The Napoleonic Wars and Brazilian Independence By Dale Pappas By 1807, many of Europe s monarchs had waged war on Revolutionary, and later Napol eonic France. Several ancient and prominent royal families, including the Hapsb urgs and the Hohenzollerns, had experienced the humiliation of defeat that resul ted from these conflicts against skilled French forces. Often times, Napoleon h imself, at the head of his victorious armies, entered Europe s capitals and sat on the very thrones occupied for centuries by those royal families. However, one c apital that Napoleon had not taken was London, although it had long been an aim of the French emperor s to decisively defeat France s traditional foe. Britain and France had waged war on one another frequently, vying for valuable colonial poss essions in order to establish powerful empires. The Treaty of Paris, which conc luded the Seven Years War in 1763, gave Britain much of France s overseas territory . In the years that followed, France anxiously awaited an opportunity to weaken the British Empire, and experienced moderate success in the American War of Inde pendence. The major chance to deliver a blow to British prestige came with the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars, which largely became a struggle between Britain and France for superiority. Eager to defeat the British, Napoleon explored seve ral bold invasion attempts. The invasion schemes though were thwarted while stil l in development, which led Napoleon to wage economic war on his principle rival by implementing the Continental System. The Continental System aimed to block British goods from entering other European ports, which would strengthen France s control of the continent. Napoleon s contin ental blockade was extended following his victories in 1806 and 1807, leaving on ly Sweden and Portugal out of his reach.[1] Napoleon planned to cut Britain off from its loyal ally, Portugal, by ordering the ruling Braganza family to accept the Continental System, or be deposed. He decided to invade Portugal along with his ally Spain, led by the ambitious prime minister, Manuel de Godoy. Napoleon agreed to partition Portugal between himself, Godoy, and the King of Etruria (T uscany).[2] An ultimatum was sent to the Portuguese ordering the closure of all ports to British goods by 1 September 1807 or else Lisbon would be seized and t he Braganzas deposed. With little hope of defeating a French invasion, Portugue se ministers, including Antonio de Arajo, considered the relocation of the monarc hy to the colony of Brazil the best possible option. The Prince Regent, the fut ure Dom Joo VI of Portugal consented, and the royal family and nearly 10000 other s boarded ships for their mysterious possession, Brazil. The decision to transf er the monarchy crushed the remnants of one of Europe s oldest empires, but gave b irth to a new power across the Atlantic. Portugal and Dom Joo VI By the late 18th century, the influence of the Portuguese Empire had declined si gnificantly. Although Portugal still possessed valuable colonies, including Bra zil, the once formidable Iberian kingdom was dependent on Great Britain. The Br itish were not only valuable to Portugal economically, but their powerful milita ry also provided protection from neighboring Spain. Portugal had been allied to Britain in several 18th century conflicts, including the First Coalition agains t Revolutionary France. By 1797 though, France had begun to pressure the Portug uese to break their alliance with Britain. However, with British backing, the P ortuguese refused to accept France s demands. When Napoleon was made First Consul , he encouraged Spain to attack Portugal, their traditional enemy. In 1801, Spa nish troops led by Manuel de Godoy invaded Portugal and seized several border to wns in what became known as the War of the Oranges. In addition to territorial lo ss, Portugal was forced to close its ports to British goods until peace was made in 1803 and trade between the two resumed. However, it would not be the last t ime Portugal was threatened by France and Spain.

The Portuguese kingdom at the outbreak of the French Revolution was ruled by Que en Maria I. Unfortunately, the executions of the French king, Louis XVI and Mar ie Antoinette terrified Queen Maria to the point where she lost her mind. The m entally ill queen was replaced by her son, the Prince of Brazil Dom Joo, who rule d Portugal as Prince Regent from 1792. Joo was largely considered a disappointme nt within his family compared to his older brother, who died before he could asc end the throne. As a result, the throne passed to Joo, who contrary to popular b elief at the time, was capable of managing his kingdom. The Prince Regent was a ffable, intelligent, and good-natured, which was a pleasant surprise to foreign diplomats. Despite being overweight, Joo was an avid hunter and sportsmen until he suffered a leg injury. His wife, the diminutive and devious Spanish princess , Carlota Joaquina shared his love of sport, but nothing else. She was cold tow ard her husband and for the most part, their children, with the exception of Dom Miguel.[3] The ill-tempered Carlota Joaquina often considered deposing her hus band with Spanish aid, especially while in Brazil. In addition to hunting, Dom Joo enjoyed visiting the palace and monastery at Mafr a, outside Lisbon. He enjoyed the monks company as well as church music. Althou gh he was content in partaking in religious ceremonies, Joo was destined to lead his kingdom in a difficult period in its history. Portugal s troubles at this tim e started with the outbreak of the French Revolution, and the onset of Queen Mar ia s illness. Dom Joo faced a dangerous situation, as he attempted to avoid war wi th aggressive Napoleonic France. Pressure from both France and Spain resulted i n a policy of neutrality during the early years of the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleo n accepted Portuguese neutrality for several years, until he implemented the Con tinental System in 1806. Portugal refused to turn against Britain, which led Na poleon to sign the treaty of San Ildefonso with Spain. The agreement effectivel y partitioned Portugal once it fell to an invading French army. Shortly after, French and Spanish officials presented an ultimatum to Portugal, which called fo r the closure of Portuguese ports to British goods, something Dom Joo refused to accept. The French Invasion and the Flight of the Royal Family 1807 Portugal s opposition to the Continental System led Napoleon to order an invasion. General Androche Junot, the former French ambassador to Portugal, was dispatch ed to seize Lisbon and the Braganzas. Meanwhile, Portuguese ministers arranged for British aid to transfer the royal family to Brazil, and therefore save the k ingdom. Dom Joo did not wish to end up like the lesser royal families of areas o f Italy and Germany, who had lost their thrones for their opposition to Napoleon . The transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil was unprecedented as no monarch had ever visited the Americas, let alone established their capital there. The Braganzas arrival in Brazil marked a new era in Portuguese, Brazilian, and indeed Latin American history as a whole. The court s transfer was also difficult. The Braganzas arranged to bring nearly ev erything but Queluz palace with them to Brazil. Remarkably many of their posses sions, as well as over 10000 people, successfully boarded the ships and departed Lisbon before the arrival of the French. The entire royal family managed to es cape before Junot s arrival and thus were spared the humiliation of defeat at the hands of Napoleon. The successful escape infuriated Napoleon, who was not used to monarchs defying his commands. He later remarked that Joo was the only one who ever tricked me. [4] Just hours after the royal family s departure on 29 November 1807, the French army arrived in Lisbon. Junot took control of the government and announced the end of Braganza rule in Portugal. Unfortunately for the Frenchman, most Portuguese were opposed to his government and were pleased when British troops arrived to d rive the French from Portugal. Unfortunately for the Portuguese, their country became the scene of a ferocious conflict between Britain and France. In the end

, Britain held off several French invasions of Portugal. The British and the Po rtuguese parliament effectively ruled in place of Dom Joo until the royal family s return in 1821, but their Portuguese subjects would no longer welcome them. Colonial Brazil Although discovered in 1500, Brazil was not firmly under Portuguese authority un til the late 1600s. In the early years following its discovery, the Portuguese showed little interest in developing their new American possession due to the ex istence of profitable colonies in Asia and Africa. Some Portuguese though began to obtain the valuable brazilwood from the territory, hence the name Brazil.[5] However, these early Portuguese settlers found that they were not the only Eur opeans interested in brazilwood as the French had also arrived in the region. F rance s presence in Brazil led the Portuguese crown to take notice of their posses sion. In response, Portugal authorized several expeditions to explore and settle the vast expanse of land. In the 1520s and early 1530s, expeditions led by Mar tim Afonso de Sousa established settlements such as So Vicente and Piratininga (So Paulo). Following the establishment of settlements, the Portuguese crown creat ed hereditary captaincies to govern the colony. However, these captaincies largely failed with the exception of two, So Vicente a nd Pernambuco. Their success was due in large part to sugar cane and the indigen ous slave trade. The system s overall failure led to the formation of a central g overnment, under a governor-general. The first man appointed to the position, T om de Sousa, established the capital at Salvador da Bahia, in northeastern Brazil . In the 17th century, Brazil was divided into two states, and two others were soon created. All four states were incorporated into the Viceroyalty of Brazil in 1763. By the 18th century, Portugal had recognized that Brazil was rich in natural res ources, most importantly gold. Gold had been discovered early in the century in an inland area that became known as Minas Gerais, or General Mines. The overwh elming success of gold production led to a population boom in Minas. In respons e, the capital of the viceroyalty was moved to Rio de Janeiro to be closer to Mi nas Gerais and offer an outlet to the sea.[6] The Portuguese benefited immensel y from this gold, which made Brazil the new jewel of the empire. Origins of Brazilian Independence: Inconfidncia Mineira 1789-1792 and the Revolut ion in Bahia 1798 The successful revolution against Great Britain and the establishment of an Amer ican republic in the 1780s was unlike anything the modern world had yet seen. L ess than a decade later, revolutionary fervor that had engulfed British North Am erica arrived in Europe through the French Revolution. Many European monarchs h ad quietly supported the American Revolution because it weakened the British Emp ire. However, the revolution in France was too close for comfort for the monarc hs of the ancin regime. A coalition of nations, including Portugal was formed to defeat Revolutionary France. Queen Maria was one of many that were alarmed at the outbreak of the French Revo lution. In addition to the onset of her insanity, the revolution also led the q ueen s government to crack down on liberal institutions. She believed that her Po rtuguese subjects would depose her and destroy the kingdom. The queen s fear of a revolt was realized; however it was some of her Brazilian subjects that were res ponsible. Gold production had declined by the late 18th century, which led to economic tro ubles for the population of Minas Gerais. The people of the region, known as Mi neiros, were also plagued by heavy taxes in the gold mining area. Mineiros who mined diamonds, which were also present in the region, faced greater difficultie

s from the local administration. The top official, known as the Intendente dos Diamantes exercised complete authority over the mining industry in the region, w hich led many to despise the administration. Several wealthy young Mineiros, who had been educated abroad, embraced the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment as we ll as the American Revolution and planned to revolt against the harsh Portuguese administration. One man, Jos Joaquim da Maia was inspired to rebel against Portu gal upon his meeting American revolutionary Thomas Jefferson in Paris. Although Maia died before returning to Brazil, there were others who shared his passion t o free his homeland from Portugal. The members of the conspiracy against Portuguese rule were inspired by French ph ilosophers and the American Revolution. They planned to revolt once the governm ent announced its plan to collect taxes and create a Brazilian republic, not unl ike the young United States. The leader of what became known as the Inconfidncia Mineira was Jos da Silva Xavier, commonly known as Tiradentes or Tooth-puller beca use he briefly practiced dentistry.[7] Tiradentes, bearing a copy of the United States Constitution, traveled throughout Minas Gerais and even to Rio, to gain support for the movement.[8] Unfortunately for members of the conspiracy, the l ocal administration was quickly alerted and rounded up those involved, including Tiradentes. The leader s trial dragged on for two years, until he was finally co nvicted in Rio. The Portuguese, eager to send a message to the restless Brazili ans, decided on a brutal fate for leader of the conspiracy. While the others we re banished, Tiradentes received death by hanging. On 21 April 1792, Tiradentes was led to the gallows in Rio, and later his body was quartered.[9] Parts of h is mutilated body were publicly displayed throughout Brazil, as a stern reminder of Portuguese authority. However, instead of discouraging another revolt, Tira dentes execution inspired future movements and made him a martyr and early symbol of Brazilian independence. In 1798, another revolt broke out in Salvador da Bahia. Unlike the Inconfidncia M ineira, in which wealthy, educated men led the movement, the Bahia revolt involv ed the lower class and slaves.[10] The revolt, which had the potential to devel op into a mass movement throughout the northeast, was quickly suppressed and the leaders were executed. Although these revolts were crushed, they clearly show that many Brazilians, especially Mineiros, much like their cousins in British No rth America had outgrown the rule of the mother country. Although this revoluti onary sentiment was neutralized during the royal family s stay, it had not been co mpletely eradicated. The Braganzas in Brazil 1808-1821 The Atlantic crossing took roughly three months, and the royal family arrived in Salvador da Bahia on 22 January 1808.[11] Several days later, Joo opened Brazil ian ports to friendly nations, mainly Great Britain, ending the mercantilist sys tem that the Portuguese had instituted. Dom Joo introduced another favorable mea sure the following month, when the Portuguese court traveled to Rio de Janeiro. The city replaced Lisbon as the capital of the Portuguese empire. Portugal was quickly becoming a Brazilian colony. Dom Joo set out to transform Rio into a true capital, one that would rival any in Europe. During his years in Brazil, medical, military, and art schools were es tablished. In addition, a bank was chartered, a new opera house was built, and a museum was founded. Also, the Royal Printing Press was established. Prior to this all books had to be shipped from Portugal. Newspapers also appeared throug hout the royal family s stay, including the Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro.[12] Papers helped to keep the public informed on the war across the Atlantic and other news from Europe. Other periodicals and journals gradually appeared, including O Pa triota, edited by Manuel Ferreira de Arajo Guimares, which praised Dom Joo s efforts in Brazil.[13] Trade flourished and manufacturing was permitted after a decree that prohibited it was revoked. The Braganzas arrival also led to a population i

ncrease. Rio s population in 1808 numbered around 60000. By 1818, the city s popul ation had swelled to 130000.[14] Although Rio and indeed the rest of Brazil ben efited from the royal family s presence, all was not well. Dom Joo had taken an immediate liking to life in Brazil, however his wife had not . It was no secret that Carlota Joaquina despised her husband and her new life a cross the Atlantic. Despite the cultural reforms, she still viewed Brazilian so ciety as primitive and longed to return to Europe. If she could not return to E urope though, Carlota Joaquina had an alternative; she would establish her own k ingdom from Spanish territory with Buenos Aires as the capital. The idea was su pported by British Admiral Sir Sidney Smith, who was in Brazil directing a campa ign against French Guiana.[15] Her nephew, Don Pedro Carlos was also considered as a possible ruler of Spanish territory in South America. However, the plan ne ver materialized and Carlota Joaquina remained unhappily in Brazil. Family quarrels were only the beginning of Dom Joo s troubles. Political upheaval in both Brazil and Portugal threatened Braganza rule. Tension both in Europe an d America stemmed from the royal family s absolute power, as many called for a con stitutional monarchy. In Brazil, a secret organization was formed in 1814, whic h resurrected the idea of a republic. The revolt that followed originated in Pe rnambuco and gained the support of different classes and the clergy. The uprisi ng quickly spread throughout the northeast.[16] However, after a brief fight, t he leaders were executed and the revolt was suppressed. Meanwhile, in Portugal liberals were opposed to Dom Joo s policies in Brazil. Many Portuguese felt that they had been neglected by the Prince Regent as many of hi s measures favored Brazil. The Portuguese were aware of the enormous growth of t he Brazilian economy, notably in Rio. The emergence of Rio as a productive and i mpressive capital upset many Portuguese, who felt that Dom Joo had forsaken his h omeland. They were further angered when Brazil was elevated to the status of ki ngdom in 1815. The measure permitted the election of Brazilians to the Portugues e Parliament, known as the Cortes. However, the fact that the former colony was now equal in status to the ancient Portuguese kingdom was too much for the Port uguese to bear. As a result, The Portuguese in the Cortes were hostile toward th e Brazilian representatives, which caused tension between the two kingdoms. The royal family s troubles continued following the end of the Napoleonic Wars, when the Portuguese demanded their return. In addition, Portuguese liberals demanded the creation of a constitutional monarchy. Joo, the new King of Portugal Brazil and the Algarve hesitated to return to Portugal until he learned of the outbrea k of the Liberal Revolution of 1820, which originated in the city of Porto. Revolutionaries in Brazil also attempted to get their own constitutional reforms . A National Convention met under the leadership of Luiz Duprat, which attempte d to introduce a radical constitution. However, the movement was crushed when t he young prince and heir to the Portuguese throne, Dom Pedro ordered the convent ion building stormed and Duprat jailed.[17] By the spring of 1821, tension in b oth Brazil and Portugal forced the King to act. He reluctantly decided to retur n to Portugal, leaving Dom Pedro in Brazil. It would be the last time King Joo w ould see the country that he had come to love. Dom Pedro and Independence 1821-1822 The man that would play a key role in obtaining Brazilian independence, and who would consequently become emperor was Dom Pedro. The young crown prince was onl y nine when he left Portugal in 1807, so he had grown up like his other siblings in Brazil. Dom Pedro largely did what he pleased as a child, as he was not for merly educated. He came to regret his lack of formal schooling at the end of hi s life and made sure that his children, including the future Dom Pedro II were r igorously instructed.

In his teen years, Dom Pedro was a handsome, daring young man who was known for his affairs with the wives of prominent officials. Although most of his romanti c adventures were kept quiet, one threatened to undermine the royal family s honor . Pedro s affair with the young French ballerina, Nomi Thierry was the talk of Rio s coffeehouses. Despite the commotion, Dom Joo s court ignored the rumors until it w as found that Thierry was pregnant. While this event was unfolding, Joo was in t he process of arranging a marriage for Pedro to a European princess.[18] He fea red that if news of Pedro s latest affair crossed the Atlantic, powerful royal fam ilies, notably the Hapsburgs, would decline the offer. Pedro was persuaded to e nd his relationship with the French ballerina, although it was quite costly for the kingdom as Thierry received a large sum of money. In May of 1817, Pedro was married by proxy to Leopoldina of the House of Hapsburg. Pedro briefly halted his romantic escapades to become acquainted with his new wi fe and to deal with the political troubles of both Portugal and Brazil. King Joo was unable to exercise any authority in Portugal, as the liberals held power in the Cortes. The Cortes was extremely hostile towards Brazil, and even returned its status to that of a colony. This was a measure that Brazilians, including Pedro could not accept. In the summer of 1821, Portuguese troops, known as the Legion took power in Rio under their commander General Jorge de Avilez. The Por tuguese government ordered Pedro to return to Portugal, but the crown prince def ied the command on what became known as the Dia do Fico, meaning, I will remain. [1 9] The Legion was not pleased by Pedro s answer to the government. If the crown prin ce would not go to Lisbon on his own, he would be sent there by force. In Janua ry of 1822, General de Avilez dispatched his troops to seize Pedro and send him to Portugal. Meanwhile, Pedro prepared a force of his own to confront the Portu guese troops. The two armies met outside of Rio, but neither side wished to att ack the other. After a brief but tense standoff, de Avilez withdrew his men to their fortifications, with Pedro in pursuit. Dom Pedro surrounded de Avilez and ordered his troops to return to Portugal. Over the next few weeks, Pedro organ ized his forces and called up supporters from throughout Brazil. With cannons b earing down on the Portuguese fortifications, Pedro demanded the Legion s surrende r and their return to Portugal. Although the Legion was a far better force than Pedro s army, de Avilez feared attacking his crown prince. Eventually, de Avilez capitulated after Pedro declared that the Legion would be slaughtered if they r efused to accept his terms.[20] Following the Legion s surrender, Pedro focused on creating a stable government. He was aided by the brilliant professor and poet, Dr. Jos Bonafcio de Andrada e Si lva, who headed the new government. Bonafcio, as a Grand Master, rallied support from fellow Freemasons for complete independence from Portugal. Meanwhile, Ped ro traveled throughout Brazil as Perpetual Defender, gathering support from the pe ople, who cheered him everywhere he visited. While on his tour, Pedro was met b y a messenger who informed the crown prince that the Portuguese government was o pposed to an independent Brazil and that troops would be sent to restore order. A furious Pedro tore off the Portuguese insignia from his uniform and ordered h is guards to do the same. He drew his sword and called for complete separation from Portugal in his Cry of Ipiranga, by the blood that flows in my veins and upo n my honour, I swear to God to free Brazil! [21] Shortly after, Pedro was crowned emperor in Rio. In 1824, a national constitution was introduced, solidifying th e government as a constitutional monarchy under Dom Pedro. That same year, thei r northern neighbor, the United States, became the first nation to recognize the Brazilian Empire. Portugal and Great Britain followed the United States in rec ognizing Brazil s sovereignty in 1825.[22] In less than twenty years, Brazil had been transformed from profitable Portuguese colony to a separate empire. While one empire in Lisbon crumbled, another was on the rise in Rio. Bibliography

Armitage, John. The History of Brazil. London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1836. Calgeras, Joo Pandi. A History of Brazil, Translated and Edited by Percy Alvin Mart in. New York: Russell and Russell, 1963. Fausto, Boris. A Concise History of Brazil, Translated by Arthur Brakel. New Yo rk: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Grab, Alexander. Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2003. Harvey, Robert. Liberators: Latin America s Struggle for Independence. New York: Overlook, 2000. Levine, Robert M. The History of Brazil. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2003. Macaulay, Neill. Dom Pedro: The Struggle for Liberty in Brazil and Portugal, 17 98-1834. Durham: Duke University Press, 1986. Marques, Antonio Henrique de Oliveira. History of Portugal Vol.1. New York: Col umbia University Press, 1976. Schultz, Kirsten. Tropical Versailles: Empire, Monarchy, and the Portuguese Roy al Court in Rio de Janeiro, 1808-1821. New York: Routledge, 2001. Notes: [1] Harvey, Robert. Liberators. New York: Overlook, 2000. Pg. 469. [2] Grab, Alexander. Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe. New York: Palg rave MacMillan, 2003. Pg. 147. [3] Macaulay, Neill. Dom Pedro. Durham: Duke University Press, 1986. Pgs. 8-9. [4] Harvey, Robert. Liberators. New York: Overlook, 2000. Pg. 469. [5] Fausto, Boris. A Concise History of Brazil, Translated by Arthur Brakel. Ne w York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pg. 9. [6] Calgeras, Joo Pandi. A History of Brazil, Translated and Edited by Percy Alvin Martin. New York: Russell and Russell, 1963. Pg. 15. [7] Marques, Antonio Henrique de Oliveira. History of Portugal Vol.1. New York: Columbia University Press, 1976. Pg. 453. [8] Calgeras, Joo Pandi. A History of Brazil, Translated and Edited by Percy Alvin Martin. New York: Russell and Russell, 1963. Pg. 45. [9] Fausto, Boris. A Concise History of Brazil, Translated by Arthur Brakel. N ew York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pg. 62. [10] Marques, Antonio Henrique de Oliveira. History of Portugal Vol.1. New York: Columbia University Press, 1976. Pg. 453 [11] Macaulay, Neill. Dom Pedro. Durham: Duke University Press, 1986. Pg. 23. [12] Schultz, Kirsten. Tropical Versailles. -72. New York: Routledge, 2001. Pgs. 71

[13] Schultz, Kirsten. Tropical Versailles. New York: Routledge, 2001. Pg. 84. [14] Marques, Antonio Henrique de Oliveira. History of Portugal Vol.1. New York : Columbia University Press, 1976. Pg. 453. [15] Macaulay, Neill. Dom Pedro. Durham: Duke University Press, 1986. Pg. 31. [16] Armitage, John. The History of Brazil. London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1836 . Pg. 18. [17] Harvey, Robert. Liberators. New York: Overlook, 2000. Pg. 477. [18] Macaulay, Neill. Dom Pedro. Durham: Duke University Press, 1986. Pg. 53. [19] Calgeras, Joo Pandi. A History of Brazil, Translated and Edited by Percy Alvi n Martin. New York: Russell and Russell, 1963. Pg. 76. [20] Harvey, Robert. Liberators. New York: Overlook, 2000. Pg. 480. [21] Harvey, Robert. Liberators. New York: Overlook, 2000. Pg. 482. [22] Levine, Robert M. The History of Brazil. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 20 03. Pg. 60.

Placed on the Napoleon Series: May 2009