Nanking Massacre 1

Nanking Massacre"Rape of Nanking" redirects here. For Iris Chang's book, see The Rape of Nanking (book). "Nankin Jiken"redirects here. For the 1927 Nankin Jiken, see Nanjing Incident.

Nanking / Nanjing MassacreRape of Nanking

Massacre victims on the shore of the Yangtze River with a Japanese soldier standing nearby

Chinese name

Traditional Chinese 南 京 大 屠 殺Simplified Chinese 南 京 大 屠 杀

Transcriptions

Mandarin

- Hanyu Pinyin Nánjīng Dàtúshā

Japanese name

Kanji 1. 南 京 大 虐 殺

2. 南 京 事 件

Transcriptions

- Traditional Hepburn 1. NankinDaigyakusatsu2. Nankin Jiken

Nanking Massacre 2

Nanking Massacre

Battle of Nanking (1937)

Nanking Safety ZoneInternational Committee for Nanking Safety Zone

Japanese war crimes

Contest to kill 100 people using a swordInternational Military Tribunal for the Far East Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal

Historiography of the Nanking Massacre

Nanking Massacre denialNanjing Massacre Memorial Hall

Japanese history textbook controversies

Films

The Battle of ChinaBlack Sun: The Nanking Massacre

City of Life and DeathDon't Cry, NankingThe Flowers of War

John RabeNanking

Tokyo TrialThe Truth about Nanjing

Books

American Goddess at the Rape of NankingThe Good Man of Nanking

The Rape of NankingTokyo

The Nanking Massacre or Nanjing Massacre, also known as the Rape of Nanking, was a mass murder and warrape that occurred during the six-week period following the Japanese capture of the city of Nanking (Nanjing), theformer capital of the Republic of China, on December 13, 1937 during the Second Sino-Japanese War. During thisperiod, hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed soldiers were murdered by soldiers of the ImperialJapanese Army.[1][2] Widespread rape and looting also occurred.[3][4] Historians and witnesses have estimated that250,000 to 300,000 people were killed.[5] Several of the key perpetrators of the atrocities, at the time labelled as warcrimes, were later tried and found guilty at the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal, and were subsequently executed.Another key perpetrator, Prince Asaka, a member of the Imperial Family, escaped prosecution by having earlier beengranted immunity by the Allies.The event remains a contentious political issue, as various aspects of it have been disputed by some historicalrevisionists and Japanese nationalists,[2] who have claimed that the massacre has been either exaggerated or whollyfabricated for propaganda purposes. As a result of the nationalist efforts to deny or rationalize the war crimes, thecontroversy surrounding the massacre remains a stumbling block in Sino-Japanese relations, as well as Japaneserelations with other Asia-Pacific nations such as South Korea and the Philippines.An accurate estimation of the death toll in the massacre has not been achieved because most of the Japanese military records on the killings were deliberately destroyed or kept secret shortly after the surrender of Japan in 1945. The International Military Tribunal of the Far East estimates more than 200,000 casualties in the incident;[6] China's official estimate is about 300,000 casualties, based on the evaluation of the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal. Estimates from Japanese historians vary widely, in the vicinity of 40,000–200,000. Some historical revisionists even deny that a widespread, systematic massacre occurred at all, claiming that any deaths were either justified militarily, accidental

Nanking Massacre 3

or isolated incidents of unauthorized atrocities. These revisionists claim that the characterization of the incident as alarge-scale, systematic massacre was fabricated for the purpose of political propaganda.[7][8]

Although the Japanese government has admitted to the acts of killing of a large number of noncombatants, lootingand other violence committed by the Imperial Japanese Army after the fall of Nanking,[9][10] a small but vocalminority within both the Japanese government and society have argued that the death toll was military in nature andthat no such crimes ever occurred. Denial of the massacre (and a divergent array of revisionist accounts of thekillings) has become a staple of Japanese nationalism.[11] In Japan, public opinion of the massacres varies, and fewdeny the occurrence of the massacre outright.[11] Nonetheless, recurring attempts by negationists to promote arevisionist history of the incident have created controversy that periodically reverberates in the international media,particularly in China, South Korea, and other East Asian nations.[12]

Military situationIn August 1937, the Japanese army invaded Shanghai where they met strong resistance and suffered heavycasualties. The battle was bloody as both sides faced attrition in urban hand-to-hand combat. By mid-November theJapanese had captured Shanghai with the help of naval bombardment. The General Staff Headquarters in Tokyoinitially decided not to expand the war due to heavy casualties and low morale of the troops. However, on December1, headquarters ordered the Central China Area Army and the 10th Army to capture Nanking, then-capital of theRepublic of China.

Relocation of the capitalAfter losing the Battle of Shanghai, Chiang Kai-shek knew that the fall of Nanking would simply be a matter oftime. He and his staff realized that they could not risk the annihilation of their elite troops in a symbolic but hopelessdefense of the capital. In order to preserve the army for future battles, most of them were withdrawn. Chiang'sstrategy was to follow the suggestion of his German advisers to draw the Japanese army deep into China utilizingChina's vast territory as a defensive strength. Chiang planned to fight a protracted war of attrition by wearing downthe Japanese in the hinterland of China.[13]

Leaving General Tang Shengzhi in charge of the city for the Battle of Nanking, Chiang and many of his advisorsflew to Wuhan, where they stayed until it was attacked in 1938.

Strategy for the defense of NankingIn a press release to foreign reporters, Tang Shengzhi announced the city would not surrender and would fight to thedeath. Tang gathered about 100,000 soldiers, largely untrained, including Chinese troops who had participated in theBattle of Shanghai. To prevent civilians from fleeing the city, he ordered troops to guard the port, as instructed byChiang Kai-shek. The defense force blocked roads, destroyed boats, and burnt nearby villages, preventingwidespread evacuation.The Chinese government left for relocation on December 1, and the president left on December 7, leaving the fate ofNanking to an International Committee led by John Rabe.The defense plan fell apart quickly. Those defending the city encountered Chinese troops fleeing from previousdefeats such as the Battle of Shanghai, running from the advancing Japanese army. This did nothing to help themorale of the defenders, many of whom were killed during the defense of the city and subsequent Japaneseoccupation.

Nanking Massacre 4

Approach of the Imperial Japanese Army

Japanese war crimes on the march to Nanking

An article on the "Contest to kill 100 peopleusing a sword" published in the Tokyo Nichi

Nichi Shimbun. The headline reads, "'IncredibleRecord' (in the Contest to Cut Down 100 People)—Mukai 106 – 105 Noda—Both 2nd Lieutenants

Go Into Extra Innings".[14]

Sword used in the "contest" ondisplay at the Republic of China

Armed Forces Museum in Taipei,Taiwan

Although the Nanking Massacre is generally described as havingoccurred over a six-week period after the fall of Nanking, the crimescommitted by the Japanese army were not limited to that period. Manyatrocities were reported to have been committed as the Japanese armyadvanced from Shanghai to Nanking.According to one Japanese journalist embedded with Imperial forces atthe time, "The reason that the [10th Army] is advancing to Nankingquite rapidly is due to the tacit consent among the officers and men thatthey could loot and rape as they wish."[15]

Novelist Ishikawa Tatsuzo vividly described how the 16th Division ofthe Shanghai Expeditionary Force committed atrocities on the marchbetween Shanghai and Nanking in his novel Ikiteiru Heitai (LivingSoldiers), which was based on interviews that Tatsuzo conducted withtroops in Nanking in January 1938.[16]

Perhaps the most notorious atrocity was a killing contest between twoJapanese officers as reported in the Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun and theEnglish language Japan Advertiser. The contest was covered much likea sporting event with regular updates on the score over a series ofdays.[17][18] In Japan, the veracity of the newspaper article about thecontest was the subject of ferocious debate for several decades startingin 1967.[19]

In 2000, a historian concurred with certain Japanese scholars who hadargued that the contest was a concocted story, with the collusion of thesoldiers themselves for the purpose of raising the national fightingspirit.[20] In 2005, a Tokyo district judge dismissed a suit by thefamilies of the lieutenants, stating that "the lieutenants admitted thefact that they raced to kill 100 people" and that the story cannot beproven to be clearly false.[21] The judge also ruled against the civilclaim of the plaintiffs because the original article was more than 60years old.[22] The historicity of the event remains disputed in Japan.[23]

Flight of Chinese civilians

As the Japanese army drew closer to Nanking, Chinese civilians fled the city in droves. The people of Nanking fledin panic not only because of the dangers of the anticipated battle but also because they feared the deprivationinherent in the scorched earth strategy that the Chinese troops were implementing in the area surrounding the city.

On July 31, the Kuomintang (KMT) had issued a statement that they were determined to turn every Chinese nationaland every piece of their soil into ash, rather than turn them over to the opponent. The Nanking garrison force set fireto buildings and houses in the areas close to Xiakuan to the north as well as in the environs of the eastern andsouthern city gates. Targets within and outside of the city walls—such as military barracks, private homes, theChinese Ministry of Communication, forests and even entire villages—were burnt to cinders, at an estimated valueof 20 to 30 million (1937) US dollars.[24][25][26]

Nanking Massacre 5

Establishment of the Nanking Safety ZoneMany Westerners were living in the city at that time, conducting trade or on missionary trips. As the Japanese armyapproached Nanking, most of them fled the city, leaving 27 foreigners. Five of these were journalists who remainedin the city a few days after it was captured, leaving the city on December 16. Fifteen of the remaining 22 foreignersformed a committee, called the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone in the western quarter of thecity.[27] German businessman John Rabe was elected as its leader, in part because of his status as a member of theNazi Party and the existence of the German-Japanese bilateral Anti-Comintern Pact.The Japanese government had previously agreed not to attack parts of the city that did not contain Chinese militaryforces, and the members of the Committee managed to persuade the Chinese government to move their troops out ofthe area.On December 1, 1937, Nanking Mayor Ma Chao-chun ordered all Chinese citizens remaining in Nanking to moveinto the “Safety Zone”. Many fled the city on December 7, and the International Committee took over as the de factogovernment of Nanking.

Prince Asaka appointed as commander

Prince Yasuhiko Asaka in 1940

Head of a Chinese man beheaded by Japanese iswedged in a barricade near Nanking just before

the fall of the city.[28]

In a memorandum for the palace rolls, Hirohito had singled PrinceAsaka Yasuhiko out for censure as the one imperial kinsman whoseattitude was "not good." He assigned Asaka to Nanking as anopportunity to make amends.[29]

On December 5, Asaka left Tokyo by plane and arrived at the frontthree days later. Asaka met with division commanders,lieutenant-generals Kesago Nakajima and Heisuke Yanagawa, whoinformed him that the Japanese troops had almost completelysurrounded 300,000 Chinese troops in the vicinity of Nanking and thatpreliminary negotiations suggested that the Chinese were ready tosurrender.[30]

Prince Asaka allegedly issued an order to "kill all captives," thusproviding official sanction for the crimes which took place during andafter the battle.[31] Some authors record that Prince Asaka signed theorder for Japanese soldiers in Nanking to "kill all captives"[32] Othersclaim that lieutenant colonel Isamu Chō, Asaka's aide-de-camp, sentthis order under the Prince's sign manual without the Prince'sknowledge or assent.[33] However, even if Chō took the initiative onhis own, Prince Asaka, who was nominally the officer in charge, gaveno orders to stop the carnage. When General Matsui arrived in the cityfour days after the massacre had begun, he issued strict orders thatresulted in the eventual end of the massacre.

While the extent of Prince Asaka's responsibility for the massacreremains a matter of debate, the ultimate sanction for the massacre andthe crimes committed during the invasion of China were issued inEmperor Hirohito's ratification of the Japanese army's proposition toremove the constraints of international law on the treatment of Chineseprisoners on August 5, 1937.[34]

Nanking Massacre 6

Battle of Nanking

Siege of the cityThe Japanese military continued to move forward, breaching the last lines of Chinese resistance, and arriving outsidethe walled city of Nanking on December 9.

Demand for surrenderAt noon on December 9, the military dropped leaflets into the city, urging the surrender of Nanking within 24 hours,promising annihilation if refused.[35][36]

Meanwhile, members of the Committee contacted Tang and suggested a plan for three-day cease-fire, during whichthe Chinese troops could withdraw without fighting while the Japanese troops would stay in their present position.General Tang agreed with this proposal if the International Committee could acquire permission of GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shek, who had already fled to Hankow to which he had temporarily shifted the military headquarters twodays earlier.John Rabe boarded the U.S. gunboat Panay on December 9 and sent two telegrams, one to Chiang Kai-shek by wayof the American ambassador in Hankow, and one to the Japanese military authority in Shanghai. The next day hewas informed that Chiang Kai-shek, who had ordered that Nanking be defended "to the last man," had refused toaccept the proposal.

Assault and capture of Nanking

Iwane Matsui enters Nanking

The Japanese awaited an answer to their demand for surrender but noresponse was received from the Chinese by the deadline on December10. General Matsui Iwane waited another hour before issuing thecommand to take Nanking by force. The Japanese army mounted itsassault on the Nanking walls from multiple directions; the SEF’s 16thDivision attacked three gates on the eastern side, the 6th Division ofthe 10A launched its offensive on the western walls, and the SEF’s 9thDivision advanced into the area in-between.[13]

On December 12, under heavy artillery fire and aerial bombardment,General Tang Sheng-chi ordered his men to retreat. What followed wasnothing short of chaos. Some Chinese soldiers stripped civilians of their clothing in a desperate attempt to blend in,and many others were shot by the Chinese supervisory unit as they tried to flee.[24]

On 13 December, the 6th and the 116th Divisions of the Japanese Army were the first to enter the city, facing littlemilitary resistance. Simultaneously, the 9th Division entered nearby Guanghua Gate, and the 16th Division enteredthe Zhongshan and Taiping gates. That same afternoon, two small Japanese Navy fleets arrived on both sides of theYangtze River.

Nanking Massacre 7

Pursuit and mopping-up operations

Soldiers from the Imperial Japanese Army enterNanking in January 1938

Japanese troops pursued the retreating Chinese army units, primarily inthe Xiakuan area to the north of the city walls and around the ZijinMountain in the east. Although most sources suggest that the finalphase of the battle consisted of a one-sided slaughter of Chinese troopsby the Japanese, some Japanese historians maintain that the remainingChinese military still posed a serious threat to the Japanese. PrinceYasuhiko Asaka told a war correspondent later that he was in a veryperilous position when his headquarters was ambushed by Chineseforces that were in the midst of fleeing from Nanking east of the city.On the other side of the city, the 11th Company of the 45th Regimentencountered some 20,000 Chinese soldiers who were making their way

from Xiakuan.[13]

The Japanese army conducted its mopping-up operation both inside and outside the Nanking Safety Zone. Since thearea outside the safety zone had been almost completely evacuated, the mopping-up effort was concentrated in thesafety zone. The safety zone, an area of 3.85 square kilometres, was literally packed with the remaining populationof Nanking. The Japanese army leadership assigned sections of the safety zone to some units to separate allegedplain-clothed soldiers from the civilians.[13]

MassacreEyewitness accounts of Westerners and Chinese present at Nanking in the weeks after the fall of the city state thatover the course of six weeks following the fall of Nanking, Japanese troops engaged in rape, murder, theft, arson,and other war crimes. Some of these accounts came from foreigners who opted to stay behind in order to protectChinese civilians from harm, including the diaries of John Rabe and American Minnie Vautrin. Other accountsinclude first-person testimonies of Nanking Massacre survivors, eyewitness reports of journalists (both Western andJapanese), as well as the field diaries of military personnel. American missionary John Magee stayed behind toprovide a 16 mm film documentary and first-hand photographs of the Nanking Massacre.A group of foreign expatriates headed by Rabe had formed the 15-man International Committee on November 22and mapped out the Nanking Safety Zone in order to safeguard civilians in the city, where the population numberedfrom 200,000 to 250,000. Rabe and American missionary Lewis S. C. Smythe, secretary of the InternationalCommittee and a professor of sociology at the University of Nanking, recorded the actions of the Japanese troopsand filed complaints to the Japanese embassy.

Massacre ContestIn 1937, the Osaka Mainichi Shimbun and its sister newspaper the Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun covered a "contest" between two Japanese officers, Toshiaki Mukai (向 井 敏 明) and Tsuyoshi Noda (野 田 毅), both from Island troops, the Japanese 16th Division, in which the two men were described as vying with one another to be the first to kill 100 people with a sword before the capture of Nanking. From Jurong to Tangshan (two cities in Jiangshu Province, China), Toshiaki Mukai had killed 89 people while Tsuyoshi Noda had killed 78 people. The contest continued because neither of them had killed 100 people. When they got to Zijin Mountain, Tsuyoshi Noda had killed 105 people while Toshiaki Mukai killed 106 people. Both officers supposedly surpassed their goal during the heat of battle, making it impossible to determine which officer had actually won the contest. Therefore (according to the journalists Asami Kazuo and Suzuki Jiro, writing in the Tokyo Nichi-Nichi Shimbun of December 13), they decided to begin another contest, with the aim being 150 kills.[37] The Nichi Nichi headline of the story of December 13 read "'Incredible Record' [in the Contest to] Behead 100 People—Mukai 106 – 105 Noda—Both 2nd Lieutenants

Nanking Massacre 8

Go Into Extra Innings".After Japan surrendered, Toshiaki Mukai and Tsuyoshi Noda were arrested and executed by shooting in Nankingwith the criminal charge “Civilized Public Enemy”.[38]

Rape

Photo taken in Xuzhou, showing the body of awoman profaned in a similar way to the teenager

described in case 5 of John Magee's movie.

Case 5 of John Magee's film: on December 13,1937, about 30 Japanese soldiers murdered all but2 Chinese of 11 in the house at No. 5 Xinlukou.A woman and her two teenage daughters were

raped, and Japanese soldiers rammed a bottle anda cane into her vagina. An eight-year-old girl wasstabbed but she and her younger sister survived.

They were found alive two weeks after thekillings by an elderly woman shown in the photo.

Bodies of the victims can also be seen in thephoto.[39][40]

The International Military Tribunal for the Far East estimated that20,000 women were raped, including infants and the elderly.[41] Alarge portion of these rapes were systematized in a process wheresoldiers would search door-to-door for young girls, with many womentaken captive and gang raped.[42] The women were often killedimmediately after being raped, often through explicit mutilation[43] orby stabbing a bayonet, long stick of bamboo, or other objects into thevagina. Young children were not exempt from these atrocities, andwere cut open to allow Japanese soldiers to rape them.[44]

On 19 December 1937, Reverend James M. McCallum wrote in hisdiary:

I know not where to end. Never I have heard or read suchbrutality. Rape! Rape! Rape! We estimate at least 1,000cases a night, and many by day. In case of resistance oranything that seems like disapproval, there is a bayonetstab or a bullet ... People are hysterical ... Women arebeing carried off every morning, afternoon and evening.The whole Japanese army seems to be free to go and comeas it pleases, and to do whatever it pleases.[45]

On March 7, 1938, Robert O. Wilson, a surgeon at theAmerican-administered University Hospital in the Safety Zone, wrotein a letter to his family, "a conservative estimate of people slaughteredin cold blood is somewhere about 100,000, including of coursethousands of soldiers that had thrown down their arms".[46]

Here are two excerpts from his letters of 15 and 18 December 1937 tohis family:

The slaughter of civilians is appalling. I could go on forpages telling of cases of rape and brutality almost beyondbelief. Two bayoneted corpses are the only survivors ofseven street cleaners who were sitting in their headquarterswhen Japanese soldiers came in without warning or reason and killed five of their number and woundedthe two that found their way to the hospital.Let me recount some instances occurring in the last two days. Last night the house of one of the Chinesestaff members of the university was broken into and two of the women, his relatives, were raped. Twogirls, about 16, were raped to death in one of the refugee camps. In the University Middle School wherethere are 8,000 people the Japs came in ten times last night, over the wall, stole food, clothing, and rapeduntil they were satisfied. They bayoneted one little boy of eight who have [sic] five bayonet woundsincluding one that penetrated his stomach, a portion of omentum was outside the abdomen. I think hewill live.[47]

Nanking Massacre 9

In his diary kept during the aggression against the city and its occupation by the Imperial Japanese Army, the leaderof the Safety Zone, John Rabe, wrote many comments about Japanese atrocities. For 17 December:

Two Japanese soldiers have climbed over the garden wall and are about to break into our house. When Iappear they give the excuse that they saw two Chinese soldiers climb over the wall. When I show themmy party badge, they return the same way. In one of the houses in the narrow street behind my gardenwall, a woman was raped, and then wounded in the neck with a bayonet. I managed to get an ambulanceso we can take her to Kulou Hospital ... Last night up to 1,000 women and girls are said to have beenraped, about 100 girls at Ginling College Girls alone. You hear nothing but rape. If husbands or brothersintervene, they're shot. What you hear and see on all sides is the brutality and bestiality of the Japanesesoldiers.[48]

There are also accounts of Japanese troops forcing families to commit acts of incest.[49] Sons were forced to rapetheir mothers, fathers were forced to rape daughters. One pregnant woman who was gang-raped by Japanese soldiersgave birth only a few hours later; although the baby appeared to be physically unharmed (Robert B. Edgerton,Warriors of the Rising Sun). Monks who had declared a life of celibacy were also forced to rape women.

Massacre of civilians

A boy killed by a Japanese soldierwith the butt of a rifle, because he

did not take off his hat.

Following the capture of Nanking, a massacre was perpetrated by the Japanesearmy, which led to the deaths, estimated by several, of over 250,000 residents inthe city, a figure difficult to calculate precisely due to the many bodiesdeliberately burnt, buried in mass graves, or deposited in the Yangtze River bythe IJA.[50][51][52] Japanese ultra-nationalists have strongly disputed such deathtolls, with some stating that only several hundred civilians were killed during themassacre.[53] B. Campbell, in an article published in the journal SociologicalTheory, has described the Nanking Massacre as a genocide considering the factthat the residents were still unilaterally killed in masses during the aftermath,despite the successful and certain outcome in battle.[54] On 13 December 1937,John Rabe wrote in his diary:

It is not until we tour the city that we learn the extent of destruction.We come across corpses every 100 to 200 yards. The bodies ofcivilians that I examined had bullet holes in their backs. Thesepeople had presumably been fleeing and were shot from behind. TheJapanese march through the city in groups of ten to twenty soldiers and loot the shops (...) I watchedwith my own eyes as they looted the café of our German baker Herr Kiessling. Hempel's hotel wasbroken into as well, as almost every shop on Chung Shang and Taiping Road.[55]

On 10 February 1938, Legation Secretary of the German Embassy, Rosen, wrote to his Foreign Ministry about a filmmade in December by Reverend John Magee to recommend its purchase. Here is an excerpt from his letter and adescription of some of its shots, kept in the Political Archives of the Foreign Ministry in Berlin.

During the Japanese reign of terror in Nanking – which, by the way, continues to this day to aconsiderable degree – the Reverend John Magee, a member of the American Episcopal Church Missionwho has been here for almost a quarter of a century, took motion pictures that eloquently bear witness tothe atrocities committed by the Japanese .... One will have to wait and see whether the highest officers inthe Japanese army succeed, as they have indicated, in stopping the activities of their troops, whichcontinue even today.[56]

On December 13, about 30 soldiers came to a Chinese house at #5 Hsing Lu Koo in the southeastern part of Nanking, and demanded entrance. The door was open by the landlord, a Mohammedan named

Nanking Massacre 10

Ha. They killed him immediately with a revolver and also Mrs. Ha, who knelt before them after Ha'sdeath, begging them not to kill anyone else. Mrs. Ha asked them why they killed her husband and theyshot her. Mrs. Hsia was dragged out from under a table in the guest hall where she had tried to hide withher 1 year old baby. After being stripped and raped by one or more men, she was bayoneted in the chest,and then had a bottle thrust into her vagina. The baby was killed with a bayonet. Some soldiers thenwent to the next room, where Mrs. Hsia's parents, aged 76 and 74, and her two daughters aged 16 and14. They were about to rape the girls when the grandmother tried to protect them. The soldiers killed herwith a revolver. The grandfather grasped the body of his wife and was killed. The two girls were thenstripped, the elder being raped by 2–3 men, and the younger by 3. The older girl was stabbed afterwardsand a cane was rammed in her vagina. The younger girl was bayoneted also but was spared the horribletreatment that had been meted out to her sister and mother. The soldiers then bayoneted another sister ofbetween 7–8, who was also in the room. The last murders in the house were of Ha's two children, aged 4and 2 respectively. The older was bayoneted and the younger split down through the head with asword.[57]

Pregnant women were a target of murder, as they would often be bayoneted in the stomach, sometimes after rape.Tang Junshan, survivor and witness to one of the Japanese army’s systematic mass killings, testified:

The seventh and last person in the first row was a pregnant woman. The soldier thought he might as wellrape her before killing her, so he pulled her out of the group to a spot about ten meters away. As he wastrying to rape her, the woman resisted fiercely ... The soldier abruptly stabbed her in the belly with abayonet. She gave a final scream as her intestines spilled out. Then the soldier stabbed the fetus, with itsumbilical cord clearly visible, and tossed it aside.[58]

According to Navy veteran Sho Mitani, 'The Army used a trumpet sound that meant "Kill all Chinese who runaway"'.[59] Thousands were led away and mass-executed in an excavation known as the "Ten-Thousand-CorpseDitch", a trench measuring about 300m long and 5m wide. Since records were not kept, estimates regarding thenumber of victims buried in the ditch range from 4,000 to 20,000. However, most scholars and historians considerthe number to be more than 12,000 victims.[60]

Nanking Massacre 11

Extrajudicial killing of Chinese POWsOn August 6, 1937, Hirohito had personally ratified his army's proposition to remove the constraints of internationallaw on the treatment of Chinese prisoners. This directive also advised staff officers to stop using the term "prisonerof war".[61]

A Chinese POW about to bebeheaded by a Japanese officer with

a shin gunto during the NankingMassacre.

Immediately after the fall of the city, Japanese troops embarked on a determinedsearch for former soldiers, in which thousands of young men were captured.Many were taken to the Yangtze River, where they were machine-gunned. Whatwas probably the single largest massacre of Chinese troops occurred along thebanks of the Yangtze River on December 18 in what is called the Straw StringGorge Massacre. Japanese soldiers took most of the morning tying all of thePOWs hands together and in the dusk divided them into 4 columns, and openedfire at them. Unable to escape, the POWs could only scream and thrash indesperation. It took an hour for the sounds of death to stop, and even longer forthe Japanese to bayonet each individual. Most were dumped into the Yangtze. Itis estimated that at least 57,500 Chinese POWs were killed.

The Japanese troops gathered 1,300 Chinese soldiers and civilians at TaipingGate and killed them. The victims were blown up with landmines, then dousedwith petrol before being set on fire. Those that were left alive afterward werekilled with bayonets.[62]F. Tillman Durdin and Archibald Steele, American newscorrespondents, reported that they had seen bodies of killed Chinese soldiers

forming mounds six feet high at the Nanking Yijiang gate in the north. Durdin, who was working for the New YorkTimes, made a tour of Nanking before his departure from the city. He heard waves of machine-gun fire andwitnessed the Japanese soldiers gun down some two hundred Chinese within ten minutes. Two days later, in hisreport to the New York Times, he stated that the alleys and street were filled with civilian bodies, including womenand children.[63]

According to a testimony delivered by missionary Ralph L. Phillips to the U.S. State Assembly InvestigatingCommittee, he was "forced to watch while the Japs disembowled a Chinese soldier" and "roasted his heart and liverand ate them".[64]

Theft and arsonOne-third of the city was destroyed as a result of arson. According to reports, Japanese troops torched newly builtgovernment buildings as well as the homes of many civilians. There was considerable destruction to areas outsidethe city walls. Soldiers pillaged from the poor and the wealthy alike. The lack of resistance from Chinese troops andcivilians in Nanking meant that the Japanese soldiers were free to divide up the city's valuables as they saw fit. Thisresulted in the widespread looting and burglary.[65]

On 17 December, John Rabe wrote as chairman a complaint to Kiyoshi Fukui, second secretary of the JapaneseEmbassy. The following is an excerpt:

In other words, on the 13th when your troops entered the city, we had nearly all the civilian population gathered in a Zone in which there had been very little destruction by stray shells and no looting by Chinese soldiers even in full retreat ... All 27 Occidentals in the city at that time and our Chinese population were totally surprised by the reign of robbery, raping and killing initiated by your soldiers on the 14th. All we are asking in our protest is that you restore order among your troops and get the normal city life going as soon as possible. In the latter process we are glad to cooperate in any way we can. But even last night between 8 and 9 p.m. when five Occidentals members of our staff and Committee toured the Zone to observe conditions, we did not find any single Japanese patrol either in the Zone or at the

Nanking Massacre 12

entrances![66]

Nanking Safety Zone and the role of foreignersThe Japanese troops did respect the Zone to an extent; no shells entered that part of the city leading up to theJapanese occupation except a few stray shots. During the chaos following the attack of the city, some were killed inthe Safety Zone, but the crimes that took place in the rest of the city were far greater by all accounts.The Japanese soldiers committed actions in the Safety Zone that were part of the larger Nanking Massacre. TheInternational Committee appealed a number of times to the Japanese army, with John Rabe using his credentials as aNazi Party member, but to no avail. Rabe wrote that from time to time the Japanese would enter the Safety Zone atwill, carry off a few hundred men and women, and either summarily execute them or rape and then kill them.[67]

By February 5, 1938, the International Committee had forwarded to the Japanese embassy a total of 450 cases ofmurder, rape, and general disorder by Japanese soldiers that had been reported after the American, British andGerman diplomats had returned to their embassies.[68]

"Case 5- On the night of December 14th, there were many cases of Japanese soldiers entering houses andraping women or taking them away. This created panic in the area and hundreds of women moved into theGinling College campus yesterday."[68]

"Case 10- On the night of December 15th, a number of Japanese soldiers entered the University of Nankingbuildings at Tao Yuen and raped 30 women on the spot, some by six men."[68]

"Case 13 – December 18, 4 p.m., at No. 18 I Ho Lu, Japanese soldiers wanted a man's cigarette case and whenhe hesitated, one of the soldier crashed in the side of his head with a bayonet. The man is now at theUniversity Hospital and is not expected to live."[68]

"Case 14 – On December 16, seven girls (ages ranged from 16 to 21) were taken away from the MilitaryCollege. Five returned. Each girl was raped six or seven times daily- reported December 18th."[68]

"Case 15 – There are about 540 refugees crowded in #83 and 85 on Canton Road... More than 30 women andgirls have been raped. The women and children are crying all nights. Conditions inside the compound areworse than we can describe. Please give us help."[68]

"Case 16- A Chinese girl named Loh, who, with her mother and brother, was living in one of the RefugeeCenters in the Refugee Zone, was shot through the head and killed by a Japanese soldier. The girl was 14 yearsold. The incident occurred near the Kuling Ssu, a noted temple on the border of the Refugee zone (...)"[68]

"Case 19 – January 30th, about 5 p.m. Mr. Sone (of the Nanking Theological Seminary) was greeted byseveral hundred women pleading with him that they would not have to go home on February 4th. They said itwas no use going home they might just as well be killed for staying at the camp as to be raped, robbed orkilled at home. (...) One old woman 62 years old went home near Hansimen and Japanese soldiers came atnight and wanted to rape her. She said she was too old. So the soldiers rammed a stick up her. But she survivedto come back."[68]

It is said that Rabe rescued between 200,000 – 250,000 Chinese people.[69] [70]

CausesJonathan Spence writes "there is no obvious explanation for this grim event, nor can one be found. The Japanesesoldiers, who had expected easy victory, instead had been fighting hard for months and had taken infinitely highercasualties than anticipated. They were bored, angry, frustrated, tired. The Chinese women were undefended, theirmenfolk powerless or absent. The war, still undeclared, had no clear-cut goal or purpose. Perhaps all Chinese,regardless of sex or age, seemed marked out as victims."[71]

Nanking Massacre 13

Prisoners being buried alive[72] The sheer volume ofmurdered civilians posed

a formidable logisticalchallenge when it came

to disposing of thebodies. Many Chinesewere conscripted into

"burial teams", anexperience they would

later recall as horrificallytraumatic.[73]

Skeletons of victims in Nanking massacre.

Matsui's reaction to the massacreOn December 18, 1937, as General Iwane Matsui began to comprehend the full extent of the rape, murder, andlooting in the city, he grew increasingly dismayed. He reportedly told one of his civilian aides: "I now realize that wehave unknowingly wrought a most grievous effect on this city. When I think of the feelings and sentiments of manyof my Chinese friends who have fled from Nanking and of the future of the two countries, I cannot but feeldepressed. I am very lonely and can never get in a mood to rejoice about this victory." He even let a tinge of regretflavor the statement he released to the press that morning: "I personally feel sorry for the tragedies to the people, butthe Army must continue unless China repents. Now, in the winter, the season gives time to reflect. I offer mysympathy, with deep emotion, to a million innocent people." On New Year's Day, Matsui was still upset about thebehavior of the Japanese soldiers at Nanking. Over a toast he confided to a Japanese diplomat: "My men have donesomething very wrong and extremely regrettable."[74]

End of the massacreIn late January 1938, the Japanese army forced all refugees in the Safety Zone to return home, immediately claimingto have "restored order".After the establishment of the “weixin zhengfu” (the collaborating government) in 1938, order was gradually restoredin Nanking and atrocities by Japanese troops lessened considerably.On February 18, 1938, the Nanking Safety Zone International Committee was forcibly renamed "NankingInternational Rescue Committee", and the Safety Zone effectively ceased to function. The last refugee camps wereclosed in May 1938.

Nanking Massacre 14

Recall of Matsui and AsakaIn February 1938 both Prince Asaka and General Matsui were recalled to Japan. Matsui returned to retirement, butPrince Asaka remained on the Supreme War Council until the end of the war in August 1945. He was promoted tothe rank of general in August 1939, though he held no further military commands.[31]

Death toll estimatesEstimates of the number of victims vary based on the definitions of the geographical range and the duration of theevent.According to the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, estimates made at a later date indicate that the totalnumber of civilians and prisoners of war murdered in Nanking and its vicinity during the first six weeks of theJapanese occupation was over 200,000. These estimates are borne out by the figures of burial societies and otherorganizations, which testify to over 155,000 buried bodies. These figures do not take into account those personswhose bodies were destroyed by burning, drowning or by other means, or whose bodies were interred in massgraves.[51]

According to the verdict of the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal on 10 March 1947, there are "more than 190,000 massslaughtered civilians and Chinese soldiers killed by machine gun by the Japanese army, whose corpses have beenburned to destroy proof. Besides, we count more than 150,000 victims of barbarian acts buried by the charityorganizations. We thus have a total of more than 300,000 victims."[75] The extent of the atrocities is debated,[52] withnumbers ranging from some Japanese claims of several hundred,[53] to the Chinese claim of a non-combatant deathtoll of 300,000.[50] A number of Japanese researchers consider 100,000–200,000 to be an accurate estimate.Historian Tokushi Kasahara states "more than 100,000 and close to 200,000, or maybe more", referring to his ownbook.[76] This estimation includes the surrounding area outside of the city of Nanking, which is objected by aChinese researcher (the same book, p. 146). Hiroshi Yoshida concludes "more than 200,000" in his book.[77] TomioHora writes of 50,000–100,000 deaths.[78]

Other nations believe the death toll to be between 150,000–300,000, based on the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunalverdict, and another estimate of the civilian toll (excluding soldiers and POWs) is about 40,000–60,000, whichcorresponds to the figures from three sources; one is the Red Army's official journal of the time, Hangdibao andanother is that of Miner Searle Bates of the International Safety Zone Committee, and the third is the aforementionedfigure written by John Rabe in a letter.[79] The casualty count of 300,000 was first promulgated in January 1938 byHarold Timperley, a journalist in China during the Japanese invasion, based on reports from contemporaryeyewitnesses. Other sources, including Iris Chang's The Rape of Nanking, also conclude that the death toll reached300,000. In December 2007, newly declassified U.S. government archive documents revealed that a telegraph by theU.S. ambassador to Germany in Berlin sent one day after the Japanese army occupied Nanking, stated that he heardthe Japanese Ambassador in Germany boasting that Japanese army killed 500,000 Chinese people as the Japanesearmy advanced from Shanghai to Nanking. According to the archives research "The telegrams sent by the U.S.diplomats [in Berlin] pointed to the massacre of an estimated half a million people in Shanghai, Suzhou, Jiaxing,Hangzhou, Shaoxing, Wuxi and Changzhou".[80]

Nanking Massacre 15

Range and durationThe most conservative viewpoint is that the geographical area of the incident should be limited to the few km2 of thecity known as the Safety Zone, where the civilians gathered after the invasion. Many Japanese historians seized uponthe fact that during the Japanese invasion there were only 200,000–250,000 citizens in Nanking as reported by JohnRabe, to argue that the PRC's estimate of 300,000 deaths is a vast exaggeration.However, many historians include a much larger area around the city. Including the Xiaguan district (the suburbsnorth of Nanking, about 31 km2 in size) and other areas on the outskirts of the city, the population of greater Nankingwas running between 535,000 and 635,000 civilians and soldiers just prior to the Japanese occupation.[81] Somehistorians also include six counties around Nanking, known as the Nanking Special Municipality.The duration of the incident is naturally defined by its geography: the earlier the Japanese entered the area, thelonger the duration. The Battle of Nanking ended on December 13, when the divisions of the Japanese Army enteredthe walled city of Nanking. The Tokyo War Crime Tribunal defined the period of the massacre to the ensuing sixweeks. More conservative estimates say that the massacre started on December 14, when the troops entered theSafety Zone, and that it lasted for six weeks. Historians who define the Nanking Massacre as having started from thetime that the Japanese Army entered Jiangsu province push the beginning of the massacre to around mid-Novemberto early December (Suzhou fell on November 19), and stretch the end of the massacre to late March 1938.

Various estimatesJapanese historians, depending on their definition of the geographical and time duration of the killings, givewide-ranging estimates for the number of massacred civilians, from several thousand to upwards of 200,000.[82]

Chinese language sources tend to place the figure of massacred civilians upwards of 200,000.[82] For example, apostwar investigation by the Nanking District Court put the number of dead during the incident as 295,525, 76% ofthem men, 22% women and 2% children.A 42-part Taiwanese documentary produced from 1995 to 1997, entitled An Inch of Blood For An Inch of Land[83]

(一 寸 河 山 一 寸 血), asserts that 340,000 Chinese civilians died in Nanking City as a result of the Japaneseinvasion, 150,000 through bombing and crossfire in the five-day battle, and 190,000 in the massacre, based on theevidence presented at the Tokyo Trials.

War crimes tribunalsShortly after the surrender of Japan, the primary officers in charge of the Japanese troops at Nanking were put ontrial. General Matsui was indicted before the International Military Tribunal for the Far East for "deliberately andrecklessly" ignoring his legal duty "to take adequate steps to secure the observance and prevent breaches" of theHague Convention. Hisao Tani, the lieutenant general of the 6th Division of the Japanese army in Nanking, was triedby the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal.Other Japanese military leaders in charge at the time of the Nanking Massacre were not tried. Prince Kan'in, chief ofstaff of the Imperial Japanese Army during the massacre, had died before the end of the war in May 1945. PrinceAsaka was granted immunity because of his status as a member of the imperial family.[84] Isamu Chō, the aide ofPrince Asaka, and whom some historians believe issued the "kill all captives" memo, had committed suicide duringthe defense of Okinawa.[85]

Nanking Massacre 16

The International Military Tribunal for theFar East was convened at “Ichigaya Court,”

formally Imperial Japanese Army HQbuilding in Ichigaya, Tokyo.

General IwaneMatsui[86]

General Hisao Tani[87]

Grant of immunity to Prince AsakaOn May 1, 1946, SCAP officials interrogated Prince Asaka, who was the ranking officer in the city at the height ofthe atrocities, about his involvement in the Nanking Massacre and the deposition was submitted to the InternationalProsecution Section of the Tokyo tribunal. Asaka denied the existence of any massacre and claimed never to havereceived complaints about the conduct of his troops.[88] Whatever his culpability may have been, Asaka was notprosecuted before the International Military Tribunal for the Far East at least in part because under the pactconcluded between General MacArthur and Hirohito, the Emperor himself and all the members of the imperialfamily were granted immunity from prosecution.

Evidence and testimony

Harold John Timperley's telegram of 17 January1938 describing the atrocities.

The prosecution began the Nanking phase of its case in July 1946. Dr.Robert O. Wilson, a surgeon and a member of the InternationalCommittee for the Nanking Safety Zone, took the witness stand first.

Other members of the International Committee for the Nanking SafetyZone who took the witness stand included Miner Searle Bates and JohnMagee. George A. Fitch, Lewis Smythe and James McCallum filedaffidavits with their diaries and letters.

Another piece of evidence that was submitted to the tribunal wasHarold Timperley's telegram regarding the Nanking Massacre whichhad been intercepted and decoded by the Americans on January 17,1938.One of the books by Hsü, Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone, wasalso adduced in court.

According to Matsui's own diary, one day after he made the ceremonialtriumphal entry into the city on December 17, 1937, he instructed thechiefs of staff from each division to tighten military discipline and tryto eradicate the sense of disdain for Chinese people among theirsoldiers.On February 7, 1938, Matsui delivered a speech at a memorial service for the Japanese officers and men of theShanghai Expeditionary Force who were killed in action. In front of the high-ranking officers, Domei News Agencyreported, he emphasized the necessity to "put an end to various reports affecting the prestige of the Japanese troops."

Nanking Massacre 17

The entry for the same day in Matsui's diary read, "I could only feel sadness and responsibility today, which has beenoverwhelmingly piercing my heart. This is caused by the Army's misbehaviors after the fall of Nanking and failure toproceed with the autonomous government and other political plans."

Matsui's defenseMatsui's defence varied between denying the mass-scale atrocities and evading his responsibility for what hadhappened. Eventually he ended up making numerous conflicting statements.In the interrogation in Sugamo prison preceding the trial Matsui admitted that he heard about the many outragescommitted by his troops from Japanese diplomats when he entered Nanking on December 17, 1937.In court, he contradicted the earlier testimony and told the judges that he was not "officially" briefed at the consulateabout the evildoings, presumably to avoid admitting any contact with the consulate officials such as SecondSecretary (later Acting Consul-General) Fukui Kiyoshi and Attaché Fukuda Tokuyasu who received and dealt withthe protests filed by the International Committee.In the same interrogation session before the trial Matsui said one officer and three low-ranking soldiers werecourt-martialled because of their misbehavior in Nanking and the officer was sentenced to death.In his affidavit Matsui said he ordered his officers to investigate the massacre and to take necessary action. In court,however, Matsui said that he did not have jurisdiction over the soldiers' misconduct since he was not in the positionof supervising military discipline and morals.Matsui asserted that he had never ordered the execution of Chinese POWs. He further argued that he had directed hisarmy division commanders to discipline their troops for criminal acts, and was not responsible for their failure tocarry out his directives. At trial, Matsui went out of his way to protect Prince Asaka by shifting blame to lowerranking division commanders.[89]

VerdictIn the end the Tribunal convicted only two defendants to the Rape of Nanking.Matsui was convicted of count 55, which charged him with being one of the senior officers who "deliberately andrecklessly disregarded their legal duty [by virtue of their respective offices] to take adequate steps to secure theobservance [of the Laws and Customs of War] and prevent breaches thereof, and thereby violated the laws of war."Hirota Koki, who had been the Foreign Minister when Japan conquered Nanking, was convicted of participating in"the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy" (count 1), waging "a war of aggression and a war inviolation of international laws, treaties, agreements and assurances against the Republic of China" (count 27) andcount 55.Matsui was convicted by a majority of the judges at the Tokyo tribunal who ruled that he bore ultimate responsibilityfor the "orgy of crime" at Nanking because, "He did nothing, or nothing effective, to abate these horrors."

Organized and wholesale murder of male civilians was conducted with the apparent sanction of thecommanders on the pretext that Chinese soldiers had removed their uniforms and were mingling withthe population. Groups of Chinese civilians were formed, bound with their hands behind their backs, andmarched outside the walls of the city where they were killed in groups by machine gun fire and withbayonets. --- From Judgment of the International Military Tribunal

Radhabinod Pal, the member of the tribunal from India, dissented from the conviction arguing that thecommander-in-chief must rely on his subordinate officers to enforce soldier discipline. "The name of Justice," Palwrote in his dissent, "should not be allowed to be invoked only for ... vindictive retaliation."

Nanking Massacre 18

SentenceOn November 12, 1948, Matsui and Hirota, along with five other convicted Class-A war criminals, were sentencedto death by hanging. Eighteen others received lesser sentences. The death sentence imposed on Hirota, a six-to-fivedecision by the eleven judges, shocked the general public and prompted a petition on his behalf, which soon gatheredover 300,000 signatures but did not succeed in commuting the Minister's sentence.[90][91]

General Hisao Tani was sentenced to death by the Nanking War Crimes Tribunal.[89]

MemorialsIn 1985, the Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall was built by the Nanking Municipal Government in remembrance ofthe victims and to raise awareness of the Nanking Massacre. It is located near a site where thousands of bodies wereburied, called the "pit of ten thousand corpses" (wàn rén kēng).In 1995, Daniel Kwan held a photograph exhibit in Los Angeles titled, "The Forgotten Holocaust".In 2005, John Rabe's former residence in Nanking was renovated and now accommodates the "John Rabe andInternational Safety Zone Memorial Hall", which opened in 2006.

Yanziji Nanjing MassacreMemorial in 2004.

A memorial stone atYanziji in Nanjing, for

victims in NanjingMassacre.

John Rabe's former residence, now the "JohnRabe and International Safety Zone Memorial

Hall", in Nanking, July 2008.

ControversyFurther information: Historiography of the Nanking MassacreChina and Japan have both acknowledged the occurrence of wartime atrocities. Disputes over the historical portrayalof these events continue to cause tensions between Japan on one side and China and other East Asian countries onthe other side.

Cold WarBefore the 1970s, China did relatively little to draw attention to the Nanking massacre. In her book Rape of NankingIris Chang asserted that the politics of the Cold War encouraged Mao to stay relatively silent about Nanking in orderto keep a trade relationship with Japan. In turn, China and Japan occasionally used Nanking as an opportunity todemonize one another.

Nanking Massacre 19

Debate in JapanThe major waves of Japanese treatment of these events have ranged from total cover-up during the war, confessionsand documentation by the Japanese soldiers during the 1950s and 1960s, minimization of the extent of the NankingMassacre during the 1970s and 1980s, official Japanese government distortion and rewriting of history during the1980s, and total denial of the occurrence of the Nanking Massacre by some government officials in 1990.[92]

The debate concerning the massacre took place mainly in the 1970s. During this time, the Chinese government'sstatements about the event were attacked by the Japanese because they were said to rely too heavily on personaltestimonies and anecdotal evidence. Aspersions were cast regarding the authenticity and accuracy of burial recordsand photographs presented in the Tokyo War Crime Court, which were said to be fabrications by the Chinesegovernment, artificially manipulated or incorrectly attributed to the Nanking Massacre.[93]

During the 1970s, Katsuichi Honda wrote a series of articles for the Asahi Shimbun on war crimes committed byJapanese soldiers during World War II (such as the Nanking Massacre).[94] The publication of these articles triggereda vehement response from Japanese right-wingers regarding the Japanese treatment of the war crimes. In response,Shichihei Yamamoto[95] and Akira Suzuki[96] wrote two controversial yet influential articles which sparked thenegationist movement.

Apology and condolences by the Prime Minister and Emperor of JapanOn August 15, 1995, the fiftieth anniversary of the Surrender of Japan, the Japanese prime minister TomiichiMurayama gave the first clear and formal apology for Japanese actions during the war. He apologized for Japan'swrongful aggression and the great suffering that it inflicted in Asia. He offered his heartfelt apology to all survivorsand to the relatives and friends of the victims. That day, the prime minister and the Japanese Emperor Akihitopronounced statements of mourning at Tokyo's Nippon Budokan. The emperor offered his condolences andexpressed the hope that such atrocities would never be repeated. Iris Chang, author of The Rape of Nanking,criticized Murayama for not providing the written apology that had been expected. She said that the people of China"don't believe that an... unequivocal and sincere apology has ever been made by Japan to China" and that a writtenapology from Japan would send a better message to the international community.[10]

Denials of the massacre by public officials in JapanIn May 1994, Justice Minister Shigeto Nagano called the Nanjing Massacre a "fabrication".[97]

On June 19, 2007, a group of around 100 Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) lawmakers again denounced the NanjingMassacre as a fabrication, arguing that there was no evidence to prove the allegations of mass killings by Japanesesoldiers. They accused Beijing of using the alleged incident as a "political advertisement".[98] [99]

On February 20, 2012, Takashi Kawamura, mayor of Nagoya, told a visiting delegation from Nanjing that themassacre "probably never happened". Two days later he defended his remarks, saying, "Even since I was a nationalDiet representative, I have said [repeatedly] there was no [Nanjing] massacre that resulted in murders of severalhundred thousands of people."[100][101]

On February 24, 2012, Tokyo governor Shintaro Ishihara said that he also believes that the Nanjing massacre neverhappened. He reportedly claims it would have been impossible to kill so many people in such a short period oftime.[102]

Nanking Massacre 20

Legacy

Effect on international relationsThe memory of the Nanking Massacre has been a stumbling block in Sino-Japanese relations since the early 1970s.Bilateral exchanges on trade, culture and education have increased greatly since the two countries normalized theirbilateral relations and Japan became China’s most important trading partner.[103] Trade between the two nations isworth over $200 billion annually. Despite this, many Chinese people still have a strong sense of mistrust andanimosity toward Japan that originates from the memory of Japanese war crimes such as the Nanking Massacre. Thissense of mistrust is strengthened by the belief that Japan is unwilling to admit to and apologize for the atrocities.[104]

Takashi Yoshida described how changing political concerns and perceptions of the "national interest" in Japan,China, and Western countries have shaped collective memory of the Nanking massacre. Yoshida asserted that overtime the event has acquired different meanings to different people.[105]

Many Japanese prime ministers have visited the Yasukuni Shrine, a shrine for dead Japanese soldiers of World WarII, including some war criminals of the Nanking Massacre. In the museum adjacent to the shrine, a panel informsvisitors that there was no massacre in Nanjing, but that Chinese soldiers in plain clothes were "dealt with severely".In 2006 former Japanese prime minister Junichiro Koizumi made a pilgrimage to the shrine despite warnings fromChina and South Korea. His decision to visit the shrine regardless sparked international outrage. Although Koizumidenied that he was trying to glorify war or historical Japanese militarism, The Chinese Foreign Ministry accusedKoizumi of "wrecking the political foundations of China-Japan relations". An official from South Korea said theywould summon the Tokyo ambassador to protest.[106][107][108][109]

As a component of national identityTakashi Yoshida asserts that, "Nanking has figured in the attempts of all three nations [China, Japan and the UnitedStates] to preserve and redefine national and ethnic pride and identity, assuming different kinds of significance basedon each country's changing internal and external enemies."[110]

JapanIn Japan, the Nanking Massacre touches upon national identity and notions of "pride, honor and shame." Yoshidaargues that "Nanking crystallizes a much larger conflict over what should constitute the ideal perception of thenation: Japan, as a nation, acknowledges its past and apologizes for its wartime wrongdoings; or . . . stands firmagainst foreign pressures and teaches Japanese youth about the benevolent and courageous martyrs who fought a justwar to save Asia from Western aggression."[111] Recognizing the Nanking Massacre as such can be viewed in somecircles in Japan as "Japan bashing" (in the case of foreigners) or "self-flagellation" (in the case of Japanese).The majority of Japanese acknowledge the IJA committed atrocities during the Nanking Massacre. Some denialistsand Japanese officials have openly denied the incident, claiming it to be propaganda designed to spark an anti-Japanmovement. In many ways, how "atrocious" the massacre was is the touchstone of left/right divide in Japan; i.e.,leftists feel this is a defining moment of the IJA; rightists believe Perry's opening of Japan and the atomic bombingsare far more significant events.

Nanking Massacre 21

ChinaThe Nanking massacre has emerged as a fundamental keystone in the construction of the modern Chinese nationalidentity.[112] Modern Chinese (including citizens of the PRC, Taiwan, and overseas) will refer to the NankingMassacre to explain certain stances they hold or ideas they have; this 'national unifying event' holds true tomiddle-school educated peasants and to senior government officials alike.

Popular media

Music• American thrash metal band Exodus wrote a song about the incident titled "Nanking". The song was featured on

their 2010 album Exhibit B: The Human Condition.• Norwegian thrash metal band Blood Tsunami also wrote a song about the incident entitled "The Rape of

Nanking."• Chinese composer Bright Sheng wrote a piece entitled Nanking! Nanking! (A Threnody for Orchestra and Pipa)

(2000). He intended the piece to be "written in memory of the victims, not a recreation of the barbarity."[113]

Novels• Chand, Meira, A Choice of Evils (London: The Orion Publishing Company, 1996)• Hayder, Mo. The Devil of Nanking [2010 First published...(Britain: Bantam Press/Transworld Publishers, 2005)]

Tokyo (novel)• Jin, Ha. Nanjing Requiem (New York: Pantheon, 2011)• Qi, Shouhua. When the Purple Mountain Burns: A Novel. San Francisco: Long River Press, 2005.• Qi, Shouhua. Purple Mountain: A Story of the Rape of Nanking English Chinese Bilingual Edition (2009)• Qi, Shouhua. Purple Mountain: A Story of the Rape of Nanking (Paperback, 2010)• West, Paul. The Tent of Orange Mist (1995)• Geling Yan. The Flowers of War (forthcoming)• Lisa See. Shanghai Girls: A Novel Random House Publishing Group, 2010

Non-fiction

• Nankin Jiken Gyakusatsu no kozo (南 京 事 件―「 虐 殺 」 の 構 造) by Ikuhiko Hata ISBN4-12-100795-6, ISBN 4-12-190795-7

• The Rape of Nanking by Iris Chang (1997)• The Nanjing Massacre. A Japanese Journalist Confronts Japan's National Shame by Katsuichi Honda (1998)• The Alleged "Nanking Massacre" – Japan's rebuttal to China's forged claims by Tadao Takemoto, Yasuo Ohara

(2000)• The Good German of Nanking – The Diaries of John Rabe edited by Erwin Wickert (1998), ISBN 0-349-11141-3• The Undaunted Women of Nanking: The Wartime Diaries of Minnie Vautrin and Tsen Shui-fang edited by

Hua-ling Hu, Lian-hong Zhang (2010) ISBN 0-8093-2963-8

Nanking Massacre 22

Films• The Battle of China (1944) a documentary film by American director Frank Capra.• Black Sun: The Nanking Massacre (1995), by Chinese director Mou Tun Fei, recreates the events of the Nanking

Massacre.• Don't Cry, Nanking aka (Nanjing 1937) (1995) directed by Wu Ziniu is a historical fiction centering around a

Chinese doctor, his Japanese wife, and their children, as they experience the siege, fall, and massacre of Nanking.• Tokyo Trial (2006) is about the International Military Tribunal for the Far East.• The Children of Huang Shi (film) (2008) is inspired by the story of the English journalist George Hogg who took

pictures of the Nanking Massacre, escaped death by beheading, and fled to the orphanage in Huang Shi.• Nanking (2007), directed by Bill Guttentag and Dan Sturman, that makes use of letters and diaries from the era as

well as archive footage and interviews with surviving victims and those involved in the massacre.• The Truth about Nanjing (2007),[114] a documentary by Satoru Mizushima denying that any such massacre took

place.• City of Life and Death (2009) directed by Lu Chuan, a dramatization of the Nanking Massacre.• John Rabe (2009) directed by Florian Gallenberger, a Sino-German co-production about the life of John Rabe,

featuring Ulrich Tukur in the title role and Steve Buscemi in a supporting role.[115][116]

• Torn Memories of Nanjing (2009) directed by Tamaki Matsuoka. Documentary featuring interviews withJapanese soldiers who admit to raping and killing Chinese civilians, and accounts by Chinese survivors.

• The Flowers of War (2011) directed by Zhang Yimou and starring Christian Bale and Shigeo Kobayashi based onThe 13 Women of Nanjing by Geling Yan

TV series• War and Destiny (2007) a story about life in Nanking up until and during the Japanese invasion.

RecordsIn December 2007, the PRC government published the names of 13,000 people who were killed by Japanese troopsin the Nanking Massacre. According to Xinhua News Agency, it is the most complete record to date.[117] The reportconsists of eight volumes and was released to mark the 70th anniversary of the start of the massacre. It also lists theJapanese army units that were responsible for each of the deaths and states the way in which the victims were killed.Zhang Xianwen, editor-in-chief of the report, states that the information collected was based on "a combination ofChinese, Japanese and Western raw materials, which is objective and just and is able to stand the trial ofhistory."[117] This report formed part of a 55-volume series (Collection of Historical Materials of Nanjing Massacre(南 京 大 屠 杀 史 料 集) about the massacre.

ReferencesNotes[1] Levene, Mark and Roberts, Penny. The Massacre in History. 1999, page 223-4[2] Totten, Samuel. Dictionary of Genocide. 2008, 298–9.[3] Iris Chang, The Rape of Nanking, p. 6.[4] Lee, Min (March 31, 2010). "New film has Japan vets confessing to Nanjing rape" (http:/ / www. salon. com/ 2010/ 03/ 31/

as_film_japan_massacre_documentary/ ). Salon/Associated Press. .[5] "Scarred by history: The Rape of Nanjing" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ 223038. stm). BBC News. April 11, 2005. .[6] "Judgement: International Military Tribunal for the Far East" (http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ hyperwar/ PTO/ IMTFE/ IMTFE-8. html). Chapter

VIII: Conventional War Crimes (Atrocities). November 1948. .[7] Fogel, Joshua A. The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography. 2000, page 46-8.[8] Dillon, Dana R. The China Challenge. 2007, page 9-10[9] "Q8: What is the view of the Government of Japan on the incident known as the "Nanjing Massacre"?" (http:/ / www. mofa. go. jp/ policy/

q_a/ faq16. html#q8). Foreign Policy Q&A. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. .

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[10] "I'm Sorry?" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ newshour/ bb/ asia/ july-dec98/ china_12-1. html). NewsHour with Jim Lehrer. 1998-12-01. .[11] Yoshida, Takashi. The Making of the "Rape of Nanking". 2006, page 157-8.[12] Gallicchio, Marc S. The Unpredictability of the Past. 2007, page 158.[13] Higashinakano Shudo, Kobayashi Susumu & Fukunaga Shainjiro (2005). "Analyzing the "Photographic Evidence" of the Nanking Massacre

(originally published as Nankin Jiken: "Shokoshashin" wo Kenshosuru)" (http:/ / www. sdh-fact. com/ CL02_1/ 26_S4. pdf). Tokyo, Japan:Soshisha. .

[14] "War and reconciliation: a tale of two countries" (http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ fl20080810x1. html). The Japan Times Online -Search.japantimes.co.jp. . Retrieved 2011-03-06.

[15] Cummins, Joseph. The World's Bloodiest History. 2009, page 149.[16] Katsuichi Honda, Frank Gibney, The Nanjing massacre: a Japanese journalist confronts Japan's national shame, 39–41[17][17] Tokyo Nichi Nichi, 13 December 1937 article on the killing contest.[18][18] Japan Advertiser, 7 December 1937 (an American owned and edited English-language daily paper in Tokyo)[19][19] Kingston 2008, p. 9.[20] Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi (Summer 2000). "The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate: War Guilt Amid Fabricated Illusions,

1971–75". The Journal of Japanese Studies 26 (2): 307. JSTOR 133271.[21] "Jurist - Paper Chase: Japanese court rules newspaper didn't fabricate 1937 Chinese killing game" (http:/ / jurist. law. pitt. edu/ paperchase/

2005/ 08/ japanese-court-rules-newspaper-didnt. php). Jurist.law.pitt.edu. 2005-08-23. . Retrieved 2011-03-06.[22] Andesfolklore.hp.infoseek.co.jp (http:/ / andesfolklore. hp. infoseek. co. jp/ intisol/ hyakunin/ hanketu4. htm)[23] "The scars of Nanking: Memories of a Japanese outrage" (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ news/ world/ asia/

the-scars-of-nanking-memories-of-a-japanese-outrage-764827. html). The Independent (London). December 13, 2007. .[24] "Five Western Journalists in the Doomed City" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050325115933/ http:/ / www. geocities. com/

nankingatrocities/ Fall/ fall_01. htm). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. geocities. com/ nankingatrocities/ Fall/ fall_01. htm) on2005-03-25. . Retrieved 2006-04-19.

[25] "Chinese Fight Foe Outside Nanking; See Seeks's Stand" (http:/ / www. ne. jp/ asahi/ unko/ tamezou/ nankin/1937-12-08-NewYorkTimesTillmanDurdin. html). . Retrieved 2006-04-19.

[26] "Japan Lays Gain to Massing of Foe" (http:/ / www. ne. jp/ asahi/ unko/ tamezou/ nankin/ 1937-12-09-NewYorkTimesHallettAbend. html). .Retrieved 2006-04-19.

[27] Askew, David. The International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone: An Introduction.[28] Life, January 10, 1938, page 51.[29] Bergamini, David. Japan's Imperial Conspiracy. p. 23.[30] Bergamini, David. Japan's Imperial Conspiracy. p. 24.[31][31] Chen, World War II Database[32] David Bergamini, Japan's imperial Conspiracy, 1971, p. 24[33] Iris Chang, The Rape of Nanking, 1997, p. 40[34] Akira Fujiwara, Nitchû Sensô ni Okeru Horyo Gyakusatsu, Kikan Sensô Sekinin Kenkyû 9, 1995, p. 22[35] Kajimoto, Masato. "Battle of Shanghai" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060205002859/ http:/ / www. geocities. com/ nankingatrocities/

Introduction/ introduction. htm). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. geocities. com/ nankingatrocities/ Introduction/ introduction. htm)on 2006-02-05. . Retrieved 2006-04-19.

[36] Quote: "The Japanese Army, one million strong, has already conquered Changshu. We have surrounded the city of Nanking... The JapaneseArmy shall show no mercy toward those who offer resistance, treating them with extreme severity, but shall harm neither innocent civiliansnor Chinese military [personnel] who manifest no hostility. It is our earnest desire to preserve the East Asian culture. If your troops continueto fight, war in Nanking is inevitable. The culture that has endured for a millennium will be reduced to ashes, and the government that haslasted for a decade will vanish into thin air. This commander-in-chief issues [b]ills to your troops on behalf of the Japanese Army. Open thegates to Nanking in a peaceful manner, and obey the [f]ollowing instructions."

[37][37] Wakabayashi 2000, p. 319.[38] 国 防 部 审 判 战 犯 军 事 法 庭 对 战 犯 向 井 敏 明 等 人 的 判 决 书. 民 国 史 档 案 资 料 丛 书——侵 华 日

军 南 京 大 屠 杀 档 案. 1947年12月18日: 616-621.[39] John G. Gagee, Case 9, Film 4, Folder 7, Box 263, Record Group 8, Special Collection, Yale Divinity School Library, cited in Suping Lu.

They were in Nanjing: the Nanjing Massacre witnessed by American and British nationals. Hong Kong University Press, 2004 (http:/ / books.google. ca/ books?id=rRD_fXL3_swC& pg=PA118)

[40] John Rabe, Erwin Wickert. ''The good man of Nanking: the diaries of John Rabe''. A.A. Knopf, 1998. page 281-282 (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?ei=rvZpTKKsM8TflgeO16SfBQ). Books.google.com. 2008-09-08. . Retrieved 2011-03-06.

[41] Paragraph 2, p. 1012, Judgment International Military Tribunal for the Far East (http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ hyperwar/ PTO/ IMTFE/IMTFE-8. html).

[42] "Japanese Imperialism and the Massacre in Nanjing: Chapter X: Widespread Incidents of Rape" (http:/ / museums. cnd. org/ njmassacre/njm-tran/ ). Museums.cnd.org. . Retrieved 2011-03-06.

[43] "A Debt of Blood: An Eyewitness Account of the Barbarous Acts of the Japanese Invaders in Nanjing," 7 February 1938, Dagong Daily,Wuhan edition Museums.cnd.org (http:/ / museums. cnd. org/ njmassacre/ njm-tran/ njm-ch10. htm)

Nanking Massacre 24

[44] Gao Xingzu, Wu Shimin, Hu Yungong, Cha Ruizhen. "Japanese Imperialism and the Massacre in Nanjing" (http:/ / museums. cnd. org/njmassacre/ njm-tran/ njm-ch10. htm). Chapter X: Widespread Incidents of Rape. Museums.cnd.org. . Retrieved October 11, 2012.

[45] Hua-ling Hu, American Goddess at the Rape of Nanking: The Courage of Minnie Vautrin, 2000, p.97[46][46] Documents on the Rape of Nanking, 254.[47] Zhang, Kaiyuan. Eyewitness to Massacre: American Missionaries Bear Witness to Japanese Atrocities in Nanjing. M. E. Sharpe, 2001.[48] Woods, John E. (1998). The Good man of Nanking, the Diaries of John Rabe. p. 77.[49][49] P. 95, The Rape of Nanking, Iris Chang, Penguin Books, 1997.[50] Marquand, Robert (August 20, 2001) "Why the Past Still Separates China and Japan" (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ 2001/ 0820/

p1s3-woap. html), Christian Science Monitor states an estimate of 300,000 dead.[51] "HyperWar: International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Chapter 8) (Paragraph 2, p. 1015, Judgment International Military Tribunal for

the Far East)" (http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ hyperwar/ PTO/ IMTFE/ IMTFE-8. html). . Retrieved 2007 December.[52] A more complete account of what numbers are claimed by who, can be found in self-described "moderate" article by historian Ikuhiko Hata

The Nanking Atrocities: Fact and Fable (http:/ / www. wellesley. edu/ Polisci/ wj/ China/ Nanjing/ nanjing2. html)[53] Masaaki Tanaka claims that very few citizens were killed, and that the massacre is in fact a fabrication in his book “Nankin gyakusatsu” no

kyokÙ (http:/ / www. ne. jp/ asahi/ unko/ tamezou/ nankin/ whatreally/ ) (The "Nanking Massacre" as Fabrication).[54] Campbell, Bradley (June 2009). "Genocide as social control". Sociological Theory 27 (2): 154. JSTOR 40376129. "Also, genocide may

occur in the aftermath of warfare when mass killings continue after the outcome of a battle or a war has been decided. For instance, after theChinese city of Nanking was occupied by the Japanese in December 1937, Japanese soldiers massacred over 250,000 residents of the city."

[55] Woods, John E. (1998). The Good man of Nanking, the Diaries of John Rabe. p. 67.[56] Woods, John E. (1998). The Good man of Nanking, the Diaries of John Rabe. p. 187.[57] John E. Woods,The Good man of Nanking, the Diaries of John Rabe, p.281. On 5 February 2009, the Japanese Supreme Court ordered

Shyudo Higashinakano and the publisher Tendensha to pay 4 million yen in damages to Mrs. Shuqin Xia who claims to be “7–8 years old girl”appears in Magee’s film. Higashinakano was unable to prove that she and the girl were different persons, and that she was not a witness of theNanking massacre, contrary to what he had claimed in his book., Chinese hail Nanjing massacre witness' libel suite victory,english.peopledaily.com.cn (http:/ / english. peopledaily. com. cn/ 90001/ 90776/ 90883/ 6587967. html), Author on Nanjing loses libelappeal, search.japantimes.co.jp (http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ nn20090207b2. html)

[58] The Memorial Hall for the Victims of the Nanjing Massacre: Rhetoric in the Face of Tragedy (http:/ / bootheprize. stanford. edu/ 0506/PWR-Yang. pdf)  PDF ( 310 KB), Celia Yang, 2006.

[59] Japan's Last Vets of Nanking Massacre Open Up (http:/ / news. yahoo. com/ s/ afp/ 20100516/ wl_asia_afp/ japanchinahistoryfilmnanking),Yahoo News!

[60] The Memorial Hall for the Victims of the Nanking Massacre: Rhetoric in the Face of Tragedy (http:/ / bootheprize. stanford. edu/ 0506/PWR-Yang. pdf)  PDF ( 310 KB) Celia Yang (2006) Author refers to source as Yin, James. (1996) The Rape of Nanking: An UndeniableHistory in Photographs. Chicago: Innovative Publishing Group. Page 103.

[61] Fujiwara, Akira (1995). "Nitchû Sensô ni Okeru Horyotoshido Gyakusatsu". Kikan Sensô Sekinin Kenkyû 9: 22.[62] Bristow, Michael (2007-12-13). "Nanjing remembers massacre victims" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 7140357. stm). BBC

News. . Retrieved 2007-12-13.[63] Hua-ling Hu, American Goddess at the Rape of Nanking: The Courage of Minnie Vautrin, 2000, p.77.[64] CBI Roundup, 16 December 1943, Rape of Nanking described by Missionary, cbi-theater-1.home.comcast.net (http:/ / cbi-theater-1. home.

comcast. net/ ~cbi-theater-1/ roundup/ roundup121643. html)[65][65] P. 162, The Rape of Nanking, Iris Chang, Penguin Books, 1997.[66] Woods, John E. (1998). The Good man of Nanking, the Diaries of John Rabe. p. 271.[67] Woods, John E. (1998). The Good man of Nanking, the Diaries of John Rabe. p. 274.[68] Woods, John E. (1998). The Good man of Nanking, the Diaries of John Rabe. pp. 275–278.[69] John Rabe (http:/ / www. moreorless. au. com/ heroes/ rabe. html), moreorless[70] "John Rabe's letter to Hitler, from Rabe's diary" (http:/ / www. jiyuu-shikan. org/ nanjing/ tpopu. html), Population of Nanking,

Jiyuu-shikan.org[71] Spence, Jonathan D. (1999) The Search for Modern China, W.W. Norton and Company. p. 424. ISBN 0-393-97351-4.[72] Chapel, Joseph (2004). "Denial of the Holocaust and the Rape of Nanking" (http:/ / www. history. ucsb. edu/ faculty/ marcuse/ classes/

133p/ 133p04papers/ JChapelNanjing046. htm). .[73] Honda, Katsuichi and Gibney, Frank. The Nanjing Massacre. 1999, page 272-6[74] Chang, Iris. The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust. pp. 51–52.[75] Tokushi Kasahara. IHTP.cnrs.fr Le massacre de Nankin et les mécanismes de sa négation par la classe politique dirigeante (http:/ / www.

ihtp. cnrs. fr/ IMG/ pdf_interventionsnankin-francais. pdf)[76] Iwanami Shinsho, Fujiwara Akira (editor). Nankin jiken O Dou Miruka, 1998, Aoki shoten, ISBN 4-250-98016-2, p. 18.[77] Yoshida, Hiroshi. "Nankin jiken o dou miruka p. 123, Tennou no guntai to Nankin jiken 1998, Aoki shoten, p. 160, ISBN 4-250-98019-7.[78] Tanaka Masaaki What Really Happened in Nanking (http:/ / www. sdh-fact. com/ ), Sekai Shuppan, Inc., 2000, ISBN 4-916079-07-8, p. 5).[79] "''The Nanking Atrocities: Fact and Fable''" (http:/ / www. wellesley. edu/ Polisci/ wj/ China/ Nanjing/ nanjing2. html). Wellesley.edu. .

Retrieved 2011-03-06.

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[80] U.S. Archives Reveal War Massacre of 500,000 Chinese by Japanese Army (http:/ / news. xinhuanet. com/ english/ 2007-12/ 12/content_7236237. htm).

[81] "Data Challenges Japanese Theory on Nanjing Population Size" (http:/ / www. china. org. cn/ english/ 2003/ Dec/ 83437. htm). . Retrieved2006-04-19.

[82] "Electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies (ejcjs): The Nanjing Incident: Recent Research and Trends" (http:/ / www.japanesestudies. org. uk/ articles/ Askew. html). japanesestudies.org.uk. . Retrieved 2011-03-06.

[83] 一 寸 河 山 一 寸 血――42集 电 视 纪 录 片 (http:/ / www. huanghuagang. org/ library/ heshan. htm)[84] Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, 2000, p.583, John Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II,

1999, p.326.[85] Thomas M. Huber, Japan's Battle of Okinawa, April–June 1945, Leavenworth Papers Number 18, Combat Studies Institute, 1990, p.47[86] History.gr.jp (http:/ / www. history. gr. jp/ ~koa_kan_non/ 16-4. html)[87] People.com.cn (http:/ / www. people. com. cn/ media/ 200112/ 12/ NewsMedia_147412. jpg)[88] Awaya Kentarô, Yoshida Yutaka, Kokusai kensatsukyoku jinmonchôsho, dai 8 kan, Nihon Tosho Centâ, 1993., Case 44, pp. 358–66.[89] Bix, Herbert (2001). "Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan". Perennial: 734.[90] Dower, John (2000). Embracing defeat: Japan in the wake of World War II (Paperback ed. ed.). New York: Norton. p. 459.

ISBN 978-0-393-32027-5.[91] Brackman, Arnold C. (1988). The other Nuremberg: the untold story of the Tokyo war trials. New York: Quill. pp. 395.

ISBN 0-688-07957-1.[92] "Basic facts on the Nanking Massacre and the Tokyo War Crimes Trial" (http:/ / www. cnd. org/ mirror/ nanjing/ NMNJ. html). 1990. .[93] "The Nanking Massacre: Fact Versus Fiction" (http:/ / www. ne. jp/ asahi/ unko/ tamezou/ nankin/ fiction/ index. html). . Retrieved

2008-05-06.[94] Honda, Katsuich. "Chūgoku no Tabi" (中 国 の 旅, "Travels in China"". Asahi Shimbun.[95] Yamamoto, Shichihei (March 1972). "Reply to Katsuichi Honda". Every Gentlemen.[96] Suzuki, Akira (April 1972). "The Phantom of The Nanjing Massacre". Every Gentlemen.[97] Jun Hongo (23 February 2012). "Nagoya mayor won't budge on Nanjing remark" (http:/ / www. japantimes. co. jp/ text/ nn20120223a5.

html). Japan Times. .[98] "Japan ruling MPs call Nanjing massacre fabrication" (http:/ / www. alertnet. org/ thenews/ newsdesk/ T214128. htm). 2007-06-19. .

Retrieved 2009-03-19.[99] "Subcommittee on Nanjing Issues Press Conference (YouTube)" (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=f8RRqyRlRV4). 2007-06-19. .

Retrieved 2010-11-23.[100] Josh Chin and Yoree Koh (February 22, 2012). "Japanese Official Denies Nanjing Massacre" (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/

SB10001424052970203960804577238802680649914. html). Wall Street Journal. .[101] Hongo, Jun, " Nagoya mayor won't budge on Nanjing remark (http:/ / www. japantimes. co. jp/ text/ nn20120223a5.

html?utm_source=feedburner& utm_medium=feed& utm_campaign=Feed:+ japantimes+ (The+ Japan+ Times:+ All+ Stories))", JapanTimes, 23 February 2012, p. 2.

[102] "Tokyo governor backs Nanjing massacre denial" (http:/ / www. google. com/ hostednews/ afp/ article/ALeqM5gqqzO2hCm4p_W9kawUJsV85RS1RA?docId=CNG. 55872017a52d4f3c1e40d17a3ebe2909. 561). AFP. February 24, 2012. .

[103][103] Yuan 2004[104] Pu, Xiaoyu (2005-09-30). "The Nanking Massacre, Justice and Reconciliation: A Chinese Perspective" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/

5pxfMlhJa). Perspectives 6 (3). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. oycf. org/ oycfold/ httpdocs/ Perspectives2/ 30_09302005/2c_Pu_NankingMassacre. pdf) on 2010-05-24. . Retrieved 2009-03-21.

[105][105] Nanking 1937: Memory and Healing, edited by Fei Fei Li, Robert Sabella and David Liu (M.E. Sharpe, 2002).[106] "Fury as Koizumi honours war dead" (http:/ / www. theage. com. au/ news/ world/ fury-as-koizumi-honours-war-dead/ 2006/ 08/ 15/

1155407790276. html). The Age (Melbourne). August 15, 2006. .[107] "Japanese Leader's Decision to Visit Yasukuni Shrine Puzzling: FM Spokesman" (http:/ / english1. people. com. cn/ english/ 200106/ 01/

eng20010601_71508. html). English1.people.com.cn. 2001-06-01. . Retrieved 2011-03-06.[108] "In Japan, denial over Nanjing still holds sway after 70 years" (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ 2007/ 1214/ p04s01-woap. html). The

Christian Science Monitor - CSMonitor.com. . Retrieved 2011-03-06.[109] "The 14 Class-A War Criminals Enshrined at Yasukuni" (http:/ / www. china. org. cn/ english/ features/ 135371. htm). China.org.cn. .

Retrieved 2011-03-06.[110] Yoshida, Takashi (2006). The Making of the "Rape of Nanking. p. 5.[111] Yoshida, Takashi (2006). The Making of the "Rape of Nanking.[112] Askew, David (2002-04-04). "The Nanjing Incident – Recent Research and Trends" (http:/ / www. japanesestudies. org. uk/ articles/

Askew. html#_edn2). . Retrieved 2009-03-21.[113] http:/ / brightsheng. com/ programnotes/ Nanking. html[114] Filmmaker to paint Nanjing slaughter as just myth (http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ nn20070125a3. html), The Japan Times, Jan.

25, 2007.[115] Xinhuanet.com (http:/ / news. xinhuanet. com/ english/ 2007-12/ 11/ content_7231106. htm)[116] Search.japantimes.co.jp (http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ ff20071206r1. html)

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[117] "Nanjing massacre victims named" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 7126455. stm). BBC News. 2007-12-04. . Retrieved2007-12-04.

CitationsBibliography• Chang, Iris, The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II, Foreword by William C. Kirby;

Penguin USA (Paper), 1998. ISBN 0-14-027744-7• Fogel, Joshua A. (2000). The Nanjing Massacre in history and historiography. Berkeley: University of California

Press. pp. 248. ISBN 978-0-520-22007-2.

Further reading• Askew, David. "The International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone: An Introduction" Sino-Japanese

Studies Vol. 14, April 2002 (Article outlining membership and their reports of the events that transpired duringthe massacre)

• Askew, David, "The Nanjing Incident: An Examination of the Civilian Population" Sino-Japanese Studies Vol.13, March 2001 (Article analyzes a wide variety of figures on the population of Nanking before, during, and afterthe massacre)

•• Bergamini, David, "Japan's Imperial Conspiracy," William Morrow, New York; 1971.• Brook, Timothy, ed. Documents on the Rape of Nanjing, Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999.

ISBN 0-472-11134-5 (Does not include the Rabe diaries but does include reprints of "Hsu Shuhsi, Documents ofthe Nanking Safety Zone, Kelly & Walsh, 1939".)

• Hua-ling Hu, American Goddess at the Rape of Nanking: The Courage of Minnie Vautrin, Foreword by PaulSimon; March 2000, ISBN 0-8093-2303-6

• Fujiwara, Akira " The Nanking Atrocity: An Interpretive Overview (http:/ / japanfocus. org/ products/ details/2553)" Japan Focus October 23, 2007.

• Galbraith, Douglas, A Winter in China, London, 2006. ISBN 0-09-946597-3. A novel focussing on the westernresidents of Nanking during the massacre.

• Higashinakano, Shudo, The Nanking Massacre: Fact Versus Fiction: A Historian's Quest for the Truth (http:/ /www. sdh-fact. com/ CL02_1/ result. php?word=ZW), Tokyo: Sekai Shuppan, 2005. ISBN 4-916079-12-4

• Higashinakano, Kobayashi and Fukunaga, Analyzing The 'Photographic Evidence' of The Nanking Massacre(http:/ / www. sdh-fact. com/ CL02_1/ result. php?word=ZW), Tokyo: Soshisha, 2005. ISBN 4-7942-1381-6

• Honda, Katsuichi, Sandness, Karen trans. The Nanjing Massacre: A Japanese Journalist Confronts Japan'sNational Shame, London: M.E. Sharpe, 1999. ISBN 0-7656-0335-7

• Hsū Shuhsi, ed. (1939), Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone (reprinted in Documents on the Rape of NanjingBrook ed. 1999)

• Kajimoto, Masato "Mistranslations in Honda Katsuichi's the Nanjing Massacre" Sino-Japanese Studies, 13. 2(March 2001) pp. 32–44

• Lu, Suping, They Were in Nanjing: The Nanjing Massacre Witnessed by American and British Nationals, HongKong University Press, 2004.

• Murase, Moriyasu,Watashino Jyugun Cyugoku-sensen(My China Front), Nippon Kikanshi Syuppan Center, 1987(revised in 2005).(includes disturbing photos, 149 page photogravure) ISBN 4-88900-836-5 (村 瀬 守 保,私の 従 軍 中 国 戦 線)

•• Qi, Shouhua. "When the Purple Mountain Burns: A Novel" San Francisco: Long River Press, 2005. ISBN1-59265-041-4

• Qi, Shouhua. Purple Mountain: A Story of the Rape of Nanking (A Novel) English Chinese Bilingual Edition(Paperback, 2009) ISBN 1-4486-5965-5

• Rabe, John, The Good Man of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe, Vintage (Paper), 2000. ISBN 0-375-70197-4

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•• Robert Sabella, Fei Fei Li and David Liu, eds. Nanking 1937: Memory and Healing (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe,2002). ISBN 0-7656-0817-0.

• Takemoto, Tadao and Ohara, Yasuo The Alleged "Nanking Massacre": Japan's rebuttal to China's forged claims,Meisei-sha, Inc., 2000, (Tokyo Trial revisited) ISBN 4-944219-05-9

• Tanaka, Masaaki, What Really Happened in Nanking: The Refutation of a Common Myth (http:/ / www. sdh-fact.com/ CL02_1/ result. php?word=ZW), Tokyo: Sekai Shuppan, 2000. ISBN 4-916079-07-8

• Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi "The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate: War Guilt Amid Fabricated Illusions,1971–75",The Journal of Japanese Studies, Vol.26 No.2 Summer 2000.

• Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi The Nanking Atrocity, 1937–1938: Complicating the Picture, Berghahn Books, 2007,ISBN 1-84545-180-5

• Yamamoto, Masahiro Nanking: Anatomy of an Atrocity, Praeger Publishers, 2000, ISBN 0-275-96904-5• Yang, Daqing. "Convergence or Divergence? Recent Historical Writings on the Rape of Nanjing" American

Historical Review 104, 3 (June 1999)., 842–865.•• Young, Shi; Yin, James. "Rape of Nanking: Undeniable history in photographs" Chicago: Innovative Publishing

Group, 1997.• Zhang, Kaiyuan, ed. Eyewitnesses to Massacre, An East Gate Book, 2001 (includes documentation of American

missionaries M.S. Bates, G.A. Fitch, E.H. Foster, J.G. Magee, J.H. MaCallum, W.P. Mills, L.S.C. Smyth, A.N.Steward, Minnie Vautrin and R.O. Wilson.) ISBN 0-7656-0684-4

External links• The Nanking Massacre Project: A Digital Archive of Documents & Photographs from American Missionaries

Who Witnessed the Rape of Nanking From the Special Collections of the Yale Divinity School Library (http:/ /www. library. yale. edu/ div/ Nanking/ index. html)

• BBC News: Nanjing remembers massacre victims (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 7140357. stm)• Online Documentary: The Nanking Atrocities (http:/ / www. nankingatrocities. net/ ) A master's degree thesis that

delves into the atrocity• English translation of a classified Chinese document on the Nanjing Massacre (http:/ / museums. cnd. org/

njmassacre/ njm-tran/ )• Japanese Imperialism and the Massacre in Nanjing (http:/ / www. cnd. org/ njmassacre/ njm-tran/ ) by Gao

Xingzu, Wu Shimin, Hu Yungong, & Cha Ruizhen• Kirk Denton, "Heroic Resistance and Victims of Atrocity: Negotiating the Memory of Japanese Imperialism in

Chinese Museums" (http:/ / japanfocus. org/ products/ details/ 2547)• The Nanjing Incident: Recent Research and Trends (http:/ / www. japanesestudies. org. uk/ articles/ Askew. html)

by David Askew in the Electronic Journal of Contemporary Japanese Studies, April 2002• Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall (http:/ / www. nj1937. org/ y/ yindex. htm)• Nanjing Massacre history site: History, Photos and Articles (http:/ / www. nanking-massacre. com/ Home. html)• 'No massacre in Nanking,' Japanese lawmakers say (http:/ / www. iht. com/ articles/ 2007/ 06/ 19/ news/ nanking.

php)• The Rape of Nanking – Nanjing Massacre -English Language Edition – 1:17:17 – Aug 25, 2006 (http:/ / video.

google. com/ videoplay?docid=4920138942953644691& q=Rape+ of+ Nanking& hl=en)• "Denying Genocide: The Evolution of the Denial of the Holocaust and the Nanking Massacre," (http:/ / www.

history. ucsb. edu/ faculty/ marcuse/ classes/ 133p/ 133p04papers/ JChapelNanjing046. htm) college researchpaper by Joseph Chapel, 2004

• Rape of Nanking (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ system/ topicRoot/ The_Rape_of_Nanking/ ) Originalreports from The Times

• The Rape of Nanking — Nanjing Massacre — English Language Edition (http:/ / video. google. com/videoplay?docid=4920138942953644691& q=Rape+ of+ Nanking& hl=en). Two hour web documentary.

Nanking Massacre 28

• War and reconciliation: a tale of two countries (http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ rss/ fl20080810x1. html)• Review of Iris Chang, The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II (http:/ / www.

hartford-hwp. com/ archives/ 55/ 481. html)• The Ghosts of Nanking: Mogollon Connection Special Series by Jesse Horn (http:/ / www. azalert. com/

mogollonconnection/ ?p=1168)

Article Sources and Contributors 29

Article Sources and ContributorsNanking Massacre  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=517454917  Contributors: -js-, 0101CHIUwy, 0101NGhk, 0101laisy, 1966batfan, 21655, 2T, 49danesway, 5 albertsquare, A little insignificant, A2Kafir, ACSE, Aada89, Abdullah123, Addps4cat, AdjustShift, Ageekgal, Agentbla, Aherunar, Ahoerstemeier, Airplaneman, AjStaire, AjaxSmack, Ajdebre,Akaloc, Akiyama, Alansohn, Alaz, Alex Shih, Alex.tan, Alexb102072, Alexius08, AlexiusHoratius, Alexsh, Allstarecho, Allysia, AnOddName, Andromeda321, Andycjp, Angr, Anitamon,Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard, Apocalyptic Destroyer, Apostrophyx, Arakunem, Aree, ArglebargleIV, Arigato1, Arilang1234, Arimasa, Armyrifle9, Asarelah, AshiroKatr, Ashmoo,Astronautics, Atama, Auric, AxelBoldt, Aztecangel, BD2412, Backslash Forwardslash, Bahar101, Bakasuprman, Balloonfarm, Bananasims, Basawala, Basketball110, Bathrobe, BattleshipYamato, Bavgang123, Bdesham, BeanMD, Bedbug1122, Beeblebrox, Beland, Bellerophon5685, Ben E. 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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributorsfile:Nanking bodies 1937.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Murase Moriyasu, 村 濑 守 保

File:Contest To Cut Down 100 People.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Contest_To_Cut_Down_100_People.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User:Kintetsubuffalo, User:MaksimFile:Republic of China Armed Forces Museum Nanking.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Republic_of_China_Armed_Forces_Museum_Nanking.jpg  License:Public Domain  Contributors: Peter BronskiFile:Asakanomiya yasuhiko.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Asakanomiya_yasuhiko.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: One of following (Source specifiesphoto contributors but does not specify who was the copyright holder) 南 支 派 遣 軍 各 部 隊 将 兵 軍 報 道 部 写 真 班 サ ウ ス ・ チ ヤ イ ナ ・ フ オ ト ・ サ ー ビ

ス 同 盟 通 信 社 東 京 朝 日 新 聞 社 大 阪 毎 日 ・ 東 京 日 々 新 聞 社 読 売 新 聞 社

File:Chinese head, Nanking massacre.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinese_head,_Nanking_massacre.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: UnknownFile:Iwane Matsui rides into Nanjing.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iwane_Matsui_rides_into_Nanjing.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User:BanyanTree, User:KintetsubuffaloFile:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-U1002-502, Japanisch-Chinesischer Krieg.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-U1002-502,_Japanisch-Chinesischer_Krieg.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany Contributors: HBR, MtBell, Origamiemensch, Pibwl, Splette, Sweeper tamonten, TakabegFile:Killednanjing.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Killednanjing.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: -File:Horrible death, Nanking Massacre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Horrible_death,_Nanking_Massacre.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: John MageeFile:Boy killed in Nanking massacre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Boy_killed_in_Nanking_massacre.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: probably takenby Bernhard Arp SindbergFile:Chinese to be beheaded in Nanking Massacre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinese_to_be_beheaded_in_Nanking_Massacre.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: unknownFile:Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Unknown

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 30

File:Nanjing_1937_self-organized_burial_team.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nanjing_1937_self-organized_burial_team.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Life MagazineFile:Victims in Nanjing massacre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Victims_in_Nanjing_massacre.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: WLfrom Shanghai, ChinaFile:International Military Tribunal Ichigaya Court.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:International_Military_Tribunal_Ichigaya_Court.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: 『 秘 録 大 東 亜 戦 史 東 京 裁 判 篇 』 昭 和28年11月30日 発 行 、 富 士 書 苑

File:Iwane Matsui.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iwane_Matsui.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amagase, Reggaeman, Shika ryouse shomeiFile:Tani Hisao.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tani_Hisao.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MChew, ReggaemanFile:Nanking telegram Harold John Timperley.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nanking_telegram_Harold_John_Timperley.gif  License: Public Domain Contributors: User:ScaflocImage:Sekihi02.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sekihi02.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Gil-Ggalad, MtBell,Px820, SinopittImage:NanjingMassacre Yanziji stone.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NanjingMassacre_Yanziji_stone.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: 范 适 安@www.cchere.netFile:John Rabe House.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Rabe_House.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:Thomas.plesser

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