yourseif a poor me' story and hang it on the ciothesiine next tothe fender bender that week and that broken nose in 10th grade. You havethese myth ciothesiines for reiationships, work and money. A great deai ofcurrent work is being done in psychoiogy on personai narrative - thestories we teii ourselves. If you have a healthy personai narrative, then youhave a better chance of having a better attitude about iife.(Story Maven, p 2)

R. Ganzei (1999) in his articie Teiiing Stories' states:

....Stories heip us make sense of the worid and give structure and order toour everyday iives. They teii us what is important, and what is not, and

198

The Joumai of Correctional Education 57(3) * September 2006Butcher Narrative as a Teaching Strategy

give us a way to connect people's individual experiences to those ofothers, as weii as to universal truths. Indeed, stories are yet another waywe put a human face on the worid, which is something we have aiwaysneeded and vaiued, whether we admit it or not" (p 36),

Walter Fisher, in his book Human Communication as Narrative (1987),discusses this subject. In summary of his thoughts and ideas he definesnarrative as not merely fictionai stories, but any verbal or nonverbai accountthat has a sequence of events to which iisteners assign meaning. He beiievesthere are five aspects of narrative. First, the story is a taie of vaiues. Second,these values are appropriate for the moral of the story and decisions made bythe characters. Third, the values are perceived to have positive resuits in theiives of people. Fourth, the vaiue is consistent with one's own experience.Finally, the value/s are part of an ideal vision for human conduct. Stories areuniversal, thereby narrative is iiberating and empowering.

It was said that narrative and life go together and that the principalattraction of narrative is its capacity to render iife experiences, both social andpersonal, in relevant and meaningfui Ways, Livo and Rietz, in their bookStorytelling. Process and Practice (1986) state that

, , , storytelling connects the disconnections of human experience andgives something whole and meaningfui to it. Storytelling is a vehicie forbinding one together with the past, present and future , , , inside stories wecan accept pain, find justice and experience eiation , , , It connects thedisconnections of human experience and gives something whoie andmeaningfui to i t , , , We join others emotionaiiy and inteiiectuaiiy anddeveiop a sense of rightness and beionging . , . Stories also offer us insightand understanding into ourselves" (p 5),

They aiso stated, "the abiiity to put seif, personai experiences, and personaiinformation into "story" may be criticai to psychoiogicai weii-being" (p 6), Aduitswho do not see the importance of storying their lives are peopie who have lostthe ability to story their experiences - to see themseives in a more universaiperspective and to invest their doings with a greater sensibility and coherence.Such individuals require 'restorying" in order to bring their sense of seif, placeand time Into better baiance (p 6),

Several scholars worked or taught with those who are incarcerated. Fox(2001) stated that peopie learn from the world and she believes that storytelling

199

The Journal of Correctional Education 57(3) • September 2006

Narrative as a Teaching Strategy Butcher

is powerful and has tremendous educational benefits. Lamb (2003) states thatthe telling and writing of stories aiiows the discovery of the intertwined powerof the written word and the power that resides within the individual. Glasgow(1994) states, according to Brookfield s learning theory, a non-threatening,meaningful and sensitive iearning environment needs to be created for peopleto learn, and stories create this type of atmosphere. The Write One Speaker sBureau (2004) states that storyteiiing is an unsurpassed tool for learning aboutourselves and about the thoughts and feelings of others. Hopwood (1999),states that all stories contain truth and being able to understand one's self andothers, why one did something and what affects it has on the whole person,can be seen through stories. When one is abie to process this information andassess it, there is a greater chance of not repeating mistakes. This, in turn,affects a person's seif-esteem.

Hopwood (1999) states on the back of his book, Free with Words, 'Prisondoes not have to be simpiy a place to deposit criminals. It can also be afoundation for prisoners' future lives . . . and writers show how exploration ofthe written and spoken word can provide a gateway to change". He beiievesthat traditional tales abound with people on the edge of the law, sometimeswith both feet over the iine (p 65). He gives the example of Jack and theBeanstalk, which features a seriai burglar and murderer as a hero. He statesthat many of the heroes of folk tale and legend are criminals; even more areunderdogs who rise up to beat the system. This theme appeals to those whoare incarcerated, whose world is a microcosm of the empowered and thepowerless. As he stated, 'stories give us hope" (p 76). Storytelling is truly withoutboundaries, it excludes no one. He says that one does not have to be educatedto be able to read or write or to join in. In the prison work of boredom, routine,and repetition, stories offer an adventure into the imagination, the opportunityto forget where one is, and a chance to iaugh and piay (p 77). He goes on tosay that through story we iearn about other people, other piaces and times, butcrucially we learn lessons about being human. Story enriches and complimentsour own experience. Story teaches us about the opportunities, theconsequences of action, the alternatives and the choices in life. Story makes uscomplete as human beings (p 77). His philosophy is that if we can makestorytelling a part of our lives and the way we iook at the world, we can learnreflection, how to reinvent ourseives, how to rehearse new futures. Our ownlives are rich with stories and are unique. Not only this, but it deveiops ouriistening and teiiing skiiis. We gain insight into other's lives as we share stories

200

The Joumai of Correctional Education 57(3)»September 2006Butcher Narrative as a Teaching Strategy

and communicate. His belief is that stories can change the world; not all ontheir own perhaps, and not all at once. But most certainly they can change lives(pBI).

Wally Lamb (2003), in his book Couldti't Keep It To Myself talks about thecontributors of the book. He says, 'each contributor whose work you will readhas discovered the intertwined power of the written word and the power thatresides within her" (p 16). He talks about how the women's writing anddemeanor changed over time. He says that through writing their personalstories, they experienced a sense of release. They were able to deal with theirlives with reality. They were emotionally released from past trauma and hurt.

Theorists

Bronfenbrenner's (1977) theory is important in the role of narrative becausemany of those who are incarcerated have experienced severe breakdowns intheir environments. Telling stories reaches down into a person's life in areasthat may not have ever been touched and may give them a different view oftheir life circumstances. He believes if one is to grow and change, it isimperative that one begin to understand where they have been and howcircumstances have affected them In the present.

Bruner (2002) states that all of life is a story. Stories help us put the piecesof our experiences together.

Erikson's (1950) stresses how human behaviors and traits have evolved overtime as a person adapts to their environment. This Is important because of howone develops over time, and behaviors shown in the past (or in role models)affects one's outlook on life and problem-solving in the future.Gardner (FratnesofMitid, 19B3) called his technique the 'mutual storytellingtechnique' (Pellowski, p 121). During a therapy session, the child is asked to tell astory with a beginning a middle and an end. The stories are tape recorded andplayed back. The playback is the important section. The therapist reiterates thestory, using the same theme, but concluding with a lesson or moral attached.

The theory of constructivism teaches that learning is mental and involveslanguage. One does not leam Isolated facts and theories separate from one's livesand experiences. People leam in relationship to what they know, what theybelieve, their fears and prejudices. Stories can open new doors of thinking. Storiescan help people relate past experiences with present ones. Stories can prepare forfuture events in our lives. Stories can lead to 'deep thinking" and how to apply andprocess new information about oneself. Stories open many doors.

201

The Journal of Correctional Education 57(3) • September 2006

Narrative as a Teaching Strategy Butcher

Interviews

The second method of data gathering was interviews. A series of eight

questions were asiced. The interviews were evaiuated on the three common

themes found in each question.

in anaiyzing the data given in the interviews, three themes emerged. They

were:

Connection between teacher and student

Vaiidates of student experience

Student perspective

Connection between teacher and studentThe interviewees stated that using stories is a better way to convey their pointor the meaning of what they are trying to teach. They stated that stories afforda more interesting way of getting students information and stories aiiow theteacher to have something to taik about with the student.

They aiso made the foiiowing statements:

Stories aiso show students that we aii have simiiar iife experiences.Stories promote growth and trust between teacher and student, buiiding

rapport.Stories are an exceiient group dynamic, bringing people together.it was aiso stated that stories i<eep the ciassroom iiveiy for the teacher -when there is iaughter, then the students are engaged in iearning.Stories aiso expose students to iiterature and teach vocabuiary.

There are severai important factors in mailing connections. Connectionsbetween teacher and student bond the two together. It maizes teaching fun.Storyteiiing is not the ordinary way of teaching and it provides another dimensionto what the teacher is trying to have the students understand. It can also be astrong tooi to help the student understand the information being presented.

Sometimes the connection is broken between teacher and student becausethere is a failure to read the audience or using stories in the wrong setting with thewrong peopie. Storyteiiing also takes a iot of time and it may be perceived as beingweak because it does not foiiow the curricuium or the standard way of teaching.

Some of the statements made were that storyteiiing takes the students outof a traditionai form of teaching. Stories make iearning more fun and often getthe students more motivated. They aiso get excited about iearning and practicai

202

The Journal of Correctional Education 57(3) • September 2006Butcher Narrative as a Teaching Strategy

applications. It was stated that storytelling is an extremely effective teaching

strategy if the teachers know what they are doing.

Validates Student Experience

The interviewees stated that:

Stories give students a voice and aiiow expression. They allow the studentto act out the story with voices and faces, creating an ownership of the story.Stories are beneficial in relation to what is going on in their lives.

Stories validate student s experiences, particularly in aduit education.Stories aiiow students to take ownership of their behavior, actions andthoughts. The use of stories aiiows change and growth to occur. Storyteiiingaiso aiiows students to be creative and see that creativity has no iimits.

Stories often times have 'gray areas'. Students tend to think everything iseither black or white. The gray areas can be discussed to assist the student toconsider different aiternatives to probiems and situations. Telling personalstories heips students look at life and problems objectively. Stories also aiiowthe student to see that emotions are not good or bad and this allows them totry to look at a situation/llfe/experience objectiveiy and out of the reaim ofwhat Is going on around them.

Students may be reiuctant to open up about past experiences because ofpast treatment by others. They may aiso be fearfui of what the teacher may dowith the information they reveal. There may be problems in writing about thestory because the student has iiteracy, speiiing and vocabuiary problems. Thiscan be very disconcerting to a person who has failed these areas in the past,because of poor educational experiences.

Repetition is an excellent tool for student iearning. One participant saidthat repetition is needed to help students see things from another perspective -to see from the outside and not from the inside, and what the consequencesare. Stories can do that. Stories can make students curious about something,and if they are curious, they may do follow-up on it.

Student Perspective

The interviewees also stated the following about student perspective:Stories aiiow for development of criticai thinking. Stories heip build moraldeveiopment and enhance verbal communication. Stories aiso enhanceinterpersonal communication. Stories aiiow the student to iook at iife from differentangies. Stories engage the mind and aiiow for development of criticai thinking.

One participant summed it up this way: 'Stories allow the student to look

203

The Journal of Correctionai Education 57(3) • September 2006

Narrative as a Teaching Strategy Butcher

at a problem differently. Stories offer a chance for the student to see how thingscouid have been better or worse. Stories offer no right or wrong answers.Stories offer an opportunity to look at a way of processing things, so whensimiiar situations offer themseives, they wiii be able to process it in a betterfashion. Stories provide a down-to-earth method of teaching iessons whichmight be foreign to the student.'

The use of storyteliing aiiows teachers to hear what is going on in theirstudents' lives and it aiso allows the students to look at situations from anotherperspective. It exposes students to different worlds. Stories activate backgroundknowiedge and because of this, students are more iikeiy to process informationand better remember it. Stories make situations real. They may invoke emotion,which is proven to heip people better learn and retain information.

Stories make learning fun. They help students put themseives in someoneeise's shoes and assist them to see solutions and aiternatives where pastthinking patterns offered no aiternatives. Aiso, stories are iess abstract and canbe very powerfui for iooking at problems from other viewpoints. Stories aboutothers show how others were abie to overcome barriers and eventuaiiysucceed, and they promote critical thinking. Even though it might bechaiienging, stories promote thinking 'outside of the box' which is anenormous factor in the iearning process.

Students must be ready for what comes up in discussions and be able toprocess information. Students may have difficuities processing information andmay have the inabiiity to expand their minds and their iearning. Also, studentsmay be unable to see what is right in front of them and not see the hiddenmessage of the story - they may focus on the wrong thing. There also needs tobe a wiiiingness to iearn.

Stories can help students apply concepts to their lives. It is important forstudents to see things from a different perspective. They may then be able tosee that their behavior and actions had an impact they did not see before.Stories aiiow students to reach inside of themseives, iet their hair down and bekids. There are often implicit morais to stories. Stories expose students todifferent ideas and vaiues.

One participant summarized aii the comments made, as foiiows: 'Idefiniteiy beiieve storyteiiing is a vaiuable teaching strategy because it heipsstudents in appiying concepts to their iives. Storyteiiing aiso takes the studentsout of a traditionai form of teaching. Many of my students did not succeed inthe pubiic schooi system and have been turned off by traditionai teachingmethods. They aiso are quite adept at tuning out authority figures who are

204

The Joumai of Correctional Education 57(3) • September 2006Butcher Narrative as a Teaching Strategy

tiying to teach or guide them. Storytelling is more interesting and less boring to

my students. It definitely piques their interest.'

Personal JoumaiThere was a common thread of lessons learned over a three month period ofjournaling. These included observations of student and observations of theinstructor.

Observations of students

In analyzing the data, several themes became apparent. The first theme wasthat the students needed to take time to bond and build trust with each otherbefore opening up. Once this was achieved, rapport was built, and In factcontinued to build throughout the six week sessions. Social skills improved,such as listening, being respectful of someone else's ideas, and how to relate toothers. The students also came to realize that although a story may not applyto their lives at the moment, what they were learning from the story might helpthem in the future.

The next theme observed was that the students were able to acknowledgethat they needed others to help them along in life, and that with another's help,they would be able to persevere through life and not give up. They felt theywould be able to better face future challenges and not be afraid to tackle anarea of life they had not experienced in the past.

The students also began to see how important the role of self-talk playedin their lives.

They began to encourage each other and challenge each other's thinking.Finally, each student's writing skills improved over the six week time period.

Observations of instructor

Several themes presented themselves. The first theme was a realization thatknowledge of the student's background was necessary. Thought must be givento the students' background and whether they are ready to begin dealing withissues that may be new for them.

Lessons were learned that the instructor's view and vision was limited onwhat the student's could and wouid learn. There was more change observed inthe students than anticipated. For example, the students learned social skillsfrom storytelling. It was also observed how deeply the students were able tothink, once they put their minds to it.

Another observation was how much encouragement plays a role in

205

The Journal of Correctional Education 57(3) • September 2006

Narrative as a Teaching Strategy Butcher

helping the students work through those thinking patterns that are difficult for

them. It was surprising to see the results of what simple words of

encouragement can bring to a person's life.

Finally, it was iearned how to deveiop curriculum that is based on the

students in each given class and not just not a blanket curricuium for each

story. Being flexible played a big role. Lessons were learned in how to iet the

class times flow and see what happened and where the discussion went.

Conclusion

Storytelling validates student experience, particuiariy in aduit education. Stories arebeneficial in reiation to what is going on in the students' iives. They allow studentsto take ownership of their behavior, actions and thoughts. Stories allow changeand growth. Stories often times have "gray areas'. The gray areas can be discussedto assist the student to consider different alternatives to problems and situations.Also, repetition is an exceiient tool for student learning.

Stories can change a student's perspective. There are often Impiicit moraisto stories. They are iess abstract and can be very powerful at looking atproblems from other viewpoints. Even though it might be challenging, storiespromote thinking 'outside of the box', which is an enormous factor In theiearning process. Stories aiiow for deveiopment of criticai thinking. Stories mayhelp buiid moral development and enhance verbal communication. Stories mayaiso enhance interpersonal communication. They expose students to differentworlds. They can make situations real. They may invoke emotion, which isproven by students in heiping a person learn and retain information better.Stories may also help students apply concepts to their iives. Stories can makeiearning fun - aiiowing students to reach inside of themselves, let their hairdown and be kids.

Inquiry into the effectiveness of storytelling, in adult learning within theDepartment of Corrections, appears to show that it is a creative and vaiuabieteaching strategy. The main lesson learned in this research project is thatstorytelling is a vaiuabie method of teaching others about life, whether childrenor adults, lt enhances discovery of self and others.

As a parting thought to ponder and consider: Psstt There's nothing in this iifethat isn't a story.

ReferencesAllison Cox-Resources. Booi<s about therapeutic storyteliitig. Retrieved June 12, 2004, from

http.//www.dancingleaves.com/allison/resources/storytelling_blbliography/therapeutic_st

206

The Joumai of Correctional Education 57(3) • September 2006Butcher Narrative as a Teaching Strategy

Author. (Year). Platining programs to break down cultural barrier. Retrieved July 24, 2004, from(http://fycs-diversity.ifas.ufl.edu/diversity%20website/unit2.pfd).

Author. (Year). Urie Bronfenbrenner. Ecological theory. Retrieved August 28, 2004, fromhttp://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/302/302bron.PDF.

Author. (Year). WordNet Dictionary. Retrieved July 6, 2004, fromhttp://www.cogsci.princeton.edu/cgi/webwn2.0?=2&word=storyteller&posnumber=1&searchtypenumber=2&senses=&showglosses=1.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations ofttiougtit and action: A social cognitive ttieory.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Benjamin, W. (1968). Illuminations. New York: Schocken Books. Retrieved June 8, 2004,from http://www.abbedon.com/philo/narrative.html

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1981). Ecology of tiuman development: experiments by nature and design(Reprint edition). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press

Brookfield, S. (1986). Understanding and facilitating adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Brunner, J. (1973). Going beyond the information given. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UniversityPress.

Brunner, J. (1997). Vie culture of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Brunner, J. (1997). The process of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Brunner, J. (2002). Making stories. New York: Farrar, Straus and Ciroux

Qandlnin, D., Connelly, E (2000). Nanative inquiry. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Connelly, R Michael, Clandinin D. Jean (1990). Stories of experience and narrative inquiry.Educational Researcher 79(5) (Jun.-Jul., 1990), 2-14. Retrieved July 27, 2004, fromhttp://www.jstororg

Denning, S. (2002). What is a story? What is nan-ative meaning? Definitions. Retrieved July 6,2004, from http:www.stevendenning.com/VVhat_story.html

Ellyatt, W. (2002). Stories as a way of making sense ofthe world. Retrieved July 6, 2004, fromhttp://www.pathsoflearning/org/library/storytelling/cfm

Erikson, Erik H. (1950). Childhood and Society. New York, W.W. Norton e Company, Inc.

Falter, S. (Year). Story maven. Mom 8 dad as storytellers. Retrieved June 6, 2004, fromhttp://www.sharianne.com/storymaven/familystories.htm

Fisher, W.R. (1987). Human communication as nan-ative: Toward a philosophy of reason, value,and action. Columbia, S.C: University of Carolina Press.

Fox, M. (2001). Reading magic: Why reading aloud to our children will change their lives forever.New York, NY: Harcourt, Inc.

Canzel, R. (1999) Telling Stories. Retrieved on June 6, 2004, from Presentations (May, 1999,www.Presentations.com)

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames qf Mind. New York: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (1995). Leading minds. New York: Basic Books.

207

The Joumai of Correctional Education 57(3) • September 2006

Narrative as a Teaching Strategy Butcher

Glasgow, J. (1994). Accommodating learning styles in prison writing classes. Journal ofReading, 38(3). International Reading Association.

Hopwood, C(Ed.). (1999). Free with words. Writers in prison. Manchester, England: Bar None

Books.

Klein, G. (1998). The sources of power: How people make decisions. Thousand Oaks, CA: SagePublications.

Kouzes, J. and Posner, B. (2003). Encouraging the heart: A leaders guide to rewarding andrecognizing others. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass

Kritzberg, N. I. (1966). A new verbal projective test for the expansion of the projectiveaspects of the clinical interview. Ada Paedopsychiatrica, 33(2), 48-62.

Lamb, W. (2003). Couldn't keep it to myself New York: HaperCoIIins Publishers

Livo, N., Rietz, S. (1986). Storytelling: Process and practice. Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited, Inc.

Martin, J. and Powers, M. (1983). Organization stories: More vivid and persuasive thanquantitative data. In B.M. Staw (ed.). Psychological Foundations of OrganizationalBehavior (2nded.). Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman Publishers.

National Storytelling Association (2004). Storytelling: Definition and purpose. Retrieved onJuly 7, 2004, from http://falcom.jmu/edu/~ramseyil/storydefinition/htm.

Paquette, D., Ryan J. (2001). Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory. Retrieved July 18,

2004, from http://pt3.nl.edu/paquetteryanwebquest.pdf

Pellowski, A. (1977). The world of storytelling. New York: R.R. Bowker Company.

Pellowski, A. (1990). The world of storytelling: A practical guide to the origins, development andapplications of storytelling (Revised Edition). Bronx, NY: The H.W. Wilson Company

Toulmin, Stephen. (1990). Cosmopolis: The hidden agenda of modernity. New York: The Free

Press, a Division of Macmillan, Inc.

Webster, N. (1913). Webster's 1913 dictionary: Revised unabridged dictionary. Springfield, MA:

C.a G. Merriam Company.

Willingham, D. (2004). Ask the cognitive scientist: The privileged status of story. Retrieved onSeptember 25, 2004, from http://www.aft.org/pubsreports/american_educator/issues/summer04/cogsci.htm

Write On Speaker's Bureau. (Year). Teaching Storytelling. Retrieved June 8, 2004, fromhttp://www.writeonspeakers.com/resources/htm

World Book Encyclopedia. (1976). Chicago: World Book. Inc.

Zipes, J. (1995). Creative storytelling: Building community, changing lives. New York: Routledge.

Biographical SketchSUSAN BUTCHER earned her Master's Degree in Adult Education from Alverno College inDecember, 2002. She is a prison educator and guidance counselor at the MilwaukeeSecure Detention Facility. In the past, her work has included working with troubled teensand adults, both in education and counseling. She is also a part-time instructor at AlvernoCollege.

208